Soil Water: Characteristics and

Behavior
 Main Objectives
• Comprehend the characteristics and properties
of water in soils.

• Understand and capable of explaining terms and

concepts used in describing soil water.
 Key terms and Concepts
• Cohesion and adhesion
• Surface tension
• Capillarity
• Gravimetric water content, volumetric water content
• Soil water potential (gravitational, matric, and osmotic)
• Darcy’s Law and saturated flow
• Infiltration & percolation
• Maximum retentive capacity, field capacity, wilting point
Why is water important for soil systems?

1. Properties of water

Molecular polarity and hydrogen bonding

Cohesion: the attraction of water molecules for each

other primarily due to hydrogen bonding.

Adhesion (also called adsorption): the attraction of

water molecules for solid surfaces.
Figure 5.1 (Left)
Figure 5.1 (right)
2. Capillarity

Surface tension: the greater attraction of water molecules

for each other than the air above at liquid-air interfaces
primarily due to cohesion.

● Adhesion and surface tension together cause the

phenomenon called capillarity--the movement of water up a
wick made of hydrophilic solid materials.

● Capillary movement takes place in any direction.

● The height of capillary rise in a tube is directly

proportional to the liquid's surface tension and adhesion to
the solid surface, but inversely proportional to the tube radius
and the density of the liquid.
Everyday evidences of water’s surface tension (left) as insects walk on
water and do not sink, and of forces of cohesion and adhesion (right) as
a drop of water is held between the fingers. (Photos courtesy of R. Weil)
Figure 5.2 Upward capillary movement of water through tubes of different bore and soils with
different pore sizes. (a) The capillary equation can be graphed to show that the height of rise h
doubles when the tube inside radius is halved. The same relationship can be demonstrated using
glass tubes of different bore size. (b) The same principle also relates pore sizes in a soil and height of
capillary rise, but the rise of water in a soil is rather jerky and irregular because of the tortuous shape
and variability in size of the soil pores (as well as because of pockets of trapped air). (c) The finer
the soil texture, the greater the proportion of small-sized pores and, hence, the higher the ultimate
rise of water above a free-water table. However, because of the much greater frictional forces in the
smaller pores, the capillary rise is much slower in the finer-textured soil than in the sand
Figure 5.3 Capillary water movement in the field can be both vertical and horizontal.
(Left) Capillary flow has caused water in a small surface runoff collection basin to move
both up and horizontally away from the pool of collected water. (Right) Capillary rise
above the water level in a stream bank
3. Soil water content and water potential

Gravimetric water content: the weight of water in a soil sample per unit weight of dry soil,
such as 0.25 kg water per kg of dry soil. (see Box 5.1)

Volumetric water content: the volume of water in a soil sample per unit of total soil volume.

● When considering soil water availability and movement, a general energy expression of soil
water status is often used, i.e., the tendency of natural movement for all substances is always
from higher energy stage to a lower energy stage. So does for water. Higher energy stage of
water often means higher availability for biological use.

When soil water status is expressed in energy forms and compared to pure water under
standard temperature and pressure, the difference in energy level between this pure water and
that of soil water is called soil water potential.

Yt = Ym + Ys + Yp + Yg

Ym : Matric potential
Ys : Solute potential or osmotic potential
Yp : Pressure potential or submergence
Yg : Gravitational or elevation gradient

