3-LAD01132 Introduction Geotechnics U2 S3

Introduction to geotechnics. Soils and rocks.
Description and fundamental parameters-

Properties and classification of soils
3. BASIC PROPERTIES – COHESIVE SOILS
3.1 Introduction
In this module, the concept and definition of soil and its differences with rock were studied, in
addition to the processes that result in the formation of soils and different types of deposits.
Subsequently, the characteristics of coarse or granular soils (sand and gravel) and fine or
cohesive soils (silt and clay) were analyzed, with greater emphasis on the structure, types and
attributes of clay. Next, the (basic) index properties were presented, which establish
relationships between volumes and weights of the different phases that make up the soil (solid,
liquid and gas) and which are also applicable to rocks. After that, the specific, basic properties
of coarse or granular soils (sand and gravel) were described.
In this section, a series of basic properties and attributes of fine or cohesive soils (silt and clay)
will be analyzed. First, the consistency of cohesive soils will be described in relation to the four
possible consistency states (solid, semi-solid, plastic and liquid). The significant influence that
the water content (moisture content) has on the soil will be covered, whose magnitude
determines the transition from one state of consistency to another. In this context, the
consistency limits or Atterberg limits (liquid, plastic and shrinkage limits) as well as the liquidity,
plasticity and consistency indexes will be defined. Finally, the activity of a soil will be presented,
depending on its clay content and its plasticity.
3.2 Consistency of cohesive soils
3.2.1. Basic Concepts
As defined in the previous section, soil consistency is the resistance to deformation exhibited
by the soil. In other words, it is the ease with which a soil can be deformed. The soil is
considered to be more consistent the more effort is required to deform it. In the case of fine or
cohesive soils (silt and clay), there are four basic consistency states, which depend on the
water content of the soil (or the moisture content). From lowest to highest water content,
these consistency states are: solid, semi-solid, plastic and liquid.
The figure below shows a schematic diagram of the transformation of soil from one state of
consistency to another, as the water content inside increases.
© Structuralia 36
Introduction to geotechnics. Soils and rocks. Description and fundamental parameters-
Figure 19: Cohesive soil consistency as its water content increases42 (with modifications from the author)
The previous figure shows how a cohesive soil changes in consistency as its water content
changes. If the water content increases, the soil changes from a more solid to a more liquid
state. Likewise, if the water content decreases, the soil changes from a more liquid to a more
solid state. This is due to the fact that as the presence of water inside the soil increases, it
decreases the forces of interaction between the particles of the soil (by cohesion and friction),
causing the shear strength of the soil to gradually reduce until it is annulled, and, by definition,
turning it into a liquid (which cannot withstand shear stresses). Based on this, it is important to
highlight that the consistency of cohesive soils is the soil’s resistance to deformation, taking
into account its water content. For a cohesive soil, the higher the water content, the lower the
consistency.
The previous figure shows that the change from one state of consistency to another
materializes when a certain value of water content is reached. These water content values that
establish the limits between the states of consistency are called consistency limits or
Atterberg limits39. The water content values that mark the limits between the states of
consistency are:
§ Shrinkage Limit (SL): The water content that marks the limit between the solid and
semi-solid states. It can be expressed as ws.
§ Plastic Limit (PL): The water content that marks the limit between the semi-solid and
plastic states. It can be expressed as wp.
42
Sanjay Kumar Shukla, Core Principles of Soil Mechanics, ICE Publishing, ©Thomas Telford Limited 2014.
37 © Structuralia
§ Liquid Limit (LL): The water content that marks the limit between the plastic and
liquid states. It can be expressed as wL.
One of the most important conclusions and concepts that can be drawn from the previous figure
is the order, from least to greatest, of the Atterberg Limits. This order, which should be retained,
is as follows:
ws < wp < wL
Another of the most significant aspects to take into account in the transition from one state of
consistency to another as the water content in a cohesive soil increases is how its deformability
and strength vary. As indicated, the soil decreases its strength and increases its deformability
with increasing water content, since it goes from a more solid state (greater strength and less
deformability) to a more liquid state (less strength and greater deformability). This means that,
as water content increases, the effort required to deform the soil a certain amount will be less.
The figure below shows this phenomenon schematically. As can be seen, as the water content
in the soil increases, the stress or tension required to cause deformation in the soil decreases.
Figure 20: Decrease in soil strength with increasing water content
