SOLAR INSTALLATION TECHNOLOGY

CERTIFICATE IN
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING POWER OPTION
ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
TELECOMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
 SOLAR INSTALLATION
The solar system module unit is designed to equip the trainee with knowledge, skills and
altitudes necessary to understand and install solar installation system
Trainees will appreciate prior knowledge and skills acquired in Electrical Installation I.
OBJECTIVES BY THE END OF THE MODULE
i. Understand the basic principles of solar system
ii. Create awareness in the application of solar systems
iii. Define relevant skills for installation of solar system
iv. Observe safety rules and standards when installing solar system
v. Interpret solar systemdata and to determine solar sizes
vi. Institute quality control measures while installing solar systems

COURSE OUTLINE

1 SOLAR -Solar energy and its conversion

INSTALLATION -Terms used with solar system
SYSTEM -Methods of solar energy harvesting
-Applications
2 SOLAR -Parts of photovoltaic
PHOTOVOLTAIC -Functions of each part of a voltaic system
SYSTEM -Layout of photovoltaic system
3 SOLAR SYSTEM -Types of accessories
ACCESSORIES -Types of cable joints
-Wiring systems
-Choice of wiring system
-Tests performed on complete
installations
-Regulations governing solar installations
4. MAINTENANCE -Procedure for maintenance
AND SERVICING OF -repair and trouble shooting
SOLAR SYSTEMS
5 SOLAR SYSTEM -Terminologies
SIZING -Sizing a solar system
-Daily load energy demand
-Equipment, cables and accessories sizing
-Application of solar data
SOLAR SYSTEM
SOLAR ENERGY
 This is energy from the sun
 Solar energy can be directly transformed I three useful forms. chemical, heat And
electrical energy.
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSIONS
a. Solar energy to chemical energy
Green plants transform solar energy into chemical by the process of photosynthesis
inorder to make their food.
b. Solar energy to heat energy(solar thermal)
Solar heating devices (parabolic) dish, flat plate collector, mirrors etc, converts solar
energy which can be used for cooking, water heating, drying etc.
c. Solar energy to electrical energy
Solar electric devices (solar cells) converts energy from the sun into electrical energy
which is used in lighting, phone charging and running machines.

SOLAR RADIATION PRINCIPLES

 Sunshine reaches the earth as a type of energy called radiation.
 Radiation is the high energy particle emitted from a given source.
 Solar radiation falls into different categories
i. Infrared - we feel it
ii. Visible light - enables

iii. UV radiation - very high energy

DIRECT AND DIFFUSE RADIATION

 A type of radiation that comes in straight beam from the sun and can be focused with a
lens or mirrors.
 Diffuse radiation is affected by the atmosphere, scattered by clouds, dust and absorbed by
smoke.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE AMOUNT OF RADIATION IN AN AREA ARE

i. Cloudy periods
ii. Humidity
iii. Atmospheric

Solar irradiance
 -Is the intensity of solar radiation within an area of 1/m2.
 i.e /.Is the power received per unit area from the sun. It is measured in watts per square
meter (W/m2). If a solar module / panel is facing the sun directly/perpendicularly the
irradiant will be higher than if the module is at an angle with the sun.
 The angle at which the sun beam strikes the surface of the panel is called solar incident
angle. More energy is received when the solar incident angle is 900.
 Tracking – Is the process of turning a solar panel to face the sun throughout the day.
 NB. Irradiance starts to increase from dawn and reaches to its maximum at noon. Then it
reduces until dusk.
 Its SI unit is kWh/m2

 Isolation /irradiation
 It is the total amount of solar energy received on a specified area over a specified period
of time. It is measured in KWh/m2/day
 It is the energy of solar radiation or quantity of solar radiation within an area of 1m2.

 The fig below shows the relationship between irradiance and insolation.The line indicates
irradiance and the curve represents insolation, which means the total energy received
from the sun in a day.
PEAK SUN HOURS
Represents the average amount of sun available throught the year. As peak sun of 1000w/m2 of
power reaches of earth
1000Wh per m2 = 1Kwh/m2 represents the solar energy recorded in one hour on group square
meter surface directed towards the sun.
METHODS OF HARVESTING ENERGY
Solar energy can be harvested in two forms
i. Heat /thermal solar
ii. Electricity

HEAT / THERMAL SOLAR

a. Parabolic dish
It is a bowl shaped mirror that radiant energy is concentrated and utilized.
 b. Parabolic trough
This focuses solar radiation along a pipe which runs through the center.

c. Single reflectors
These are flat surfaces e.g mirrors, cigarette foils or aluminium foel which are arranged
around a device to increase the radiation up on it.

d. Flat plate collectors

These are larger boxes with glass window in front an air spaces and black metal absorber
plates with layer of insulation behind. Water heating collectors transfer heat from the
absorber plate to the water through the pipe.
Diagrams

The main feature of flat plate collector are:

i. Transparent glass – Allows heat from the sun to get into absorber plate
ii. Insulated sides - To prevent heat loss
iii. Absorber plate - its painted black to absorb a lot of radiant heat
 iv. High coiled pipes - increase surface area of heat absorption

APPLICATION OF SOLAR THERMAL HARVESTING ENERGY

i. Crop drying
Heat energy from the sun is used to dry crops and remove moisture and to facilitate
storage.
ii. Water heating
Parabolic reflectors and parabolic collectors can be used to collect energy from the
sun and convert it into heat energy which is used in heating water.
iii. Solar cooking
Parabolic dishes and box type cookers are used to harvest solar energy and use it for
cooking.
Solar cookers concentrate and collect solar energy as heat for preparing meals.

GENERAL GROUPS OF SOLAR COOKERS

i. BOX-TYPE COOKERS
They use simple reflector to direct sunlight into each insulating chamber.
ii. CONCENTRATING TYPE COOKER
It focuses sunlight into focal point where food is placed.
iii. HEAT ACCUMULATING TYPE COOKER
Use collectors to transfer heat to a medium coil where it can be stored to
future use.
iv. SOLAR STEAM COOKER
They use collectors from stream which is then transferred by pipes under
pressure to steam cooker.

ADVANTAGES OF SOLAR COOKER

i. Use abundant Africa’s solar energy
DISADVANTAGES
i. Can only be used on a sunny day
ii. Food takes long to cook
 iii. Solar cookers needs trained cooks to use them.
iv. Not all foods can be cooked by solar
v. With concentrating type the cook may need protecting sunlight glass.

SOLAR EQUIPMENT AND APPROXIMATE EFFICIENCY

APPLICATION TYPE OF TECH OUTPUT APPR

EFFICIENCY
Solar water heater Flat plate collector Heat 40%-70%
Solar cooker Concentrator type Heat 50%-70%
Box type
Solar drier Flat plate collector Heat 30%-50%
Amorphous pv Amorphous Electricity 3% - 7%
module
Crystalline pv Crystalline silicon Electricity 10% - 15%
module

METHODS OF PUMPING WATER USING SOLAR ENERGY

i. Direct conversion scheme
Solar energy is directly converted into photovoltaic cells(solar). This
electricity is either stored in batteries or converted into A.C using
inverter to be used in AC motor pumps.
ii. Thermodynamic conversion scheme
Solar energy is first converted into mechanical energy and then
mechanical energy is used for pumping.

Solar electricity is electric power generated from sunlight using devices called solar cell
modules.

