EDUCATION SYSTEM IN UK:
In the UK, education consists of
five stages: early years, primary,
secondary, Further Education (FE),
and Higher Education (HE).
Compulsory education is from
ages 5 to 16 (4 in Northern
Ireland). Further Education is non-
compulsory and includes non-
advanced education at colleges.
Higher Education is the fifth stage,
involving studies beyond GCE A
levels, typically at universities and
other HE institutions.
**Education in England:**
1. **School Types:**
- *State Schools:* 90%
- *Private (Public) Schools:* 10%
2. **Stages of Education:**
- *Primary (5-11)*
- *Secondary (11-16)*
- *Further Education (16-18)*
**Early Education (Ages 3-4):**
- UK children typically start non-
compulsory nursery education at
age 3 or 4, focusing on activities
like singing, drawing, and creative
games.
**Free Nursery Education
(Since September 2010):**
- All three and four-year-olds in
England are entitled to 15 hours of
free nursery education for 38
weeks per year.
- Early Years education is offered
in various settings, including state
nursery schools, primary school
reception classes, voluntary pre-
schools, privately run nurseries, or
childminders.
**Compulsory Education (Age
5 and onwards):**
- Compulsory education begins at
age 5 when children enter primary
school, with a focus on basic
literacy, numeracy, and
foundational subjects like science
and mathematics.
**Assessment:**
- In England and Northern Ireland,
assessments occur at the end of
Key Stage 1 and Key Stage 2.
- In Wales, learners in their final
year of Foundation Phase and Key
Stage 2 are assessed through
teacher assessments.
**The Selective System:**
The British Selective System uses
the "11 plus" exam in the last year
of primary education to decide
secondary school placement.
Based on the results, students
either go to grammar schools (top
scorers), technical schools
(others), or secondary modern
schools (the majority).
**SCHOOL UNIFORM:**
School uniforms in England
originated for poor children due to
affordability. Today, many British
schools have uniforms, which
include a school tie, blazer, and
other essential items.
**SCHOOL RULES:**
EVERY BRITISH SCHOOL HAS ITS
RULES,
FOR EXAMPLE:
The most important school rules
are:
1.Be polite
2.Come to school on time
3.Wear your school uniform
4.Don’t eat or drink in the
classroom
5.Don’t bring mobile phones to
class
6.Don’t talk to people in lessons
**secondary school:**
After six years of primary
education children take exams in
core subjects then attend
secondary school, studying core
subjects like English, Literature,
Mathematics, IT, Religious
Education, and optional courses
like foreign languages, science, art,
history, geography, PE, and Design
and Technology.
**Academies:**
Academies in England, funded by
public funds, offer greater
freedoms for innovation and
standard improvement, replacing
poorly performing schools and
driven by external sponsors.
**GCS :**
The General Certificate of
Secondary Education (GCS) E is a
compulsory examination for all 16-
year-olds, aiding students and
parents in deciding whether to
attend college.
Boarding schools in Britain
are the most popular
institutions where children
not only study but also live.
The classification of schools in
Britain into three types: mixed
schools, girls' schools, and boys'
schools, based on gender
classification.
**HIGHER EDUCATION :**
Higher education in the United
Kingdom starts at 18, lasting three
or four years and is typically
provided by around 80
universities. The academic year is
divided into three terms,
concluding with terminal exams.
British universities maintain
traditional practices, including
graduation attire like long black
gowns and caps.
Further education (FE) in the UK
caters to individuals aged 16 and
older who are not attending
universities. FE is mainly offered in
colleges, work-based learning
programs, and adult and
community learning institutions. It
focuses on providing various
courses and training opportunities
to help individuals develop skills
and knowledge for their chosen
careers.