Finally, another of the fundamental aspects to be taken into account during the change from
one state of consistency to another that the cohesive soil experiences when its density
increases or decreases is that said process is not carried out at a constant volume, but that the
volume varies. As the soil decreases its water content (moisture) from the liquid state, there is a
decrease in the total volume since the pores of the soil are reduced as the water is expelled
from its interior. Said reduction of the total soil volume takes place until the shrinkage limit (wS).
© Structuralia 38
is reached. From this level of water content, the soil enters the state of solid consistency,
acquires stiffness and therefore its pores can no longer be reduced. The water that continues to
be expelled by drying until it reaches the state of dry soil will do so without reducing the pore
volume, and therefore without reducing the total volume.
The soil will undergo the opposite process as its water content increases from the dry state.
Until the shrinkage limit (ws), is reached, the volume will remain constant, since in this range of
water content the water fills the holes in the soil, but without increasing its volume. Once the
shrinkage limit has been reached, the water has completely filled the pores of the soil, so from
this point any increase in water content will be accompanied by an increase in the total volume
(due to the increase in the volume of pores that will generate the absorption of water.
The increase in volume caused by the increase in water content decreases the forces of
interaction between soil particles, and this goes from a solid state to a liquid state, which is
achieved when the interaction between its particles is canceled and the Soil is no longer able to
absorb shear stresses. The figure presented below schematically shows this process.
Figure 21: Volume change with increasing or decreasing water content
39 © Structuralia
3.2.2. Atterberg limits
In this section, the consistency limits or Atterberg limits mentioned and presented previously are
defined in detail. Also, a very brief review is made of the laboratory tests used to obtain them.
Liquid Limit
The Liquid Limit (LL) can also be expressed as wL. It is defined as the moisture from which the
soil ceases to behave as a plastic solid (malleable and moldable solid that can acquire
permanent plastic deformations without breaking) and begins to flow as a liquid as moisture
increases. It can also be defined as the moisture value from which the soil ceases to flow as a
liquid and begins to behave like a plastic solid as moisture decreases.
The liquid limit is obtained in the laboratory by means of the Casagrande spoon or by the
conical penetrometer. Both trials will be described in detail later in the program.
Plastic Limit
The Plastic Limit (PL) can also be expressed as wP. It is defined as the water content from
which the soil ceases to behave as a plastic solid (malleable and moldable solid that can
acquire permanent plastic deformations without breaking) and begins to acquire a more rigid
solid behavior, showing a brittle behavior (brittle in English). It can also be defined as the
moisture value from which the soil begins to behave as a plastic solid instead of brittle,
admitting to be molded and deformed without breaking.
The plastic limit is determined in the laboratory from a very simple standardized test. This test
consists of kneading a soil sample forming cylinders 3 mm in diameter (some texts indicate 3.2
mm). The moisture value for which these 3 mm diameter cylinders begin to crack and crack, as
a result of which the clay begins to acquire a semi-solid behavior, is the plastic limit. This essay
will be described in detail later in the program. The figure presented below shows a schematic
and conceptual detail of the test procedure described to obtain the value of the plastic limit.
© Structuralia 40
Figure 22: Detail of a laboratory test to obtain the value of the plastic limit43
The table below shows typical values of liquid limit (liquid limit, LL) and plastic limit (plastic limit,
PL) for some clay minerals.
Figure 23: Typical values for the liquid limit and plastic limit of some clay minerals44
43
Renato Lancellotta, Geotechnical Engineering, 2nd Edition, Taylor & Francis, Taylor & Francis Group,
2009.
44
Braja M. Das y Khaled Sobhan, Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 9th Edition, Cengage Learning,
2018.
41 © Structuralia
Shrinkage Limit
The Shrinkage Limit (SL) can also be expressed as wS. It is defined as the water content at
which the soil ceases to behave like a semisolid and begins to acquire a solid behavior. To
distinguish the solid state from the semisolid, it can be considered that a soil is in a semisolid
state when, given its non-plastic (brittle) behavior, the soil continues to lose volume if it is dried
and the water leaves its pores. On the contrary, it is said that a soil is in a solid state when its
volume remains constant if it is dried, that is, even if the soil loses water from its interior, the
volume does not change. Therefore, the shrinkage limit can be defined as the value of the water
content for which the drying (removal of water by evaporation) of the soil ceases to produce a
change in volume. It can also be defined as the value of moisture at which any increase in water