HOW SOLAR ELECTRIC SYSTEM DIFFER FROM MAINS (ELECTRICAL POWER)

1. Solar systems are based on low voltage DC, not 240V AC.
2. Solar systems stores power in batteries.
3. Power is generated on site by photovoltaic equipment’s.
4. For solar system to be economical all energy produced must be used efficiently.
Solar electric power can be applied in the following areas
1. Household lighting
2. Use to power radio, computers etc.
3. Phone charging
4. Lantern charging
5. Used in telecommunication. Most telecommunication systems are often installed in
isolated area with no access to power. They are standalone power.
6. Water pumping. Solar cell modules connected to electric pumps are used to pump water
from rivers and boreholes.
7. Electric fencing. Used in electric fence to scare away wild animals in game parks.
8. Street lighting
9. Security systems

ADVANTAGES OF SOLAR ELETRIC POWER

1. Produce electricity quietly, without giving smoke or pollutants
2. Require very little maintenance as compared to others e.g. generators since solar panel do
not have moving parts
3. Properly installed solar electric system are safe. Risk of electric shock is small because of
the low system voltage. Fire risks are also lower as compared to the households which use
kerosene.
4. Solar electric system consume no fuel/funds since it uses freely available sun hence
economical / cheap.
5. Solar electric systems can be tailored to meet the power demand of each individual
applications i.e. they can be expanded easily by adding more panels and batteries.
6. It has stable voltage supply, no power interruptions,surges or spikes.

DISADVANTAGES OF SOLAR ELECTRIC POWER

1. Appliances and lamps which run on low voltage are not readily available as compared to
those of mains in the market.
2. The initial cost of solar electric system is high by rural standards i.e.it’s very difficult for
most people to raise the cash to buy system all at ounce
3. Solar electric system require batteries for energy storage and these batteries must be
carefully maintained.
4. There is a lack of trained technicians to design and install solar electric system.

BASICS OF ELECTRICITY: Definitions terms

-DC
-AC

Voltage

Current

Resistance

Power

Energy

Ohms law

Current law

Voltage law
VOLTAGE DROP
What is voltage drop?
•Voltage drop is the loss of voltage (and hence power) due to resistance in long cable runs. If the
wires cross section area is too small for a given current, an unacceptable voltage drop will occur
over its length.

•Resistance in the cable converts electrical energy to heat and causes a consequent voltage drop.
When a voltage drop is too large in, for example, the cables from PV module or array, the battery
or battery bank will not be charged properly, in distribution circuit it will affect performance of
lamps and appliances, and may damage them. The voltage drop also wastes expensive energy
from the PV array and battery.

VOLTAGE DROP = Current x Cable resistance factor x Length

Voltage drop is Power loss in the cable
Current 10A , Voltage = 12V then Power loss = 10 x 12 = 120W
Cable resistance is determined by size and length
Current is determined by
(PV capacity/load) / (System voltage)
1Kw / 12 V = 83.3A
To reduce voltage drop
- Use of thicker cables
- Minimize the cable length
- Use of higher system voltage to reduce current
Voltage is critical in low voltage system, especially 12V system.
Site Selection
No other potential renewable energy
No hydro potential, Geothermic potential, Wind potential
Far away from grid or no access, at least for the coming 10 years
Due to incompatible population size
Due to difficult geographical nature
Due to limited power
Need open space
No tall trees
No shadows between 8am till 4pm
Eg. 1kWp PV array will occupy at least 8m² of roof / ground
If roof installation is selected, consider structural survey if the roof is in need of repair
Needs ventilated room for battery based systems
Check affordability of the system to the customer

Type of PV Systems

• Stand alone DC PV system

APP: Solar home systems (SHS) , lanterns, DC pumping system etc…
•Stand alone AC PV system
APP: Solar home systems (SHS), school, health post , office , telecommunication, AC pumping
systems etc…
•Grid tied PV system
APP: Grid connection AC main used for various applications
•Grid tied with battery back up PV system
APP: Grid connection and backup system AC main for various applications
Stand alone DC SHS (solar home system)

NB. Now a days LED lamps are replacing CFL lamps for DC SHS

Grid-tied with Battery Back-up

Excercise
1.What are the basic PV system components?

2. What Kind of electric current do we get from solar modules?

3. Why is AC SHS (solar home system) is less efficient than DC SHS?
4. What is the importance of calculating the voltage drop in a solar power system?
5. Explain the type of Hazards that could occur while working with batteries.

BASICS OF SOLAR CELLS

SOLAR CELLS/PV CELL
 It’s a semiconductor device that converts the energy from sunlight into electrical energy
 Solar cells are usually made from silicon, the same material for transistor and integrated
circuits.
CONSTRUCTION OF PV CELL/ SOLAR CELL
 A solar cell is made up of a semiconductor material.
A semiconductor is that whose conductivity lies between conductors and insulators. E.g.
silicon and germanium.
 A typical silicon PV cell contains two layers. The top layer consists of a thin sheet of N-
type semiconductor
 An N-type semiconductor has electrons as the majority charge carriers.
 Underneath this sheet is a thicker layer of P-type silicon. When these two materials are
placed together in contact, it creates N-P junction.

HOW A SILICON SOLAR CELL WORKS

Large numbers of silicon atoms, through their valence electrons, can bond together ( covalent
bond) to form a silicon crystal.

Making N and p Material

The most common way of making p-type or n-type silicon material is to add an element that
HAS AN EXTRA ELECTRON OR IS LACKING AN ELECTRON IN SILICON, WE USE A PROCESS CALLED
"DOPING."

introducing phosphorous
The process of "doping" introduces an atom of another element into the silicon crystal to alter
its electrical properties. Phosphorus atoms, which have five valence electrons, are used for
doping n-type silicon (because phosphorous provides its fifth, free, electron).
Introducing Boron
Of course, n-type silicon cannot form the electric field by itself; it's also necessary to have some
silicon altered to have the opposite electrical properties. So, boron, which has three valence
electrons, is used for doping p-type silicon.

To induce the electric field within a PV cell, two separate semiconductors are sandwiched
together. The "p" and "n" types of semiconductors correspond to "positive" and "negative ".

Although both materials are electrically neutral, n-type silicon has excess electrons and p-type
silicon has excess holes. Sandwiching these together creates a p/n junction at their interface,
thereby creating an electric field.

When sunlight hits the PV cell, some of the electrons in the N-type silicon layer would be
stimulated to move across the PN junction to the P type side of silicon layer,leaving the P type
layer to have a higher voltage potential than the N-type.
This creates an electric current flow when the PV cell is connected to the load. The voltage
potential of a single PV cell is about 0.5V to 0.6 V at ( Voc)

How is electricity generated from the sun?

Sunlight is composed of photons, or particles of solar energy. These photons contain various
amounts of energy corresponding to the different wavelengths of the solar spectrum. When
photons strike a PV cell, they may be reflected or absorbed, or they may pass right through.
Only the absorbed photons generate electricity

From solar cell to PV system

COMPONENTS USED TO PROVIDE SOLAR POWER

 The four primary components for producing electricity using solar power which provides
240V AC power are.
i. Solar panel (Photovoltaic module)
- Converts solar energy into electrical energy.
- Long life of 20Years
ii. Solar Battery
- Stores energy electricity
iii. Charge controller
 - Protects battery from overcharge and over discharge
iv. Inverters
- It converts DC to AC.
- Not necessary for DC system
v. Loads
- DC lights
vi. Cables

1. SOLAR PANEL (PV module)

It is usedto convert sunlight into electricity and then charges the battery. The PV module
consists of solar cells which converts the solar radiation energy to DC electricity. The
solar cell is made from a silicon semiconductor.
One cell produces approximately 0.5V regardless of size and strengthof sunlight. On the
other hand, output current depends on the size of the cell and the strength of sunlight. A
10cm by 10 cm mono-crystalline cellproduce approximately 3A. Therefore its necessary
to connect many cells to obtainenough voltage and current.This is called a solar PV
module.Since SHS system use 12V batteries, a PV module for SHS uses 36 cells in series
connectionto obtain appropriate voltage.

TYPES OF PV MODULES
a. Crystalline silicon PV modules
 Is a widely used for solar PV modules. Three types of crystalline cells/solar cellsare
i. Mono-crystalline.
They are cut from a single large crystal of silicon. They are chemically
treated to enhance their electrical properties. Antireflective coating is
applied to the cell surface to help it absorb radiation more effectively.