Children need "A" (advanced level)
level to enter a university
""Degrees Awarded:""
Bachelor's Degrees:(BA)
Master's Degrees:(MA)
Doctoral Degree:(PhD)
Oxford and Cambridge are two of
Britain's oldest and most famous
universities, each with a unique
tutorial system. Oxford, founded
in the 12th century, while
Cambridge founded in the 13- divination, landscape legends,
th century. and beliefs in supernatural
entities.
Superstitions
**Common Superstitions in
**Introduction:**
- Superstitions have ancient
the UK:**
origins, rooted in the human
need to explain mysterious 1. **Good Superstitions:**
- Four-leaf clover symbolizes
events.
- Despite scientific hope, love, faith, and luck.
- Tossing coins into a fountain
advancements, superstitions
persist in modern times. brings good luck.
- Blowing out birthday candles
- Definition of superstition: "A
in one breath makes wishes
widely held irrational belief in
come true.
supernatural influences,
- First-footing tradition in
leading to good and/or bad
Scotland for New Year's Eve.
luck."
- Superstitions are prevalent
across cultures. 2. **Bad Superstitions:**
- Black cat associated with
witches and bad luck.
**Etymology and Origin:**
- Friday the 13th is considered
- The term "superstition"
unlucky.
originates from Latin, meaning
- Walking over three drains,
"standing over" or irrational
placing shoes on tables,
faith in supernatural powers.
opening umbrellas indoors,
- Origin dates back to ancient
breaking mirrors, walking
Greece in the 4th century BCE,
under ladders, and eating
contrasting with religious
blackberries after Michaelmas
practices recommended by
bring bad luck.
elites.
- Victorian and Edwardian
**Impact on British People:**
Britain saw a cultural
- Superstitions influence
obsession with recording
traditions, everyday actions,
superstitions.
and royal practices in the UK.
- Many British traditions are
**Why Superstition Persists:**
rooted in superstitions, and
- Superstitions provide a sense
everyday actions like avoiding
of control and reassurance in
ladders or using lucky charms
people's lives.
persist.
- Many superstitions arise from
- The British royal family has its
ignorance about the causes of
superstitions, influencing dates
events, offering comfort to the
mind. for events, ceremonial
practices, and symbolic
**Types of Superstition:** jewelry.
- Recorded Victorian
superstitions cover pastimes,
customs, charms, omens,
**London's Religious
Landscape:**
- Despite being perceived as liberal
and secular, London is becoming
more visibly religious.
- 62% of Londoners identify as
religious, higher than the rest of
Britain (53%).
**Major Religious Groups:**
1. **Christianity:**
- Historically dominant, with
Anglicanism as the primary
denomination and numerous
churches in the City of London.
2. **Islam:**
- Second-largest religion,
constituting over 12.4% of the
population.
- Over 1,000 mosques, expected to
outnumber churches by 2030.
3. **Hinduism:**
- Represents 5% of London's
population, concentrated in Western
London, especially in Harrow.
4. **Judaism:**
- Over two-thirds of British Jews live
in London.
- Significant communities in areas
like Stamford Hill and Golders Green.
5. **Sikhism:**
- Sizable Sikh population in the west
of the city, with the largest temple in
Southall.
**Irreligion:**
- Approximately one in five Londoners
have no religion.
- Much of London's civic life and civil
society are described as secular with
no religious character.
**LONDON’S HISTORY:**
### Population:
1. **Population:**
- Greater London Urban Area: 8M
- London Metropolitan Area:
Estimated 12-14 million.
2. **Geography:**
- Located in southeastern England
along the River Thames.
- Approximately 50 miles
upstream from the North Sea.
- Surrounded by a Green Belt with
the M25 motorway road as the
principal ring highway.
3. **Metropolitan Area and
Definitions:**
- including the London Travel to
Work Area.
- Encompasses London urban
area and commuter belt.
4. **Planning and Growth:**
- Growth was controlled in the
mid-1950s by town planning
5. **Historical County Context:**
- Some parts, like the south of the
river, were historically part of
Surrey, and the north belonged to
Middlesex.