content begins to cause an increase in volume in the soil. This phenomenon can be seen in
Figure 21 shown above. As can be seen in this figure, the volume of the soil is constant with a
water content below the shrinkage limit. On the contrary, if the water content is increased above
the shrinkage limit, the soil begins to increase its volume.
In the light of the above, it can be said that the shrinkage limit is the moisture value for which
the pores of the dry cohesive soil are completely filled with water. Therefore, from this value, the
volume of the soil will begin to increase as a result of the increase in the void volume when
absorbing water.
To determine the shrinkage limit in a laboratory, a sample of soil in the oven is dried, following a
standardized procedure. By measuring the mass and the initial volume of the soil (before
introducing it into the oven) and the mass and the final volume of the soil when removed from
the oven, the water content can be determined from which the volume of the soil remains
constant if it decreases, which will correspond to your shrinkage limit. This essay will be
described in more detail later in the program.
The table shown below presents typical shrinkage limit values for some clays.
© Structuralia 42
Figure 24: Typical values of the shrinkage limit for some clay minerals34
3.2.3. Indexes
From the Atterberg Limits defined above, a series of useful indexes in geotechnics can be
determined. These indices are the Plasticity Index, the Liquidity Index and the Consistency
Index. As we will see, the indexes mentioned are used in classification systems to classify and
describe the soil, as well as in many correlations and relationships between properties and
characteristics.
Plasticity Index
The Plasticity Index (PI) is defined as the range of water content for which a soil behaves like
a plastic solid, which is to say, it has a plastic behavior that allows it to be molded and acquire
permanent deformations without cracking. It can also be expressed as Ip. The mathematical
expression for its calculation is:
ef = /g − /f
As shown, the plasticity index is the difference between the liquid limit and the plastic limit,
which are precisely the most extreme values of the water content range for which soil exhibits a
plastic behavior. The table below shows values of the plasticity index, as well as the description
of the soil according to its degree of plasticity.
43 © Structuralia
Description of soils according to the plasticity index
Description Value of Ip
Not plastic 0
Very low plasticity 1-5
Low plasticity 5 - 10
Medium plasticity 10 - 20
High plasticity 20 - 40
Very high plasticity > 40
Figure 25: Description of soil according to the values of the plasticity index34
As mentioned above, granular (non-cohesive) soils lack plasticity, so their plasticity index will be
zero. On the other hand, silts are low plasticity soils, generally with Ip < 5.
One of the biggest uses of the plasticity index is through the Casagrande plasticity chart. This
graph was developed by Casagrande and relates the plasticity index (on the ordinate) to the
liquid limit (on the abscissa). As we will see, this graph constitutes the basis for the classification
of fine soils in the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS). The figure below shows the
Casagrande plasticity graph.
© Structuralia 44
Figure 26: Casagrande plasticity graph34
As can be seen, the graph is delimited into six areas by two vertical lines (corresponding to the
abscissa of the liquid limit wL = 30 % y wL = 50%) and two diagonal lines called the A-line and
the U-line. The equations for these lines are:
h − iF&*: ke = 0.73 ∙ (ii − 20) ; ef = 0.73 ∙ (/g − 20)
p − iF&*: ke = 0.9 ∙ (ii − 8) ; ef = 0.9 ∙ (/g − 8)
The A-line separates clay from silt. The points (wL ; Ip) for clays are above the A-line and the
points (wL ; Ip) for silts are below that line. The U-line represents the upper bound of the
relationship between the plasticity index and the liquid limit of known soils. If a point (wL ; Ip) is
above the U-line, the plasticity index and liquid limit values obtained in the laboratory should be
reviewed, since they are above the maximum known values.
45 © Structuralia
Another use of the plasticity chart is to allow us to preliminarily identify the predominant clay
minerals in the soil sample [3]. For this, the position of the point (wL ; Ip) obtained is compared
with that of the known minerals, as shown in the figure below. Thus, if the point is near the U-
line, we will know that the predominant mineral in the clay is fundamentally Montmorillonite.
Illites, meanwhile, are found just above the A-line, while kaolinites are just below the A-line (with
a behavior more similar to silts).
Figure 27: Casagrande plasticity graph45
Liquidity Index
The Liquidity Index (LI), is a measure and an indicator of how close a soil is to its state of liquid
consistency. The liquidity index, which is also presented as IL, is defined as:
45
Renato Lancellotta, Geotechnical Engineering, 2nd Edition, Taylor & Francis, Taylor & Francis Group, 2009.
© Structuralia 46
/ − /f / − /f
eg = =
ef /g − /f
Where:
§ w: is the natural soil water content (in-situ).
§ Ip: Soil plasticity index
§ wL: Liquid limit
§ wp: Plastic limit
From the previous expression, it can be proved that a cohesive soil behaves in a plastic way if 0
(w = wp) < IL < 1.00 (w = wL). For a cohesive soil in a solid or semi-solid state, IL < 0, while, for a