CHARACTERISTICS/DESCRIPTIONS
a. They are most expensive
b. It has a higher efficiency than polycrystalline cell (11% - 16%). That is
they are more efficient in terms of energy generation
c. they have a single color tone
d. they have a long life, up to 20years meaning that they are chemically
stable
-It has a smaller dimension compared to polycrystalline
ii.Polycrystalline
Refers to cells made from many crystals. They are made in the same way
as in monocrystalline cells.
 CHARACTERISTICS/DESCRIPTIONS
a. Cheaper to buy than monocrystalline
b. Its slightly less efficient (9-13%) than monocrystalline.
c. Have a longe life
d. Have multiple colour patterns

iii. Amorphous
Are made by depositing a thin film of silicon on to a sheet of another material such as a
steel.
They are often seen in small solar cells such as calculator, watches,toys etc.
They are relatively cheap and their power ranges about 10W and 20W.
The efficiency is much lower of the crystalline mentioned above.
Major disadvantages are degradationof efficiency andweakness against lighting surge.

CHARACTERISTICS/DESCRIPTION OF ARMORPHOUS
a. They are cheaper than mono-crystalline and polycrystalline.
b. Have the lowest efficiency(3-6%) than poly and mono-crystalline.
c. They are the most suitable for applications of 40W and below.
 The output of the solar panel is measured in Watts,and the value is determined by
multiplying the rated current and the voltage.
POWER in Watts = volts x Amperes
Example
1. A solar panel is rated 12V 60W, Determine the current it can supply
Sln.
Watts = volts ×Amperes
60 = 12 × A
A= 5A
Arrangements of many solar cells wired in series sealed between glass or plastic, and supported
inside a metal plate are called solar cell modules.
Groups of modules mounted together are called are called arrays.
The process by which mono or polycrystalline solar cells are sealed between glasses and plastic
is called Encapsulation.
MONOCRYSTALLINE POLYCRYSTALLINE ARMORPHOUS

MODULE RATING
All solar modules are rated according to their maximum output or peak power.

Peak Power Rating

Peak power rating of a module (Wp) is the amount of electric power produced at noon on a
Sunday when it is facing directly towards the sun.

OUTPUT OF SOLAR CELL MODULE

The power of a module depends on.
i. The number of solar cells
ii. Type of cells
iii. Total surface area of the cells.

FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE OUTPUT OF A SOLAR PANEL

i. Amount of solar radiation
A lot of power is obtained when there is a lot of sunlight.
ii. The angle of the module with respect to the solar(sun)
Much energy is collected when the solar pane faces the sun at an angle of 900.
iii. Temperature
The temperature of the panel affects the output voltage inversely. For this reason,
installers are encouraged to mount solar panels on poles, on structures abve the
roof, or in places where they are cooled by the wind inorder to keep the output as
high as possible.
iv. Degradation of dust on the module
Dust on the surface of a PV module reduces the intensity of solar radiation
reaching the solar cell surface. Degradation is high for armorphous type modules.
NB. Standard measurements of output power are done at specific conditions of 1kW/m2,
250C, AM1.5 (Air Mass).
The major solar PV module that is affected by temperature is voltage. When the module
temperature increases, the voltage decreases and the current slightly decreases.

Diagram pp. 42

v. Shading
A shadow or a shade across a module can almost stop electricity production by as
much as 80%.
vi. Surface area of the panel
The larger the surface area the higher the output.

Available output power is estimated as

Wp actual = K x Wp catalogue

Where K is the total loss factor. This book uses 0.8 for crystallineand 0.6 for
armorphous PV modules.
NB. Catalogue is the indicated value.
MODULE WIRING / CONNECTION

Solar panels can be wired in series, parallel or series-parallel in order to achieve

the desired voltage and current.

SERIES CONNECTION

Solar panels are said to be connected in series when the positive terminal of one
panel is connected to the negative terminal of the other and so on.
The result is that the voltage of the panels added together but the currents stays
the same as that of one panel.
For example, if three-12V/3.5A panels are wired in series
Total voltage = 12×3 = 36V
Currents remains 3.5A
If one pane in series fails, it provides so much resistance that the other modules
may not be able to operate.
The By-pass diode allows the currents from the other panels to flow through the
the right direction.
Diagram d notes

A,B and C are By-pass diodes. – They ensures continuous flow of currents even if
the panel is faulty.
D is the blocking diode – It prevents reverse flow of electric current especially at
night or when the panel is not charging the battery.

PARALLEL
It refers to connecting positive terminal of one panel to the positive terminal of
the other panel, also negative terminals are connected the negative terminal of the
other panel.
The result is that the voltage remains the same but the current is the sum number
of panels rating.
Like in the above example, if they are connected in parallel then
 The voltage = 12V
Current = 10.5A
Diagram d ntes

I-V CURVE
PV modules have the specific characteristic of its output power profile. The output power varies
depending on voltage you use. This profile is shown as the I-V curve.
Current at shortcircuit (Isc) – It is the maximum current obtained when
voltage is zero (0V). Its also a short circuit current when the ammeter is
connected across positive and negative terminal on full sunlight.
Voltage at open circuit (Voc)- It is the maximum voltage obtained
whencurrent is zero(0A).Its an open circuit voltage measured under full
sunlight.
Power maximum (Pmax) – The point on I-V curve where maximum power
is obtained. It indicates the rated output power of a solar PV module also
called Watt peak (Wp).
The output power voltage of the solar PV module ranges from 0v – Voc.
Voc is about 20.5V to 22V, depending on the make of modules.
The output current is almost constant between 0V to 15V range and then
current drops quickly at higher voltage.
Since the power is obtained by multiplying current by voltage, then output
power of the solar module varies depending on the voltage.
Therefore the output power is rated at the maximum output power called Pm
(Pmax). This value is used to indicateoutput power of a PVmodule called
Watt peak(Wp).
Note: For every module, there is only one point which shows the maximum
output power. This point is called maximum power point(Mpp) or (Pmax).
At Mpp the value of V =Vmp and I=Imp.
 PV module is able to make short circuit safely i.e short circuit does not
damage a solar PV module.
When module is shorted, the highest current from the PV is called short
circuitcurrent (Isc).
The Current at the battery voltage is slightly higher than Imp. The voltage is
much lower than Vmp. Thus the output power at the battery voltage range is
always lower than the rated power at Pmax.
NB. The output power at the battery voltage is about 80% of the rated power
(Pm).

NUMBER OF CELLS IN A MODULE

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE

EFFECT OF IRRADIANCE

EFFECT OF SHADING

BY-PASS DIODES AND BLOCKING DIODES

By-pass diode
- Used to bypass current in case solar cells cannot allow current from the other solar PV
modules connected in series.
- They are factory built-in each PV module
- They have no role under normal operation (under clean surface, no shading)
NOTE. Bypass diodes are inbuilt in the module and should not be fixed by installers. If the PV
module is connected to the battery in reverse polarity the bypass diode gets burnt. They should
not be confused with blocking diodes.
Blocking diode
- Stops the backflow of current especially at night.
- They are not supplied with PV modules
- There is a loss of 0.5v -0.6v as threshold of diode.
- If current is 10A, a loss of 5W – 6W
- Reverse current flow back through a panel at night time. This occurs because in a battery
charging system, the module potential drops to zero at night and the battery could
discharge all nightbackwards through the module. This would not be harmful to the
module, but would result in loss ofprecious energy from the battery bank.
- Blocking diode is not necessary if a charge controller is being used in the system.
TILT ANGLE
To obtain maximum sunlightPv module has to face the sun. Minimum tilt
angle is 150 degrees in Kenya where latitude is 100 i.e Latitude plus 50 or
10degrees. It also helps to avoid dust accumulation. Orientation should be
towards the equator, i.e North for southern hemisphere and South for Northern
hemisphere.
e.g At Harare which is 180 S
=18+5 = 230 OR 18+10=280
Orientation is North and tilt angle is approximately 250 or 300.

MEASUREMENT OF ACTUAL POWER

It is recommended to measure the actual powerof a PV module before you
purchase it. Vmp and Imp are necessary to obtain the output power. This
requires measurement of I-V curve of the PV module. However an easy
alternative is to measureVoc and Isc and estimate Vmp and Imp.

