cmutsvangwa: Irrigation Systems Design, Dept. of Civil & Water Eng.

, NUST 03/08/07 2-1

Chapter 2

Soils and crops

Definition of soil
A heterogeneous mixture of loosely packed broken rock together with some organic matter
and minerals forming top most portion of the earth’s mass of varying depths.

Constituents of soil
• Soil particles
• Air
• Water
Solids, water, air as a
Air heterogeneous mixture

Water

Solid matter

Fig. 1 Phase diagram of soils

For most common soils, the soil phase occupies from 40 to 70% of the total space (Singh,
1995). The remaining 30 to 60% is pore space filled usually with water and air. If the pore
space is completely filled with water (no air present), the soil is called saturated and if
contains some air and water, it is called unsaturated.

Functions of soil
• soil mass store food for the plant
• soil is source of water for plants because plants derive their water through the soil
• Soil crust provide anchorage for the roots (mechanical support)
Properties of soil
(a) Colour
Depend upon composition, porosity and age. Soil containing organic matter is grey,
black or brown, and if contains iron, it will be either yellow or red

(b) Texture it is the sizes of particles

Sand 2 to 0.06mm
Silt 0.06 to 0.002mm
Clay <0.002mm

A soil classification diagram is shown in Figs. 2 (a), (b), (c).

Chapter 2 Soils-plant-water relationships

cmutsvangwa: Irrigation Systems Design, Dept. of Civil & Water Eng., NUST 03/08/07 2-2

(c) Structure
Arrangement of soil particles in a soil mass (granular, prismatic and columnar).

(d) Void ratio

Volume of voids per unit volume of solid particles in a given soil mass and varies with
density.

(e) Permeability (hydraulic conductivity)

That property of soils which allows water to move through the soil mass and it is the
velocity of flow under a unit gradient. Texture, structure and temperature affect
permeability.

(f) Alkalinity and acidity

Caused by upward capillary movement of soil moisture and evaporation at the ground
surface (Salt efflorescence). A pH of 7 indicates a good soil suitable for cultivation. Alkali
soil has a pH greater than 8.5 and usually contains sodium carbonate. Saline soils have a
pH of 7 to 8.5 and contain excessive amounts of soluble salts of sodium, magnesium,
calcium and potassium in the form of chlorides or sulfates.

Fig. 2 (a): Soil Classification

Source: Mobile subsurface colloids and their role in contaminant transport, Kretzschmar et al (1999),
Advances in agronomy

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cmutsvangwa: Irrigation Systems Design, Dept. of Civil & Water Eng., NUST 03/08/07 2-3

Fig. 2 (b): Soil Classification

Source: Cuenca (1989), Irrigation Systems Design: An Engineering approach. Prentice Hall. USA.

Fig. 2 (c): Soil Classification

Source: Cuenca (1989), Irrigation Systems Design: An Engineering approach. Prentice Hall. USA.
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cmutsvangwa: Irrigation Systems Design, Dept. of Civil & Water Eng., NUST 03/08/07 2-4

SOIL-PLANT WATER RELATIONSHIPS

Movement of water in the soil is complex due to:

• Various states and directions in which the water moves
• Forces involved
Irrigation water moves as a front, from saturated soil layer to an unsaturated layer. In dry soil,
the movement of the front is unsteady. Water builds up behind the front until the larger pores
are filled and then moves to the next layer of large pores. Water is held in the soil by
adhesion and cohesion

Adhesion: Water held tightly at the soil water interface

Cohesion Water molecules holding other water molecules

The force, with which water is held, depends on the amount of water in the soil. The less the
amount of water in the soil, the greater the tension needed. Thus water moves from an area
where tension is low to an area where tension is high. In other words from a wet soil where
the tension is low to a dry area where the tension is high.

Soil moisture tension

Soil-moisture tension is a measure of the tenacity with which water is retained in the soil and
shows the forces per unit area that must be exerted to remove water from the soil. The soil
water pressure [N/m2] in unsaturated zone is below that of the surrounding atmosphere and
in saturated soil is greater than that of the surrounding atmosphere. If one take the
atmospheric pressure as a reference, the soil-water pressure head in the unsaturated zone is
negative [ϕ<0]. For this reason, soil-water pressure head in the unsaturated zone is often
called tension or suction head. In the saturated zone the pressure head is positive [ϕ>0].
Fig. 2 illustrates an idealized representation of the pressure head distribution with respect to
depth z in a typical soil profile. The moisture-characteristic curve (tension moisture
extraction) is shown in Fig. 3. Where F= Force required to remove the moisture still remaining
in the soil. From the graph it can be seen that sand has a high release of moisture at low
tension than clay.