liquid state, IL > 1.00. It can also be considered as relative water content [1].
Consistency Index
The Consistency Index (CI), is a measure and an indicator of how close a soil is to its state of
plastic consistency. The consistency index, which is also expressed as IC, is defined as:
/g − / /g − /
ec = =
ef /g − /f
Where:
§ w: is the natural soil water content (in-situ).
§ Ip: Soil plasticity index
§ wL: Liquid limit
§ wp: Plastic limit
From the previous expression, it can be proved that a cohesive soil behaves in a plastic way if 0
(w = wL) < IC < 1.00 (w = wp). For a cohesive soil in a solid or semi-solid state, IC > 1.00, while,
for a liquid state, IC < 0. It can also be considered as relative consistency [1].
Considering the previous expressions for the liquidity index and the consistency index, it can be
concluded that:
47 © Structuralia
/ − /f /g − / /g − /f
eg + ec = + = =1
ef ef /g − /f
3.3 Activity
As we have seen in the previous topics, the plasticity of a cohesive soil (clay mainly) is due to
the adsorbed layer that surrounds the particles and the set of electromechanical interactions
that take place on the surface of the particle (diffuse double layer, which the adsorbed layer is
part of). Therefore, the plasticity, whose indicator is the plasticity index (determined by the
values of the liquid limit and plastic limit) will be a function, first of all, of the type of clay mineral
under consideration. On the other hand, given another soil composed of several fractions of
basic soils, we can say that the plasticity of that soil will be a function of both the predominant
clay mineral type present in the soil and the amount of clay (in proportion by weight) present in
it. Skempton (1953) observed that the plasticity index of a soil (Ip) increases linearly with the
amount of clay (in proportion by weight, that is, in % of weight) present in the soil. The amount
of clay (in proportion by weight) present in a soil is determined as the fraction of the soil whose
particles are less than 2 μm. The figure below shows the linear relationships between the
plasticity index and clay content (proportionally) for various types of soils (mostly clayey). For
the same clay content, the difference in the plasticity index between the different soils is due to
the different plastic characteristics of the different clay minerals present in the soils.
© Structuralia 48
Figure 28: Lineal relationship between the plasticity index and the content of clay for distinct soils46
Based on these results, Skempton defined a parameter called activity, which is the slope of the
lines that establish the linear relationship between the plasticity index and the clay content and
therefore can be defined as:
ef
hsMFtFMu = h =
% Kv Mℎ* vNLsMFK& Kv sJLu F& /*F%ℎM (< 2y8)
In the tables shown below, the activity values for different clay minerals are presented.
46
Braja M. Das y Khaled Sobhan, Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 9th Edition, Cengage Learning,
2018.
49 © Structuralia
Figure 29: Value of the activity for different clay minerals46
Figure 30: Value of the activity for different clay minerals47
Those with A <0.75 are usually considered as inactive soils. Normal soils are those with a value
of A between 0.75 - 1.40 (1.25). Active soils are considered to be those with an A value greater
than 1.4 (1.25). Based on these values, the following graph can be constructed, which defines
the areas for inactive, normal and active soils.
47
R.Whitlow, Basic Soil Mechanics, 3rd Edition, Longman, 1995.
© Structuralia 50
Figure 31: Classification of soils as inactive, normal and active48
The investigation by other authors (Seed, Woodward, and Lundgren, 1964) on the plastic
properties of a series of artificial mixtures of sand and clay led them to conclude that, although
the relationship between the plasticity index and the clay content is linear (as Skempton
observed), it may not always go through the origin of the coordinate system34. This fact is
reflected in the figure below.
48
V.N.S Murthy, Geotechnical Engineering: Principles and Practices of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering,
st
1 Edition, CRC Press, 2002.
51 © Structuralia
Figure 32: Relationship between the plasticity index and the content of clay for artificial mixtures of sand and clay34
In this case, the activity of the soil (A) would be defined as:
ef
hsMFtFMu = h =
% Kv Mℎ* vNLsMFK& Kv sJLu F& /*F%ℎM (< 2y8) − _′
Where C’ is a constant for the soil under consideration.
Subsequent studies by the same authors have shown that the relationship between the
plasticity index and the clay content of a soil can be represented by two lines, as shown in the
figure below. For clay contents greater than 40%, the second straight line passes through the
origin of the coordinate system when projected backwards..34
© Structuralia 52
Figure 33: Bi-lineal relationship between the plasticity index and the content of clays51
For most practical cases, it is sufficient to consider that the relationship between the plasticity
index and the clay content of a soil is linear and that this straight line passes through the origin.
The activity property of a clay is closely linked to its specific surface49, and therefore it is also an
indicator of the influence of electric forces on mass forces.
49
Sanjay Kumar Shukla, Core Principles of Soil Mechanics, ICE Publishing, ©Thomas Telford Limited
2014.
53 © Structuralia