MEASUREMENT OF Voc and Isc

Place the PV module module under the sun for atleast 30 minutes to
stabilizesurface temperature on a sunny day between 11am and 1 pm.Then
 measure Voc measured and Isc measured. Isc measured changes depending on
orientation and tilt angleof a PV module. PV module must face sun to obtain
maximum Isc.

ESTIMATING Vmp
The difference between Voc and Vmp is almost the same as catalogue value
and measured value. Therefore Vmp measured is estimatedfrom Voc
measured.

Voc measured = Voc measured - (Voc catalogue – Vmp catalogue)

ESTIMATING Imp
The ratio between Isc and Imp is almost same as catalogue value and
measured value. Therefore Imp measured is obtained from Isc measured.

Imp measured = Isc measured x (Imp catalogue / Isc catalogue)

The measured power output will be larger than the value of Wp catalogue
multiplied by 0.8 because the measurement is done around noon when
insolation is more than 1000W/m2.
If the measured output power is lower than the value of the Wp catalogue
multiplied by 0.8, it indicates a defect on the PV module (quality is not good).
SOLAR BATTERIE
It’s a device that converts chemical energy contained in the active materials directly into
electrical energy.
 It is used to store d.c power or charge to used at night or during cloudy days
 Are designed to be charged and discharged.

TERMS USED IN BATTERIES

i. Battery capacity
The quantity or the amount of energy a battery can hold in a given time. The product
of current in Amperes and time in hours
Battery Capacity= current (A) × Time(h)
=Ah
e.g. A lead acid battery maintains a constant current of 1.5A for 20 hrs before its fully
discharged.
Battery capacity = current × time
= 20 × 1.5
= 30Ah.
FACTORS AFFECTING BATTERY CAPACITY
1. Temperature – Batteries are made to operate at a temperature of 150C – 400C. The lower
the temperature the lower the capacity.
2. Aging – Reduces the battery capacity. The older the battery gets the lower the energy it
can hold.
3. Area of plates – Battery capacity increase with plate area.
4. Hour rate – This is batteries rate of charge or discharge. It sets the maximum rate at
which the battery can be charged or discharged. Low hour rate is health to a battery but
higher rate is dangerous.
5. Specific gravity(density of sulphuric acid) – Battery capacity increase with specific
gravity.

TYPES OF BATTERIES
 Batteries are classified either as:-
i. Flooded batteries
ii. Sealed batteries
 Flooded batteries have topping facilities while sealed batteries are sealed at the factory
and have no topping facilities.

FLOODED BATTERIES
 They are generally lead acid batteries. The various types in this case are
a) Car or automotive Batteries
Automotive batteries are also SLI batteries where the initials standards are for the
function of battery i.e. Start,Lightingand Ignition.
PROPERTIES OF IGNITION batteries
1. They are shallow cycled i.e. Large amount of charge can be drawn on a short
period of time. Because of thin plates they are easily damaged when used for a
short time only when starting a car engine and idle.
2. Used for a short time only when starting a car engine and are under float charged
i.e. permanently connected to a controlled charging system keep it in a charged
state ready for use always.
3. Low cycle life, less than 1000cycles i.e. 2 – 3 years.
 4. Low self-dischargedi.e. means charge lost from batteries left standing uncharged.
This occurs because of chemical reaction within the cells.
5. It is not suitable for solar electric system.
b) Traction batteries
These are batteries used in battery electric vehicles and tracks e.g. Folk lifts used for
lifting luggage in warehouses and stores.

PROPERTIS OF TRACTION BATTERIES

1. Deep cycled – i.e. can tolerate deep discharge unlike automotive batteries
2. Very good cycle life, about 1500 cycles that around about 3 – 5 years
3. Have high self-discharge about 7% in a month
4. Good for solar use.
c) Stand-by batteries
-Are used for power emergency supplies in industries and telecommunication. They are
used for stand-by power in case of power or engine failure.

PROPERTIES OF STAND-BY BATTERIES

1. Low water loss
2. Kept on float charge
3. Has to stay in charged state for it to work
4. Stays on full state of charge
5. Moderate cycle life (5 – 10 yrs.)
6. Low self-discharge
7. Not suitable for solar use
8. Not designed for deep discharge

d) Solar batteries
Are specially made to store energy from module arrays. Locally the ABM solar system
(associated battery manufacture is a modified battery manufacturer.

PROPERTIES OF SOLAR BATTERY

1. Very low water loss (topped up annually)
2. Battery cycle life (3000 – 1000 cycles i.e. 5 – 10 yrs.)
3. Low discharge rate (2 – 4% per month)
4. Thick lead antimony plates with maximum amount of active materials in space and
heavy connectors and large electrolyte reservoir.
BP solar company are the major exporters of such cells which are of high quality
solar life and more expensive.
Note that automotive batteries are not used for solar energy storage because of their
thin plates, they are easily damaged when deeply discharged.
 e) SEALED BATTERIES
They have no provision of topping up. Examples are:
i. Nickel cadmium batteries
Are commonly used in electric showers, electronic photoflashequipment’s
telephone systems, mobile phones
ii. Captive Electrolyte (gel) Batteries
Are used in a non-liquid electrolyte to eliminate the problems of water through
gassing. They are also used in solar lanterns.
iii. Nickeled cells
Are nickeled cadmium cells.
They are made in small sizes AA or size D and look exactly as normal cells.
They have a voltage of 1.5V but are chargeable.
They can be used to power small radios, calculators and wall clocks.

CHEMISTRY OF LEAD ACID CELLS

The fundamental part / active parts are positive parts;
 Positive active material – lead peroxide (PbO2)
 Positive active material – spongy lead (Pb)
 Electrolyte - Dilute sulphuric acid H2SO4
Electrolyte – This is a conducting medium in which the following electro current takes place by
migration of ions(± or –ve ) charges) e.g H2SO4
Chemical equation of lead acid Battery charged and discharged

Pbs PBO 2HSO = PBSO 2H O PbSO

-ve ve sulphuric ve water -ve

Acid
Discharging
SO4 - 2e = SO4

SO4 Pb = PbSO4 (negative

ANODE
H+ + e = H2 (gas)
PbO2 + H2 =PbO + H2O
PbO + H2SO4 =PbSO4 + H2O

Recharging
SO42- - 2e = SO4
SO4 + H2O =H2SO4 + O2
Cathode
H+ + e = H2 (gas)
The plates of lead acid are of lead array grid. This is because pure lead is weak and can break
during transportation. The lead array is a lead with 2 – 3% antimony.

SELF DISCHARGE OF LEAD ACID CELLS

If left standing all batteries lose charge slowly by a process called self-discharge. This is because
of the reactions within the cells.

To avoid self-discharge
i. Store the battery off the floor to avoid self-discharge
ii. Keep the top surface of the battery clean
iii. Keep the terminals greased. If the battery in a discharged state for a long period of
time it will be damaged because of sulphation.

MAINTENANCE OF BATTERIES
1. Cleaning the top of the battery – This avoids high rate of self-discharge caused by
electrical conduction through acid accumulating on top of the battery.
-Cleaning terminals and contacts ensures good electrical contact with solar module and
acid
-Application of grease /petroleum jelly to the terminals prevent them from becoming
corroded.
2. Regular checking of state of charge to ensure the battery is performing well. It may also
help to detect a bad cell or when the battery is old
3. Checking the electrolyte level in each cell. If the level has dropped, top with distilled water.
Do not top water since it contains impurities. Rain water or de-ionized water can be used. NB.
Never add acid
4. Giving the battery occasional equalizing charges to mix up the electrolyte. Equalizing charges
are charges well above the normal charges which cause the electrolyte in the battery to bubble
and got mixed up. This charges can be done preferably in a cloud season or when the solar
radiation is low.
5. The cells of lead acid battery ventilated to allow hydrogen and oxygen gases to escape during
charging and provide opening for topping up.
Voltage per cell when battery is fully charged = 1.212V
For battery = 12.7V
When fully discharged Voltage per cell = 11.70V

BAD CELLS
To check for a bad cell measure the state of charge of each cell using the hydrometer. If its not
available you can still check a battery in slow state of charge by removing the caps of all the
terminals and short them. *Short the terminal with an insulated wire.
If a cell is bad, it bubbles furiously and produce a discharging sound.