Energy relationships
Knowing the amount of water in soil is often not enough. The water content itself gives no
indication whether a soil is saturated or unsaturated. Water content also provides no
measure of availability for plant uptake and is no value in determining its direction of water
flow. The complete evaluation of water in soil requires knowledge of energy status of water
in soil and the energy status of water is expressed through the soil-water potential.

Soil water potential

Ability of soil water to do work measured relative to some reference state. It is the work
required in moving an incremental volume of water from soil to some standard reference
state, where the total soil-water potential is zero by definition. Soil water potential results
from the forces of gravity, capillary and adsorptive forces (Cuenca, 1989). The soil water
potential represents the work (energy) required to overcome the forces acting on the soil
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cmutsvangwa: Irrigation Systems Design, Dept. of Civil & Water Eng., NUST 03/08/07 2-5

water referred from a given datum to the point of interest. In an unsaturated soil energy must
be expanded to remove water, so the soil water potential is negative. Water will move from a
wet soil where potential is near to zero to a dry soil where the potential is lower (negative). In
other words a potential gradient exists which is equivalent to the rate of decrees of potential
energy with distance, and is the driving force causing soil water flow.

Fig. 3 Moisture characteristic curve

Reference state
The reference state has zero potential and is pure water with a flat air-water interface at the
same temperature as water in the soil-water system at atmospheric pressure and specified
elevation.

Potential difference between two soil water systems

The work that one system is capable of doing with reference to work that can be done by
water in the second system, which is the driving force causing movement of water in the soil
water system.

Types of potentials
• gravitational (G)
• pressure (P)
• osmotic or solute potential (Pos)

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cmutsvangwa: Irrigation Systems Design, Dept. of Civil & Water Eng., NUST 03/08/07 2-6

Gravitational potential
It is the potential due to position of a point relative to some datum.

Osmotic potential
Results from the difference in potential energy between soil-water solution and pure free
water. Decrease in potential energy of soil water is due to solutes relative to pure water and
therefore is caused by the high concentrations of salts in the soil-water solution. Increasing
the concentration of the salts in the soil water solution will cause an increase in the attractive
force due to salts.

Pressure potential
Potential due to the attraction of soil surface for water as well as to the influence of soil pores
and the curvatures of the soil water interface (Capillary tension) in unsaturated soil. Its value
is always negative in unsaturated soils. In saturated soils, capillary forces are zero, but water
below the water table surface is subjected to pressure from the overlying water (hydrostatic
pressure head).

Total potential, T = Z + P + Pos

Thus in unsaturated soil, the total pressure head or hydraulic potential equals the sum of
pressure head, P and gravity elevation Z or G. Hydraulic potential in unsaturated soils is
always negative, becomes zero at the water table and positive below the water table. The
absolute value of the negative pressure potential in unsaturated soil is also called tension.
Solute potential does not contribute much driving force for water flow except at the soil-root
interface where solute potential differences are most important for water uptake into roots. In
the absence of roots and when osmotic potential is everywhere equal or negligible, moisture
movement is governed by hydraulic potential (H).

H=Z+P

Measuring soil water potential

Since pressure head is negative (suction) in the unsaturated zone, it can not be measured
with piezometers, but rather with a tensiometer. The tensiometer in irrigation measures soil
tension, which is directly related to the amount of soil moisture available to the plants through
a vacuum gauge. It is necessary to measure soil moisture for irrigation scheduling to meet
the crop-water requirements.

Principle
A porous ceramic cup filled with water is set in the soil and connected to a pressure-
measuring device (Fig.4). If the water is initially at atmospheric pressure and the soil
moisture pressure is negative, then the water will move through the porous cup in to the soil
until equilibrium is reached. Then φ give the soil moisture tension in mm of water. The
pressure measuring devices is usually mercury (Fig. 4).