● Please refer to Table 5.2 for information about methods for measuring soil water.
Figure 5.5 Relationship between the potential energy of pure water at a standard reference
state (pressure, temperature, and elevation) and that of soil water. If the soil water contains salts
and other solutes, the mutual attraction between water molecules and these chemicals reduces
the potential energy of the water, the degree of the reduction being termed osmotic potential.
Similarly, the mutual attraction between soil solids (soil matrix) and soil water molecules also
reduces the water’s potential energy. In this case the reduction is called matric potential.
Figure 5.11 (12th)
Figure 5.4 Three models of water distribution in wet, moist, or nearly dry soils. (a) Water films around
soil particles are thicker when the soil is wetter. (b) Water is held in soil pores of varying size; the wetter
the soil, the larger the pores that are filled with water. As the soil dries, the larger pores are emptied first,
leaving water in smaller pores where it is held more tightly. (c) Many soil pores are angular with corners
in which capillary forces can hold water, even when most of the pore is emptied of water. As the soil
dries, the water in the middle of large angular pores is removed first as it is least tightly held by mineral
surfaces. Decreasing amounts of water are held in the corners as drying continues. In most soils all three
models operate simultaneously and explain why matric potential changes as soil water content changes
Figure 5.6 Soil water potential curves for three representative mineral soils and an organic
peat. The curves show the relationship obtained by slowly drying completely saturated soils.
The dashed lines show the effect of compaction or poor aggregation in mineral soils.
Figure 5.9 A time-domain reflectometry (TDR) meter, and sensor (left) and a capacitance
sensor and meter (right) are shown. The TDR meter calculates volumetric water content
of soil by analyzing the velocity at which electromagnetic waves move through the soil
and the reflected wave patterns generated. Electrical capacitance probes determine
volumetric water content by measuring the amount of charge required to raise the voltage
between two conductors separated by the soil
Figure 5.10 Instruments that measure soil water potential in the field include the tensiometer
(center) and electrical resistance blocks (right). The tensiometer tube is filled with water through
the screw-off top. Once the instrument is tightly sealed, the white porous tip and the lower part of
the plastic tube is inserted into a snug-fitting hole in the soil. The vacuum gauge (close up, left)
will directly indicate the “tension” or negative potential generated as the soil draws the water out
(curved arrows) through the porous tip. Note the scale goes up to only 100 centibars (= 100 kPa)
tension at the driest. (Right) A cutaway view of soil with a gypsum electrical resistance block
installed about 45 cm below the surface. Insulated wires lead from the block to the surface, where
they can be connected to a special resistance meter. Another gypsum block has been broken open
(inset) to reveal two concentric metal screen cylinders that serve as the electrodes between which
moistened gypsum conducts a small electric current. The resistance to current flow is inversely
proportional to the wetness of the gypsum block
4. Water movement in soils

(1) Saturated flow (Soil texture, structure, organic matter, hardpan, water content,
temperature, etc.) :
Darcy's Law: Q / t = (A Ksat  ) / L
A = cross sectional area of the column; Ksat = saturated hydraulic conductivity
 /L = water potential gradient, or hydraulic gradient
For typical Ksat values of some soil types, see Table 5.3. But please note the
preferential flow, and the 104 power relationship with the pore radius changes.

(2) Unsaturated flow (Driven by matric potential gradient, or the thickness of

water films on particles, <-10 kPa)

(3) Infiltration: the process by which water enters the soil pore space.

(4) Percolation: the process of water moving downward into the profile after
infiltration, which involves both saturated flow and unsaturated flow.

(5) Water vapor movement:

Moist → Dry; Cool → Warm
Figure 5.11 Saturated flow (percolation) in a column of soil with cross-sectional area A cm2. All
soil poresare filled with water. At lower right, water is shown running off into a container to
indicate that water is actually moving down the column. The force driving the water through the
soil is the water potential gradient, ψ1 − ψ2/L, where both water potentials and length are
expressed in cm (see Table 5.1). If we measure the quantity of water flowing out Q/t as cm3/s we
can rearrange Darcy’s law (from Eq. 5.5) to calculate the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the
soil Ksat in cm/s as: Ksat = Q L / A . t ψ1 − ψ2. Remember that the same principles apply where
the water potential gradient moves the water in a horizontal direction.
Figure 5.13 Preferential flow of contaminated water downward to the water table. Assume a
contaminant (pink color) was spilled on the clayey soil. Uniform movement of water
through the soil (a) could be slow enough that the chemical would degrade before it reached
the water table. However, with preferential flow (b) contaminated water could quickly reach
the water table, in this example via macropores made by the cracking of swelling clay as
deep-rooted vegetation dried the soil. Because of these cracks, the first heavy rain after the
spill would carry the chemical into the groundwater by preferential flow before the soil
could swell and shut the cracks.
Figure 5.13 The effect of land management and soil texture on saturated conductivity (Ksat) of three soils in Canada.
Soils under native woodlots had higher Ksat values, apparently due to higher organic matter contents and to preferential
flow channels provided by decayed roots and burrowing animals. Tillage practices had little effect on conductivity in sand,
but in loam and clay loam soils, conductivity was higher where no-tillage systems had been used, suggesting that no-till
had increased the proportion of larger, water-conducting pores. [Drawn from averages of three methods of measuring
Ksat in Reynolds et al. (2000)]
Figure 5.15 Generalized relationship between matric potential and hydraulic conductivity for a sandy soil
and a clay soil (note log scales). Saturated flow takes place at or near zero potential, while much of the
unsaturated flow occurs at a potential of -0.1 bar (-10 kPa) or below.
Figure 5.15 The potential rate of water entry into the soil, or infiltration capacity, can be
measured by recording the drop in water level in a double-ring infiltrometer (top). Changes in
the infiltration rate of several soils during a period of water application by rainfall or irrigation
are shown (bottom). The dashed arrow indicates the level of Ksat for the silt loam illustrated.
Figure 5.19 Vapor movement caused by vapor pressure gradients between soil zones
differing in temperature, moisture, or salinity. In (a) the gradients nearly negate each other,
resulting in only a small net vapor pressure gradient and net water vapor movement (small
vertical arrow). In (b) the moisture and temperature gradients are coordinated, and
considerable vapor transfer is expected if the liquid water in the soil capillaries does not
interfere. In (c) two small spots of soils have been darkened by moisture. Below each of
these spots, the African farmer had buried a spoonful of soluble fertilizer in the relatively
dry soil. The fertilizer began to dissolve, creating a salty solution with very low water vapor
pressure around it, thus setting up a vapor pressure gradient that caused water vapor to move
from the nonsalty surrounding soil toward the salty soil where the fertilizer had been applied
Low conductivity in dry surface retards the evaporative loss of soil water.
(Singer & Munns, 2006, Figure 5-13)
Figure 5.20 Volumes of water and air associated with 100 g of soil solids in a representative well-
granulated silt loam. The top bar shows the situation when the soil is completely saturated with water.
Water will soon drain out of the larger pores (macropores). The soil is then said to be at field capacity.
Plants will remove water from the soil until they begin to wilt. When permanent wilting of the plants
occurs, the soil water content is said to be at the wilting coefficient. The water lost between field capacity
and wilting coefficient is considered to be the soil’s plant available water-holding capacity (AWHC). A
further reduction in water content to the hygroscopic coefficient is illustrated in the bottom bar.
6. Qualitative description of soil wetness
(1) Maximum retentive capacity: soil water content when all pores
are filled with water, or totally saturated.