REPLACING BATTERIES
Bad batteries should be replaced, replace the set of battery at same time. If a system has more
than one battery in parallel, they should be of same age state condition. If a new battery is in
parallel with an old battery, this prevents a new battery from being fully charged.
Repairing a battery is fulatile.It is better to buy a new battery than repairing an old one.

BATTERY CHARGING AND DISCHARGING

i. Charging
A battery is charged when current is entering the battery through the positive terminal and
flowing out through the negative terminal. DC source supplies current to the battery.

Diagram
 ii. Discharging
-Current flows out through the positive terminal and enter in through negative
terminal
-The battery supplies current to the load.

Diagram

CHARGING BATTERIES. You can charge the battery using the following:
i. Use of mains electricity
ii. Engine charging e.g. motor vehicle
iii. Solar charging – solar modules converts solar energy to electric current
iv. Charging with battery charger
v. Charging with a bicycle alternator/dynamo

CHARGING METHODS
a. Cycle charging
Is used for main application. Used where a battery is discharged and recharged
repeatedly e.g in electric vehicles, electric folk lifts, solar PV system etc.
The battery need to charged at slightly higher voltage (14.1V fo 12V) since it has
to be fully charged in relatively shortperiod for the next use.
Its disadvantage is that the battery must be charged at slightly higher voltage
b. Float charging
Commonly used for standby use.
NB. Standby use is applied in UPS where battery is always maintained at full
charge state and is discharged only when main gid power is lost.
Here the battery is charged continuously to maintain the battery at full charge at
all times.
Batteries are connected to chargers and a small current continuously charges at a
slightly lower voltage called float voltage(13.8V for 12V).
Its disadvantage is that continuous charging is not good for the battery life.
c. Trickle charging
In this method the charging stops when the battery reaches float voltage.When the
state decreases to about 95%, charging starts again to make the battery full again.
Its disadvantage is that if used as a back-up the batterylevel may be 95% when
battery power is needed.
 Advantage – The method prolongs the battery life.

MEASURING BATTERY STATE OF CHARGE

The state of charge is a measure of energy remaining in the battery. It tells whether the battery is
full fully charged, half or fully discharged.
The cells of a fully-charged battery have a state of charge of 100%.
There are two ways of measuring battery’s state of charge;
i. A voltmeter
ii. Hydrometer

i. VOLTMETER
It measures the voltage of the cells.

HOW TO USE A VOLTMETER TO MEASURE THE STATE OF CHARGE

 Disconnect the battery from the load and solar charge.
 Wait for at least 20 minutes to allow the cell voltage to stabilize.
 Before taking the measurements connect the voltmeter leads to the positive
and negative terminal of the battery.
 Read the voltage readings on the voltmeter.
ii. HYDROMETER
It measures the density (specific gravity) of sulphuric acid in each cell. As the cell is
discharged, the sulphuric acid is converted to water which lowers the density of the acid.
Steps to follow;
1. Draw the sulphuric acid into the hydrometer from the battery cell while the nozzle is
placed in the cell.
2. The scale of the hydrometer floats at a level that varies according to the density of the
acid, also according to the state of charge of cells.
3. Take the reading of the density from the scale floating in the acid of the hydrometer.
4. Consult a state of charge verifying specific gravity table determining the state f charge as
shown below

STATE OF CHARGE Voc SPECIFIC GRAVITY

(gms/ltr)
100 12.74 1230
80 12.50 1203
60 12.25 1175
40 12.00 1147
20 11.75 1120
0 11.51 N/A

A battery is charged each day by the solar module and then discharged by load each
night.
Each charge period together with the following discharge period is called a cycle.
The rated life cycle of a battery is the number of cycles a battery is expected to last before
its capacity drops to 80% of its original / rated capacity.
Depth of Discharge (DOD) –It indicates the level of discharge of a battery in percentage
(%). It tells how much batteries are discharged in a cycle before they are charged again. It
specifies the percentage of the capacity drawn out.
Based on DOD, batteries are classified as shallow cycle batteries and deep cycle batteries

SHALLOW CYCLE BATTERIS

They should not be discharged below 80% of state of charge on a regular battery basis. i.e
It allows DOD of 25% without shortening its life.
DEEP CYCLE BATTERIES
Is one which should not be discharged below 40% of state of charge?I.t It allows DOD of
50%.
DEEP DISCHARGE CYCLE
Is a cycle in which the battery is completely discharged? This occurs during long cloudy
period or when the load is much larger than the solar charge, this is dangerous.
If the battery is very low after a week or more of cloudy weather, it should be
immediately charged by an alternative method. I.e. the rate of life cycle is shortened by
deep discharges.
CHARGE CONTROLLER

It protect batteries against overcharge and over-discharge. Note that it does

not regulate voltage / current. They are sort of switching devices that have two
switches, one between PV module terminal and battery terminal, the other is
between load terminal and battery terminal.

Since charge controller do not convert the form of energy, there is no loss
when energy is flowing through the charge controller.
The switch on the PV module is used for overcharge protection, while the
switch on the load side is used for over discharge protection.
Charge controller are rated based on the amount amperage, they can process
from a solar array.
They are rated according to the input current of the module.

*SKETCH DIAGRAM OF A CHARGE CONTROLLER*

T show 3 connections & indicators & load

If a controller is rated at 20 ampere it means that you up to 20 amperes of

solar panel output current to this one controller.
The most advanced charge controllers utilize a charging principle referred as
pulse – width modulation (pwm) which ensure the most efficient electrical
charges and extends the life of the battery. They also include maximum power
point tracking (MPPT) which maximize the amount of current going into the
battery from the solar array by lowering the panel output voltage which
increases the charging amperes to the battery.
Many charge controllers also offer low voltage disconnect (LVD) and battery
temperature compensation (BTC) on optional feature. The LVD feature
permits connecting loads to the LVD terminals which are then voltage drops
 too far, the loads are disconnected to prevent potential damage to both the
battery and the loads.
BTC (battery temperature compensation) adjusts the charge rate based on the
temperature since batteries are sensitive temperature variations above and
below 750 FB.

TYPES OF CHARGE CONTROLLERS

1. Shunt type controllers
2. Series type controllers

The shunt controller regulates the charging of a battery from the PV array by short-circuiting the
array internal to the controller.

• All shunt controllers must have a blocking diode in series between the battery and the shunt
element to prevent the battery from short-circuiting when the array is regulating.

• Generally limited to use in PV systems with array currents less than 20 amps

FUNCTIONS OF CHARGE CONTROLLER

Allows the user to monitor the system for potential system problems.
It protects the battery from overcharging – overcharging causes voltage level to go down which
cause sulphation on the plate of battery.
Low Voltage Disconnect (LVD) – The LVD continually measures the state of charge of battery.
If the battery voltage drops below a certain level, the charge controller automatically disconnects
the battery. I.e. the battery has been disconnected ounce.
NB. Before buying the charging controller check the disconnect voltage. It should be between
11.1Vto 12.9V.

The shunt controller regulates the charging of a battery from the PV array by short-circuiting the
array internal to the controller.
• All shunt controllers must have a blocking diode in series between the battery and the shunt
element to prevent the battery from short-circuiting when the array is regulating.

• Generally limited to use in PV systems with array currents less than 20 amps

SERIES TYPE

As the name implies, this type of controller works in series between the array and battery, rather
than in parallel as for the shunt controller

• While this type of controller is commonly used in small PV systems, it is also the practical
choice for larger systems due to the current limitations of shunt controllers.