Chapter 2 Soils-plant-water relationships

cmutsvangwa: Irrigation Systems Design, Dept. of Civil & Water Eng., NUST 03/08/07 2-7

Fig 4 9(a): Schematic illustration of a tensiometer

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cmutsvangwa: Irrigation Systems Design, Dept. of Civil & Water Eng., NUST 03/08/07 2-8

Pressure potential at p:

φ P = ρ W ghw + φ B − ρ mghm

But φ B = 0

Therefore pressure potential at P becomes:

φ P = ρ W ghw − ρ mghm

Fig 4 (b): Schematic illustration of a tensiometer

There are two methods to express the status of water in soil. The most common method is to
determine the amount i.e. the volume or mass of water in the soil (Gravimetric). The other
method is to determine the energy status of water in soil. Also there are several methods to
determine the soil moisture content (Jensen, 1990). Where repetitive measurements are
needed, other indirect methods of determining water content are:-

• Newton scattering
• Gamma ray attenuation
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Hydraulic conductivity
It is the proportionality constant between potential for flow and velocity of soil water
movement. The potential for flow is defined by the hydraulic gradient, which is equivalent to
the change in total potential, measured over some distance. For the general case, the
hydraulic gradient measured between two points may be expressed as:

dT T2 − T1
i= =
ds s2 − s1

ds is the distance measured between points 1 and 2.

T1 = Z1 + P1 + Pos1

When the magnitude of the osmotic potential between two points is negligible (Po=0), the total
potential is equal to the sum of the gravitational plus pressure potential and the above
equation can be rewritten in terms of the hydraulic potential, h and hydraulic gradient, dh/ds

T1 = Z1 + P1 = h1

T2 = Z2 + P2 = h2

dh h2 − h1 ( Z1 + P1 ) − ( Z2 + P2 )
Therefore: = =
ds s2 − s1 S2 − S1

If v is the equivalent velocity of flow of soil water across the entire cross-sectional area, that is
not just pore area, and then v can be defined as a function of the hydraulic conductivity and
gradient (Darcy’s Law):

dh
v = −k
ds

Where k is the hydraulic conductivity. The minus sign is used to determine the direction of
flow with respect to the reference datum and is required since flow is from the point of higher
to lower potential. Water will move from a wet soil where potential is near to zero to a dry soil
where the potential is lower (negative). In other words a potential gradient exists which is
equivalent to the rate of decrees of potential energy with distance, and is the driving force
causing soil water flow. The velocity, v is across the entire cross-sectional area, which is
made up of soil and pore space (Darcian velocity). Water moves only through pore space
and the pore water velocity or seepage velocity, vp under saturated conditions is given as:

v
vp =
θ

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cmutsvangwa: Irrigation Systems Design, Dept. of Civil & Water Eng., NUST 03/08/07 2-10

Where θ is the soil porosity. In most applications in irrigation system design, we are
concerned with the Darcian velocity rather than the pore velocity. The pore velocity is more
applicable in solute transport in groundwater flow. Also in irrigation we are interested in the
value of conductivity under saturated soil conditions. The hydraulic conductivity should be
expressed as a function of volumetric soil-water content, θv, and for a soil water system,
Darcy’s law gives:

dh
v = − kθ v
ds

Vω
θv = =
VT

Where Vw is the volume of water contained or actual and VT is the volume of voids. 0 ≤ θ v 〈θ
(Cuenca, 1989). For a soil-water plant system in which osmotic potential may rise across the
root membrane, v is given as:

dT
v = − kθ v
ds

There are several laboratory and in situ methods to measure hydraulic conductivity (Bootstra,
1991; Masch and Deny, 1996; and Trenter, 1998).

Classification of water potential with reference to irrigation

Vadose zone
The unsaturated zone above the water table and contains the crop root zone.

Hygroscopic water
These are particles of water forming a very thin layer on the soil and it is held in static state
with atmospheric water vapour. The water is attached to the soil particles through loose
chemical bonds and can be removed by heat only. This water is not capable of any
movement by gravity or capillary forces and is unavailable to plants.

Capillary water
Water particles, which exist in the pore spaces of soil mass. The particles are retained in
their position by virtue of surface tension against the force of gravity. It moves slowly than
free water and can move in any direction but always in the direction of the greatest tension
and this water is available to plants.

Gravitational water
It is water in an unsaturated zone, which is in excess of hygroscopic and capillary water or
free-water. It drains (moves) downwards under the influence of gravity after rainfall or
irrigation and this water is not available to plants.