(2) Field capacity (or field water holding capacity): maximum soil
water content after the drain of macropore water due to gravity
gradient (~ -33 Kpa).

(3) Permanent wilting point (or, wilting coefficient, wilting

percentage): the soil water potential (content) at or below which plant
roots cannot absorb water any more (~ -1500 Kpa).

(4) Hygroscopic coefficient: the soil water content of air-dried soil

after reaching equilibrium with water vapor in the air of 98% relative
humidity. Clay colloids are the main agents for holding this water.
(5) Factors influencing thresholds above:
Texture, SOM, bulk density, and salinity
Figure 5.21 Water content–matric potential curve of a loam soil as related to different terms
used to describe water in soils. The shaded bars in the diagram to the right suggest that
concepts such as field capacity are only approximations. The gradual change in potential
with soil moisture change discourages the concept of different “forms” of water in soils. At
the same time, such terms as gravitational and available assist in the qualitative description
of moisture utilization in soils
Figure 5.22 General relationship between soil water characteristics and soil texture. Note
that the wilting coefficient increases as the texture becomes finer. The field capacity
increases until we reach the silt loams, then levels off. Remember these are representative
curves; individual soils would probably have values different from those shown
6. Plant water uptake

About 90% by Passive Absorption (or capillary action)

Water loss through Evapotranspiration.

The maximum ET loss that would occur under soil water content
near field capacity is referred to as Potential ET (ETp), which is
usually below Pan Evaporation (50-90% of Pan Evaporation)

Water Use Efficiency (WUE): the amount of water required to

produce a unit weight of dry plant material, such as the
Transpiration Ratio (water/dry matter, ranges from 200:1
to1000:1).
A minirhizotron image of soil water removal by a pine root
7. Discussion Questions:
1. Would you try to give an example for the use of the knowledge in this
chapter in a real world situation?
2. Can you explain the phenomenon called capillarity using the concepts of
cohesion, adhesion, and surface tension?
3. Do you know why values of soil water potential measurements are often
negative (or below zero)?
4. Do you have a clear idea about what soil properties significantly influence
which components of the overall soil water potential?
5. Can you give a concise summary about water movement in soils in the
forms of saturated liquid, unsaturated liquid, and vapor?
6. How do different soil properties/management practices affect the
volumetric water content at field capacity?
7. If a farmer wants to know how much water in the soil is already available
for plant uptake before irrigation, what measurements do you need before
you can calculate/estimate the amount of water available? Can you show
how to calculate it (Box 5.3)?