• Because the series controller open-circuits rather than short-circuits the array as in shunt-
controllers, no blocking diode is needed to prevent the battery from short-circuiting when the
controller regulates.
OVERCHARGE PROTECTION
Charge controller has an overcharge protection feature that prevent the module from
overcharging a battery.
*The controller may reduce the current from the module to trickle charging. (Trickle charging
means – a low current charges so that the battery is not charged after it is full)
-The controller may charge OFF and ON over a period of time.
-Controllers may include other features to enhance the system performance e.g. ammeters,
Voltmeters, and Amps hour meter (measures power output)

BLOCKING DIODES –This prevents backflow of current.

SURGE PROTECTORS – Protects the systems components and appliances against rapid
power increase commonly during lightning strikes.
CHOOSING CHARGE CONTROLLERS
Charge controllers are rated according to the input current from the module. E.g. 5Amp unit will
accept charge of 5A from the module. The smallest available units are rated at 2A which can
Handle 20W of power. It can power black and white TV’s, fire lamps and cassette players.

INVERTER
Is a device that converts DC power stored in a battery to a standard of 240V/
120V AC. Most solar power system generate DC current. Nearly all lighting
appliances,motors, electronics are designed to use AC power, so it takes an
inverter to convert the DC to AC.
In the inverter, DC is switched back and forth to produce AC. Then its
transformed, filtered stopped etc to get it to accepted wave form.
Inverters come in two basic outputs designs;
1. Sine wave
2. Modified sine wave
Most 120v AC devices can use the modified sine wave with some exceptions
such as laser printers which use tracks or silicon controlled rectifiers which can be
damaged when used on the modified sine wave power.
Motors and power supplies run warmer and lose efficiency in a modified
sine wave power.
Some appliances like fans, amplifiers and cheap fluorescent light gives out
an audible buzz sound under modified sine wave.
Modified sine wave inverters make the conversion to AC very efficient.
They are inexpensive and are used in most of electrical devices.
Sine wave inverters can virtually operate anything.
Compound internal features in inverters are;
1. Internal battery charges – which can rapidly charge when an AC source such
as generator or utility power is connected to the inverters input terminals.
2. Auto-transfer switching feature; - it’s a feature which enables switching from
either one AC source to another
3. Battery temperature compensation
4. Internal relays – control load, automatic remote generator starting stopping
and many other programmable features.
APPLIANCES & LAMPS
All solar cell lamps and appliances must be connected with right polarity (+ve to +ve & -ve to –
ve)
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF SOLAR SYSTEM (PV PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF SOLAR SYSTEM

CIRCUIT OR WIRING DIAGRAM OF SOLAR PV SYSTEM

EXERCISE
Draw schematic diagram of a solar system with
a. Two solar modules connected in parallel to charge one battery
b. Two soalr modules connected in series to charge two batteries connected in serie

SOLAR SYSTEM ACCESSORIES

Types of accessories
i. AC and DC switches
ii. Socket outlets
iii. Lamp holders
iv. Ceiling roses
v. Patresses
vi. Consumer control units
Wiring system
i. Sheathed wiring system
ii. Tough rubber sheath
iii. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) sheath
iv. Polychloroprene(PCP)
Choice of wiring system

Tests procedures for an installation

Types of cable joints

i. Telegraphic joint
ii. T- joint married joint
 iii. Bell hangers joint

WIRING SYSTEM
Wiring system is an assembly of parts used in the formation of one or more electric circuits. It
consists of the conductor together with its insulation, its protection against mechanical damage
(sheathing, armoring) and certain accessories for fixing a system.
A cable is a length of a single conductor having one or more several wires stranded together. The
wires are also called cores of a cable. A cable consists of a three essential parts.
1. Conductor - carrying currents
2. Insulation - to provide the means to prevent leakage of currents.
3. External overall protection (sheath) – protects against mechanical damage, chemical
effect, fire or other external factors.
FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING A WIRING SYSTEM
Factors that are considered when choosing a wiring system
1. Type of building/nature of building– whether the installation work is for a permanent
building or for extension to an existing building or temporary building.
2. Flexibility – whether the wiring system must be one which will allow it to be easily
extended sometimes in future e.g offices.
3. Installations condition – whether the installation is likely to be subjected to mechanical
damage, moisture, fumes, weather, abnormal temperatures, explosive gas or vapour.
4. Appearance/aesthetic – Whether the building is such that the electrical installation must
be hidden or its appearance must be allowed for beauty.
5. Durability – whether the installation is to last for time of building----------
6. Cost – whether the amount of money is available for the wiring system.
7. Safety – safety should be considered so as to minimize danger e.g a school where
children play.

TYPES OF WIRING SYSTEM

1. SHEATHED WIRING SYSTEM
a. Tough rubber sheath
b. PVC sheath
c. PCP
2. CONDUIT WIRING SYSTEMS
 1. SHEATHED WIRING SYSTEM
The wiring consists of an insulated conductor provided with a sheath that protects against
mechanical damage. The insulating materials are impregnated paper,rubber,plastics and
mineral insulation. The sheathing materials include; lead, tough rubber, plastics,
aluminium and textiles.

a. (TRS) Tough Rubber sheath or protected cables

They are commonly known as Trs ( tough rubber sheath). The insulation is vulcanized
rubber and the sheath is tough rubber.
The insulation is vulcanized-rubber; the sheath is tough rubber
The cable is available in a single core (circular section) flat twin, three-core and twin with
earth continuity conductor (ECC)

DIAGRAM

Advantages of TRS
1. Cheap
2. Flexible
3. Easy to install
4. Easy to withstand heat
Disadvantages of TRS
1. Rubber is affected by oil
2. Weakness of rubber to withstand severe mechanical damage
3. They can be fixed with brass tuckle cups with steel pins

b. PVC SHEATH (polyvinylchloride sheathed)

The conductors are insulated with PVC and the sheath is of PVC.
PVC is much less affected by oil as compared to rubber.The insulation resistance for pvc is much
lower. The pvc system is available as single core(circular), flat twin, three core and twin with
earth continuity conductor.
Advantages
1. Less affected by oil
2. The insulation resistance is much lower tann that of rubber
Disadvantages of PVC sheath
1. It softens when warm unlike rubber which hardens and this factor precludes it from a
number of installations applications
2. Their accessories and methods of fixing PVC are much the same to those of TRS

c. PCP(polychloroprene)

The cable consists of conductor insulated with vulcanized rubber and sheathed with PCP which
is tough rubber like substance. This form of wiring is suitable for farm wiring where
steam,ammonium fumes, lactic acid, milk fats, direct sunlight and heat can be experienced. It is
installed in the same way as TRS or PVC.

d. LAS (Lead-alloy sheathed)

The LAS system consists of conductors which are insulated with vulcanized rubber, taped, taped
and sheathed with a lead alloy (lead with a small proportion of tin and antimony). The lead
sheath can be used as an earth-continuity conductor.
It is available in single single-core (circular), twin-core, three core and twin with –ECC. Fixing is
by buckle clip used for PVC and TRS system
ADVANTAGES
i. Can be adopted for use with a conduit system
ii. Its very soft
DISADVANTAGES
i. Because of its softness it can be damaged severely by blows from any hard objects
ii. LAS are liable to corrosion when they come in contact with damp situations
 e. PILC (paper insulated, lead-covered)
PILC are mainly used for external underground distribution system. It has a wide
application for internal distribution in factories and other industrial premises. The
paper is impregnated and must be protected against the ingress of moisture. Further
protection against mechanical damage is provided ny armouring.
Fixing is by clips or saddles

f. MIMS(Mineral isulated, metal sheath)