### Character of the City:
London's character is polycentric,
it is a big and varied city with no
main center. It's like a mix of
different parts that work together,
making it a bit complicated inside.
### Legendary Foundations and
Prehistoric London:
London has a history of over 2,000
years, According to legend, Brutus
of Troy founded London as "New
Troy" along the River Thames.
### Roman London:
Established around 43 AD,
Londinium, a Roman civilian town,
occupied a relatively small area.
Roman attempts to invade
continued until the decline of the
Roman Empire in the 5th century.
### Norman and Medieval
London:
The medieval history began in
1066 with William the Conqueror's
coronation. Key constructions
during this period included the
Tower of London, Palace of
Westminster, and London Bridge.
### Tudor London:
From 1485 to 1603, Tudor London
experienced rapid growth,
becoming a hub of trade, industry,
government, and the arts. The
population quadrupled during this
time.
### Stuart London:
The Stuart dynasty, starting in
1603, saw developments in
theatre, music, and architecture.
The English Civil War and the
Great Fire of London in 1666
marked significant events during
this era.
### Great Plague of London:
The Great Plague of 1665-1666
ravaged London, causing
significant mortality, with an
estimated death toll exceeding
100,000 out of a population of
460,000.
### Great Fire of London:
The Great Fire of London in 1666
destroyed 13,200 houses, 87
parish churches, and St. Paul's
Cathedral, causing widespread
destruction.
### 18th Century:
The 18th century brought the
Industrial Revolution,
transforming agriculture,
manufacturing, mining, transport,
and technology.
### 19th Century:
London became a global capital
with rapid growth,
industrialization, and a population
boom, but it also faced challenges
such as overcrowding, poor
sanitation, and disease.
### 20th Century:
London continued to grow,
becoming a global city of
immense importance in finance,
trade, and culture. The 20th
century witnessed World War II's
Blitz, impacting the city
significantly.
### Historical Places in London:
London boasts numerous
historical landmarks, including
London Bridge, Tower Bridge,
Tower of London, Houses of
Parliament, Buckingham Palace,
St. Paul's Cathedral, Westminster
Abbey, Hyde Park, The Monument,
Hampton Court Palace, Windsor
Castle, Wellington Arch, Marble
Arch, and more.
British Literary History:
1. **Old English (680-1066):**
- Germanic tribes invade Britain
around 450 AD.
- Anglo-Saxons conquer
Britons by 600 AD.
- Language becomes more
Germanic, as seen in the epic
poem "Beowulf."
- Beowulf tells the story of a
Scandinavian hero's battles
with monsters.
2. **Medieval Literature
(1066-1500):**
- Early medieval literature
includes legends and folktales,
often in the vernacular and
poetic meter.
- Poetry remains a preferred
medium for artistic expression.
- Middle English witnesses a
significant shift, with works
often having religious content.
- Notable works include
Geoffrey Chaucer's "The
Canterbury Tales" and
Arthurian legends.
3. **Renaissance Literature
(1500-1660):**
- "Rebirth" of interest in Greek
and Latin classics.
- Expansion for Britain,
focusing on the individual and
the refinement of language.
- Noted authors: Christopher
Marlowe and William
Shakespeare.
4. **Neoclassical and
Enlightenment Period (1660-
1785):**
- Reaction to the
expansiveness of the
Renaissance, emphasizing
order and restraint.
- Emphasis on classical ideals,
rationality, and control.
- Notable authors: John Locke.
5. **Romantic Period (1785-
1830):**
- Poetry is a common form of
writing.
- Reaction against scientific
rationality and the Industrial
Revolution.
- Emphasizes individuality,
imagination, and elevation of
the common man.
- Notable author: Robert Burns.
6. **Victorian Era (1830-
1901):**
- Named after Queen Victoria's
reign, marked by Imperialism
and social class
consciousness.
- Dominance of the novel as a
literary form.