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Chapter 2 Soils-plant-water relationships

cmutsvangwa: Irrigation Systems Design, Dept. of Civil & Water Eng., NUST 03/08/07 2-11

57%
23%
I.25m root zone
13%
7%

Fig. 5: Percentage distribution of water with depth

Field capacity
Water remaining in the soil after removal of gravitational water or the fraction of moisture
remaining after free drainage has stopped. It depends on soil moisture tension and porosity.

Permanent wilting point

The soil moisture fraction at which the plant leaves wilt permanently and applying additional
water after this stage will not relieve the wilting condition.

Available water
It is the maximum moisture, which can be stored in the soil for plant use, and is the difference
in moisture content of soil between its field capacity and permanent wilting point within the
root zone.

AM =FC –PWP
Saturation = Hygroscopic + capillary +gravitational water

Field capacity = hygroscopic + capillary water

Permanent wilting point = hygroscopic water

Oven dry conditions

If it is expressed as a depth:

AM = [ FC − PWP] × d

Where d is the root zone.

Soil moisture can be allowed to be depleted below the field capacity but not below the
permanent wilting point before irrigation is applied. The permissible amount of depletion is
referred to as the management allowed deficit, which depends on crop and stage of growth
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cmutsvangwa: Irrigation Systems Design, Dept. of Civil & Water Eng., NUST 03/08/07 2-12

and is between 40 to 75% of the available moisture (i.e. permissible level of moisture
depletion). In Zimbabwe, 60% is normally used for design purposes (AGRITEX, 1990), and
therefore the readily available moisture (RAM) is given as:

RAM = 0.6[ AM ] RAM

Consumptive use
The total amount of water required by the plants during the whole vegetation period.

Volumetric water content present in the root zone at any given state can be expressed as:

Vw = wAd[1 − n]Gs

Where; A =surface area of soil

d =depth of root zone
n =volume of voids to the total volume of soil
G =specific gravity

Ms Mw Va + Vw Vv Vw wAd[1 − n]Gs
Gs = , w= n= = =e =
Vs ρ w Ms V V A d

Vw
d= = wd [1 − n]Gs
A
d = wd [1 − n]Gs
ρ
d= d [1 − n]GS
ρw
ρ
d= d [ FC − PWP ]
ρw

At a time when the soil moisture deficit is Vw, the soil moisture deficit for the crop will be

Ds = [ RAM − Vw ] ]

Irrigation frequency
Time that should elapse between the beginning of two successive irrigations and depends
on:
• water needs of crop
• Availability of water
• storage capacity of root zone
Shallow rooted crops generally require more frequent irrigation than deep-rooted crops. It
should be noted that because of the capacity of a soil to store water, it is not necessary to
apply water to the soil on a daily basis even though the consumptive use takes place
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cmutsvangwa: Irrigation Systems Design, Dept. of Civil & Water Eng., NUST 03/08/07 2-13

continuously. The frequency is decided such that moisture content is close to optimum at
each irrigation and ranging between field capacity and permanent wilting point.

Example 1
A schematic illustration of an apparatus to measure the saturated hydraulic conductivity is
given in Figure below. Assuming the following values:
z1 =10cm
z2 =40cm
p1 =17cm
p2 =8cm

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cmutsvangwa: Irrigation Systems Design, Dept. of Civil & Water Eng., NUST 03/08/07 2-14

Example 2
A tensiometer is shown below is being applied in the field to monitor soil water potential, and
the top is open to the atmosphere.

References
1. AGRITEX, (1986), Irrigation Handbook, Zimbabwe Government
2. Boonstra and N. Ridder, Numerical Modeling of Groundwater Basin, ILRI, Netherlands.
3. Cuenca R., (1989), Irrigation Systems Design: An Engineering approach. Prentice Hall.
USA.
4. Jensen M.E., ed., (1980), Design and Operation of Farm Irrigation Systems, American
Society of Irrigation Engineers, USA
5. Kretzschmar R., Borkvec M., Grolimund D. and Elimelech M., (1999), Mobile subsurface
colloids and their role in contaminant transport, Journal of Advances in Agronomy, Vol 66,
pp 121-193.
6. Masch and K. Deny, Grain size distribution and its effect on permeability on
unconsolidated sand, Water Resources Research, vol2, 1996, pp. 665-677.
7. Singh V., (1995), Environmental Hydrology, Kluwer Academic Publishers, USA
8. Trenter, N, (1998), “A note on the estimation of permeability of granular soils”, Journal of
Royal Geological Society, UK, 1998, pp. 383-388.

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Chapter 2 Soils-plant-water relationships