They consists of copper(or aluminium) conductors contained in a copper(or
aluminium) sheath. The most common type is the MICS cable with copper as the
main metalfor conductors and sheath.
ADVANTAGES
i. They are self contained and require no futher protection (evn against high temperature
anf fire)
ii. They are impervious to water and oil and immune from compensation
iii. Because the sheath and insulant are inorganic, the cable is virtually ageless.
iv. Installing is simple
v. Current rating is higher than that of TRS,PVC or PILC cables
vi. Because the sheath is copper, it offers an excellent self-contained ECC.
Applications for the cable include industrial installations and hazardous areas
2. CONDUIT WIRING SYSTEM
The material used for plastic conduits is PVC.
There are two types of conduits
i. Flexible
ii. Rigid
The flexible type can be bend without tools while the rigid type is bent with a carefully
application of a flame to soften it.
Fixing are by saddles.
RIGID TYPE
It is classed as either light gauge or heavy gauge.
For light gauge, -It has thin walls and is available as close-joint, brazed ir welded joint and solid
drawn. It is not heavy enough to withstand threading and so presents problem where earth
continuity must be maintained. The conduit must be prepared before connecting by removing the
enamel. The conduits are erected before cables are drawn in into them.
For heavy gauge or srewed conduit Its available as seamwelded, and solid drawn. Welded seam
conduit is used for most good quality installation work. Because solid drawn conduit is more
expensive than seam welded, its use is generally restricted to gas tight and explosion proof
installation work.
COPPER CONDIUT
ADVANTAGE
i. High resistance to corrosion
ii. Excellent ECC
iii. The system can be soldered
DISDVANTAGE
I. The system is expensive

ALUMINIUM CONDUIT
ADVANTAGES
i. Its light in weight
ii. Excellent ECC because its resistivity is a little higher than that of copper
iii. Easy to work with
iv. Can be suited to tropical conditions
DISADVANTAGE
i. Can corrode where dissimilar metal is in vicinity

FLEXIBLE CONDIUT
Generally used for the final connections to machinery ( e.g. electric motors) where vibration and
the possible need to adjust the position to an equipment makes a rigid conduit connection
unsatisfactory. Also they can be used where there is a need for complicated bends and sets. Its
used for short runs where mechanical damage is likely to occur
The flexible conduit consists of a spirally-wound, partially-interlocked light gauge galvanized
steel strip, and may be water tight or non-water tight. It can be obtained with a PVC oversheath.
DISADVANTAGE
Since its not accepted as an ECC, a separate ECC must be run between the special brass adaptors
used to join the flexible to the ordinary srewed conduit.

TYPES OF CABLE JOINTS

1. Britannia joints –
This joint is used for single copper wires which have inconsiderable tension when in use.
Each of the wires is thoroughly cleaned and lined for a distance of about 75mm. About
6mm of the end is bent over at right angles and forms a stop to prevent the joint from
 pulling out. The two wires are then brought together over a distance of 50mm with stops
in the opposite.
Diagram

The binding is carried past each of the stos about 4 or 5 turns. The whole joint is
soldered. No insulation is required.

2. Scarf joint
Diagram

Each of the two ends is carefully chamfered by filing over a distance

3. Straight twist joint

4. Tee Twist joint
5. Tee- joint -on straded cables
6. Telescope joint -for larger cables
7. Married joint
8. Pig trail joint
9. Duplex joint

QUALITIES OF A GOOD CABLE JOINTS

1. Should be able to withstand the circuit current under normal condition and fault currents
without failure.
2. Should maintain the conductivity and mechanical strength of the conductor on which the joint
was made.
TESTS PERFORMED ON COMPLETED INSTALLATION
TYPES OF TESTS TO BE CARRIED OUT
1. ELECTRICAL WIRING TESTS
a. continuity and switching tests
Continuity and switching tests – Theyare carried out on the load side of individual
circuit to check that the circuits are continuous when switched ON i.e. if cables
are not broken or disconnected. That the switches are working well.
To perform these tests the cables are at right outlet points and sockets are short-
circuited. All switches are turned OFF and the multi-meter is set to the buzzers
function.
If the continuity and switching is good, the buzzers will sound when the switch is
turned ON. If it don’t the continuity is fault and need to be corrected.
b. polarityTest
i.e for load circuits outlets outlets and connect lights. Before connecting the lights or
using sockets, its important to ensure that all poles at all outlets is correct. Reverse
polarity can cause permanent damage to the DC loads unlike the AC loads.
With multi-meter, connect the red and black leads red and black wires respectivelyto
power outlets.
We should get a positive reading but a negative reading when reversed in a multi-
meter.
c. insulation resistance Test
This is to ensure cables are insulated and at no point the negative and positive cable
should come into contact. I.e. no possibility of short circuit due to fault by cables.
To perform this test, turn on switches and ensure cables terminating lights at lights
are open.
d. Test for voltage drop
This is to done to check appropriate cable gauge is used.

2. MODULE ARRAY TESTS

This is to check its performance as per the specifications. It is also to confirm the polarity
conforms to the standard colour coding i.e red is +ve and black is –ve.
Measure the short circuit current as well as open circuit voltage.
Check battery voltage and polarity. This is done to ensure that the battery isdischarged.
Ensure that the polarity is correct before connecting to the charge controller.

REPLACING AND TROUBLESHOOTING

Trouble shooting – It involves identifying faults and carrying out simple repair
 QUESTIONS TO ASK BEFORE TROUBLESHOOTING

1. What was the weather condition before the problem?. If the weather was cloudy, its more
likely that the load has taken more energy than the solar module produced.
2. Is the system new? Does the owner know how to use and maintain.
3. What is the type, condition and age of battery? If the battery is old this is the cause of the
problem. If new clean and well charged look for the problem elsewhere.
4. Are all fuses and circuit braekers okey? Locate all the fuses, check if they are blown out.
5. Ar all the wires connected accurately, corroded, broken etc?
6. What is the condition are modules in? are they dusty or shaded.

TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE
No. PROBLEM CAUSE HOW TO FIX IT
1 There is no solar charge Check and fix connections to the module
2 Battery acid is low Add distilled water to the cells
3 Bad connections to control Check for broken wires or loose connections
terminal
4 Defective battery / cell Check for state of charge of each cell. If there is a
significant difference between the cells, replace or
repair them
5 Loose/corroded battery terminal Clean and tighten battery terminals
6 Dusty module Clean the module
7 Blown fuse Replace
8 Over-use of a system Leave appliances of lamps ‘OFF’ for one week to
allow recharging or recharge battery by other
means
9 Battery will not accept charge Find out the age of the battery. If old replace.
10 Voltage drop between modules Check the voltage drop. Replace with a large
and battery too high diameter.
11 Defective controller Check operation of the controller. Repair or replace
it.
12 Short circuit along the wires Locate and repair the loose connections
leading to the modules
13 Thick coating o soot or dust on Clean the module with water of a soft cloth
module
14 Blown module Check for broken cell, broken glass or poor
connection inside the module – Replace the solar
module cell.
15 Bad tube, globe ballast inverter Replace and buy a new one.
16 Bad connection in wire Locate the broken or loose wire and repair
17 Tubes or globes having short life Check voltage of the system. Too low or too high.
18 Bad connection in the wire Locate broken or loose wire and repair
19 Switch is off Turn switch on
20 Broken appliance Try appliance where there is a good power supply.
Repair or replace
21 Fuse was too small Use a fuse 20% larger than the contained power
22 Lighting or power surge Replace the fuse
23 Battery state of charge is low No solar charge
Battery acid is low
Bad connection to control panel
Defective battery
Loose battery terminals
Dusty modules
Blown fuse
Overuse of system
Voltage drop between the battery and module is
high
Defective controller
24 No solar charge Short circuit to module
No current from module to battery Loose connection wires to battery and panel
Blown fuse
Thick coating of dust on module
Broken module
25 Appliances & lamps not working Bad lamp/tube
Bad wire connection
Defective switch
Bad socket
Broken appliances
Broke switch
SIZING
Is a process of getting the correct combination of module, battery size, charge controller,
inverter, cables and other accessories to give the necessary power or energy in an installation. It
involves a number of steps:
1. To calculate the total daily system
Its amount of energy required each day to power the load. It is measured in watts hours
and amperes hour (Ah). In calculating the total daily energy requirements we use the
worksheet below.