- Emphasis on realistic
portrayals of common people
and atypical heroes.
7. **Edwardian Period (1901-
1914):**
- Named after King Edward.
- Continuation of some
Victorian trends, with a threat
to the status quo.
- Distinction between literature
and popular fiction.
- Notable authors: Joseph
Conrad, H.G. Wells, E.M.
Forster, George Bernard Shaw.
8. **Modernism (1914-
1945):**
- Reaction against values
leading to World War I.
- Experimentation with form,
reflecting the confusion of
modern life.
- Omission of expositions and
resolutions; themes implied
rather than stated.
9. **Postmodernism and
Contemporary (?-Present):**
- Begins after World War II,
influenced by various
philosophers.
- Deconstruction challenges
inherent meaning in texts.
- Some link it to the counter-
cultural revolution of the
1960s.
- Postmodernism was born of
skepticism, embracing
individual experience and
interpretation.
1)THEHISTORYOFBRITIS
H P O L I T I C S:
**British Politics Overview:**
- Over 800 years of British political
history shows a shift from kings
and aristocrats to a Prime
Minister.
- Social changes led to the
formation of political parties,
voting rights, and local
governments.
**Devolution and Power:**
- Devolution, giving power to
different regions, started with
Ireland in the 1800s.
- Scotland, Wales, and Northern
Ireland now have some control in
certain matters, but major
decisions are still made by the UK
government in London.
**Contemporary Politics:**
- Today, there are different levels
of government: UK, devolved
regions, and local governments.
- While not exactly like federalism,
some call it "quasi-federalism"
because each part has some
power, but they're still part of the
bigger UK picture.
**Ever-Changing Dynamics:**
- British politics is always changing,
with power sometimes
centralizing and sometimes
decentralizing. It's a dynamic
balance between unity and
regional autonomy.
2)THEGOVERNMENTAL
M O D E L:
**Governmental Model:
Constitutional Monarchy with
Parliamentary System**
1. **Constitutional Monarchy:**
- The British Monarchy operates
as a constitutional monarchy.
- The monarch is the Head of
State, but legislative power resides
in an elected Parliament.
2. **Parliamentary System:**
- The central feature is a
parliamentary system.
- Parliament, referred to as the
'Queen-in-Parliament,' holds
essential legislative power.
3. **Role of the Monarch:**
- The monarch retains a role in
some executive and legislative
aspects.
- However, the primary
responsibility for governance lies
with the elected government.
4. **Sovereignty:**
- Political sovereignty is held by
the British people.
- Parliament, composed partly of
elected representatives, possesses
legal sovereignty for law-making.
5. **Head of Executive,
Legislature, and Judiciary:**
- Formally, the monarch serves
as the head of the executive, the
legislature, and the judiciary.
In summary, the British
governmental model combines
constitutional monarchy and
parliamentary principles. The
monarch, as Head of State,
coexists with Parliament, where
legislative and legal sovereignty
are vested. The government,
accountable to Parliament,
handles day-to-day governance.
The model emphasizes the
political sovereignty of the British
people.
3)THEBRANCHESOFGOV
E R N M E N T:
**1. The Legislature:**
- Components:
- The House of Commons
- The House of Lords
- Formally, the monarch
- Role:
- Supreme law-making body

**2. The Executive:**
- Components:
- The sitting government
- The Cabinet
- Government ministries or
departments
- Leadership:
- Headed by ministers or
secretaries of state
- Formally, the monarch
**3. The Judiciary:**
- Components:
- Judges of the higher courts
- Role:
- Interpretation and application
of the law
- Formally, the monarch.
4)THEENGLISHMONARC
H Y:
**English Monarchy:**
- The throne passes down to
family members who are
Protestants.
- There was a break during the
Cromwell republic in the 1600s.
- Different family lines have ruled
Britain.
**British Monarchy (Under
Queen Elizabeth II):**
- Queen Elizabeth II has many
important roles, like being the
leader of the country and the
Church of England.