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Introduction to geotechnics. Soils and rocks.

Description and fundamental parameters-

3. BASIC PROPERTIES – COHESIVE SOILS

3.2 Consistency of cohesive soils

3.2.1. Basic Concepts

Figure 20: Decrease in soil strength with increasing water content

Figure 21: Volume change with increasing or decreasing water content

3.2.2. Atterberg limits

Description of soils according to the plasticity index

Very low plasticity 1-5

Very high plasticity > 40

Figure 26: Casagrande plasticity graph34

h − iF&*: ke = 0.73 ∙ (ii − 20) ; ef = 0.73 ∙ (/g − 20)

p − iF&*: ke = 0.9 ∙ (ii − 8) ; ef = 0.9 ∙ (/g − 8)

Figure 27: Casagrande plasticity graph45

§ w: is the natural soil water content (in-situ).

§ Ip: Soil plasticity index

§ wL: Liquid limit

§ wp: Plastic limit

§ w: is the natural soil water content (in-situ).

§ Ip: Soil plasticity index

§ wL: Liquid limit

§ wp: Plastic limit

Figure 29: Value of the activity for different clay minerals46

Figure 30: Value of the activity for different clay minerals47

Figure 31: Classification of soils as inactive, normal and active48

Where C’ is a constant for the soil under consideration.

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