Column A Column B Column C Column D Column E

Lamp or Voltage (V) Power in Watts Daily use hour Daily energy
appliance use (Wh)

BOX G BOX F

Column A - list of all the lamps and appliances to be powered by the system
Column B -list all appliances and lamps voltage
Column C -list all lamps and appliances power rating
Column D -It has got a list of hours per day that each lamp/appliance will be used
Column E -Multiple of the power of each load by the number of hours used per day.
BOX F -Add all the values in column E and write the total in column F to get the
Daily energy demand in Watts’s hour (Wh)
NB. For battery capacity you measure ampere hour (Ah) i.e. total charge. Therefore the
Wh can be converted to ampere hour (Ah) by dividing with Voltage (Total voltage in
BOX G)

i.e. Watts = voltage (V)× current (I)

Watts hour = voltage (V)× current (I) × hours

So: Ah = Wh ÷ voltage
PLANNING A SMALL SOLAR ELECTRIC SYSTEM
 i. Calculate the daily load energy demand in watthours
ii. Estimate system loss (15% - 20%)
iii. The total daily system energy demand is equal to demand + losses
iv. Divide the total daily system energy by the system voltage to get daily system charge
required in ampere hours. This is the charge that the module will provide each day.
Example

APPLIANE VOLTAGE POWER IN DAILY USE IN DAILY

WATTS HOURS ENERGY USE
IN Wh
Lamps in sitting 12V 13W 3 39Wh
room
Lamps in 12V 13W 2 26Wh
kitchen
Lamps in 12V 8W 2 16Wh
bedroom 1
Lamps in 12V 8W 1 8Wh
bedroom 2
Cassete player 12V 10W 3 30Wh
Colour Tv 12V 80W 2 160Wh
279Wh

 Total losses
15% x 279 =66Wh
 Total daily energy demand = 279 + 66 =345Wh
 Daily system charge requirement in Ah = 345/12 =28.75Ah.

Higher level sizing

Then estimate the losses or efficiency of battery,c/c controller and inverters
Efficiency of battery = 80%
Output Performance of PV module =80%
Average insolation in Kenya =5.6 kWhm2/day
NB. System voltage e.g. 12V for one battery
Daily system charge = battery capacity

Forward and reverse calculation

WIRING AND FITTINGS

 This topic deals with choosing cable size, type and fittings and methods of earthing the
system for PV.

HOUSE WIRING
 Low voltage DC systems normally use cables of at least 2.5mm2 for sockets,
1.0mm2, 1.5 mm2 for lights without a separate earth wire which is also known as
thin plate.
 In solar electric system multi-stranded wire should be used instead of single
stranded wire.
 Those cable which can be exposed to the sun*
 Also when wires pass underground or up outside walls they should be run in
conduits.
SWITCHES, SOCKETS AND FUSES
Switches are used to turn lamps ON and OFF. DC types of switches are preferred for low voltage
solar electric system. Because they are not available in some areas, installers commonly use
240V switches. Standard lights switches are sized as 3A and 5A and can safely be used for lamps
up to 36 to 60 Watts.
SOCKETS
Sockets are devices into which a plug is inserted, to access power to an appliance. A standard
240V AC sockets are commonly used in small solar electric. These sockets rated 13A and are
capable of providing loads up to 150 Amperes.
NB. Low voltage system requires high current to carry high voltage system.
FUSES
Fuses are devices that are used to protect equipment’s and loads whenever there is high current
due to short circuit. When a short occurs, the fuse blows and opens the circuit so that current will
not flow.
MCB’s (miniature circuit Breakers) – Are small fuses which automatically breaks when there is
a fault. They can be switched ON ounce the problem has been reconnected.
SIZING FUSES
Fuses are sized to blow OFF when the 20% greater than the maximum expected current flow in
the circuit.
To calculate the size of fuse required the following steps are followed
1. List the circuit to be protected .Determine the maximum power possible by adding the
power in Watts of all the loads.
2. Divide the power by system voltage.
3. Increase this figure by 20%. This is the size of fuse required e.g If a 12V system circuit
includes 15Watts TV and 3 8watt lamps. Calculate the fuse size required.
 SOLUTION

MAX
POWER = 15 + 3 × 8 = 39

= 39W ÷ 12V = 3.25A

120% × 3.25 = 3.9A

Hence 4A fuse is required.
EARTHING SYSTEM
Earth wires protect against electric shocks to people against damage to the system against
lighting.*add*
Low voltage systems are earthed by connecting the black wire to earth. It is made by
connecting –ve terminal of a battery to earth rod.
Solar modules are earthed by running heavy gauge e.g wires from the frame and –ve
terminal of each module to an earthing rod driven into the ground.
Some of the 40hp or larger modules have a terminal for the attachment.

*CHOOSING THE CORRECT SIZE OF CABLES

What’s a voltage drop– this is loss of voltage due to resistance of long cables. The
voltage drop affects the lamp. its good to allow a voltage drop of more than 5% on a
cable*
Module is rated at 4hp n below*
No wire carries current greater than 4A.
Calculating voltage dropdetermines the size of wire to be used inorder to calculate
voltage drop one must know three values:
i. Current flow to the cable
ii. Distance of the cable
iii. The resistor factor (k) of the intended cable ohm per meter.
RESISTANCE FACTOR k FOR COPPER WIRE

WIRE AREA MM2 RESISTANCE FACTOR k ohm per meter

1.0 0.04
1.5 0.027
2.5 0.016
4.0 0.010
6.0 0.0068
10.0 0.0040
16.0 0.0026
Column A Column B Column C collumn D Column E
Cable run Distance Max current (A) k in Ω/m Total R
R × length
Battery -kitchen 50m 12A 0.027 0.027×50=1.35
Battery –sitting 7m 2A 0.016 0.16×7=0.71
room

Exercise
Question one
a. Define the term accessories (2mks)
b. List six accessories
c. Name any five types of cable joints. (5mks)
i. Outline the procedure for making the following cable joints using diagrams
1. T-joint
2. Britannia joint
3. Scarf joint
Question two
a. State two advantages and two disadvantages of Tough rubber protected cables (T.r.s)
(2mks)
b. Explain any three types of wiring system
c. Explain five factors to be considered when choosing type of wiring
d. What is troubleshooting
e. List any three questions to ask before trouble shooting
f. Using the troubleshooting guide, list any three problems causes. State how to fix each
of them.
Question three
Define the terms
i. sizing
ii. Daily load energy demand
iii. A farmer has the following appliances
Appliance voltage Power (w) Daily use time Daily energy use
Wh
Sitting room lamp 12V 13W 3hrs
Kitchen lamp 12V 13W 2hrs
Bed room 1 12V 8W 2hrs
Bedroom 2 12V 8W 1hr
Cassette player 9V 10W 3hrs
14’’ colour TV 240 AC 80W 2hrs

a. Use the following efficiencies

Efficiency of DC-AC inverter = 90%
 Efficiency of battery = 80%
Out put Performance of Pv module =80%
Average insolation in kenya =5.6 kWhm2/day

i. Calculate the total daily energy use in Wh

ii. Choose the system voltage
iii. Choose the appropriate PV panel for the farmer
Q 4. Explain any three types of tests to be carried in a PV system inspection and testing.
Q5.
a. Distinguish between parabolic dishes and parabolic troughs with methods of solar
harvesting
b. Describe flat plate collectors as ameans of solar harvesting
c. List two advantages and the disadvantages of direct solar driers
Q6
a. Using a diagram describe the working of box of a solar cooker.. State two
disadvantages
b. Explain the following terminologies as used by solar cells
i. Short circuit current (Isc)
ii. Open circuit voltage (Voc)
c. Explain how solar cell works

Tests procedures for an installation

i. Physical inspection
ii. Electrical tests
iii. Ring continuity tests
iv. Effectiveness of the earth tests
v. Insulation tests
vi. Polarity tests
Electrical regulations governing solar installations

1601/105 solar installation KNEC YEAR 2016 JULY SERIES

1. A. state two
i. Forms of energy conversion which are derived from the sun
ii. Applications for each type of energy in (i) above (4mks)
b. With aid of diagram, distinguish between diffuse and direct solar radiation