**Consequences of Monarch's
Roles:**
- People who work for the
government are considered the
monarch's helpers.
- Important people, like judges and
military officers, promise to be
loyal to the monarch.
**Limitations of the Monarch:**
- The monarch follows advice from
government leaders.
- The monarch can't make laws or
spend public money.
**Monarch's Duties:**
1. Starts and ends meetings in
Parliament.
2. Agrees to new laws.
3. Chooses government leaders.
4. Gives special honors.
5. Meets with the Prime Minister.
6. Forgives some people who
broke the law.
7. Represents the country in other
places.
___________________
**1. Privy Council:**
- Origin: Originally a small group
advising the monarch.
- Current Role: Advises the
monarch on various matters.
**2. Prime Minister:**
- Leader of the party that won
the last election.
- Appoints government
members, or in a coalition, as
agreed.
*Example:* Rishi Sunak
appointed as the new Prime
Minister.
**3. Cabinet:**
- A committee of key ministers
(currently 23).
- Regular meetings to discuss
and decide on running the
country.
- Backbenchers or government
backbenchers support the Cabinet.
**4. Shadow Cabinet:**
- Comprises opposition
spokespeople chosen by the
Leader of the Opposition.
- Mirrors the Cabinet, focusing
on specific policy areas.
- Aims to present itself as an
alternative government-in-waiting.
- Sits at the front opposite the
government; opposition
backbenchers support them.
**5. Civil Service:**
- Permanent officials responsible
for putting government decisions
into action.
 - Mainly supported by
businessmen, the middle class,
5. **House of Lords: Reform
and the upper class.
Attempts:**
- Strongholds are typically in the
- Efforts to change the House of
southern regions of England.
Lords happened in the 20th
century.

- The Parliament Act of 1911 ### **Smaller Political Parties:**

6 ) B R I T I S H P A R L I A M E N T:
**Summary of the British
Parliament Structure:**
1. **Overview:**
- The British Parliament includes
the House of Lords, the House of
Commons, and the monarch. They
meet together on special
occasions.
limited the Lords' power, allowing
a one-year delay.
1. **Liberals and Social
Democrats:**
6. **House of Commons:
- Historically had some
Composition:**
representation in the House of
- The House of Commons has Commons.
650 Members of Parliament
(MPs), including 10% women.
2. **Scottish National Party
- Seats are distributed among
(SNP):**
England, Wales, Scotland, and
Northern Ireland. - Represents Scottish interests.

3. **Plaid Cymru (Welsh National

2. **Parliament Duration:**
- Parliament usually lasts for five
years. It can be extended in
emergencies.
3. **House of Lords:
Composition:**
- The House of Lords has two
parts: Lords Temporal (with
hereditary and life peers) and
Lords Spiritual (including Church
leaders).
4. **House of Lords: Size and
Leadership:**
- About 1,200 members.
- The Lord Chancellor, appointed
by the government, leads the
House of Lords without receiving a
salary.
7. **Electoral System in the
House of Commons:**
- The country is divided into
areas, each choosing one MP.
About 60,000 people live in each
area.
____________________
7)POLITICALPARTIES
### **Major Political Parties:**
1. **Labour Party:**
- Draws support from trade
unions, working class, and the
middle class.
- Strongholds include South
Wales, Scotland, and industrial
cities in the Midlands and
northern England.
2. **Conservative Party:**
Party):**
- Represents Welsh nationalist
interests.
4. **Northern Irish Parties:**
- Includes Official Unionists,
Democratic Unionists, Ulster
Popular Unionists.
- Social Democratic and Labour
Party (SDLP): A moderate Roman
Catholic Northern Irish party.
- Sinn Fein: A Republican
Northern Irish party.
5. **Other Smaller Parties:**
- Greens: Advocate
environmentalist policies.
- Communist Party: Represents
socialist and communist
ideologies.