Irrigation Systems Design Notes 2011

Irrigation Systems Design: Dept. of Civil and Water Eng.
, NUST, 17/03/2011 23:52:31
IRRIGATION SYSTEMS AND DESIGN
Chapter 1: Introduction
Introduction
Irrigation is an attempt by man to locally alter the hydrological cycle to promote
increased agricultural productivity, and by definition, irrigation is the controlled
application of water to arable land to supply crop water requirements of water not
satisfied by rainfall. It’s a systematically developed knowledge, based on long term
observations and experiments of handling available sources of water for economic
growth. It combines elements of soil science, agronomy, social science, hydraulics,
hydrology and economic analysis (Cuenca, 1989).
Necessity of Irrigation
Adequate quantities of irrigation water should be readily available within the root
zone and therefore irrigation should be necessary when:
 Seasonal rainfall is less than the minimum required for satisfactory crop
growth
 When rainfall is not distributed according to the crop requirement. Every crop
requires a certain quantity of water after a certain fixed time interval till the
crop matures. Usually rainfall cannot supply water at fixed intervals of time.
 Some crops like sugar-can require regular supply of water for long time which
rainfall cannot provide
 Drought is common
Advantages of Irrigation
 Irrigation removes deficiency in water requirement due to inadequate rainfall
 Cash crops can be produced
 It adds wealth to the country and therefore improves the living standards
 Increased opportunities in areas directly related to irrigation like in the
production of irrigation equipment, fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides and
agricultural machinery.
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Irrigation Systems Design: Dept. of Civil and Water Eng., NUST, 17/03/2011 23:52:31
 Irrigation channels can be a means of water transport
Disadvantages of Irrigation
 Affects the local hydrological cycle. Dampens climate and Ecological

imbalances
 It can cause excessive seepage if the systems are not properly designed
resulting in marshes and ponds which are breeding habitats for mosquitoes
and therefore causing malaria
 The water table can be raised and completely saturating the crop-root zone
(water logging). When the water table recedes, it will result in saltation
through long-term excessive salinity buildup and sediment deposition.
 Initial capital costs are irrigation projects are relatively high and some
irrigation systems have high operation and maintenance costs.
Functions of irrigation
 Provides medium for reaction of salts
 Circulates water and nutrient through the plant structures
 Regulates the temperature regime
 Dilutes and washes harmful salts (leaching)
 Provides mechanical support through turgidity
Quality requirements for irrigation water

Water becomes unsuitable for irrigation owing to the presence of bacteria and toxic
chemical. Toxicity occurs with the crop itself as result of uptake and accumulation of
certain constituencies from the irrigation water. The effects of water quality on the
soil and plant growth are related to:
 Chemical and physical properties of crop tolerance

 Climatic region of area
 Method of irrigation
 Frequency of irrigation
 Amount of irrigation water applied
Due to the above diverse factors and their complex relationships, no universal
comprehensive irrigation water classification system is currently acceptable.
Evaluation of suitability of water for irrigation purposes involves determination of its
chemical characteristics like ph, conductivity and concentration of inorganic
constituents. Some of the general parameters used are:
 Irrigation water is suitable when it contains less that 700ppm total salts
 Sodium concentration of less than 60%
 Boron concentration of less than 0.5ppm
 Sodium adsorption ratio SAR). The tendency of irrigation water to form
exchangeable sodium in the soil. Guidelines on SAR are in Table 1.1
The SAR is calculated as:
2
Na 
SAR 
Ca    Mg  
2
Where:
Table 1.1 Guidelines for SAR for irrigation water
SAR value Classification Suitability

0-10 Low sodium water Suitable
10-18 Medium sodium Present an appreciable hazard
18-26 High sodium water May produce harmful levels of
exchangeable sodium and needs
treatment
>26 Very high sodium water Unsatisfactory for irrigation
Chapter 2: Soils and crops
Definition of soil
A heterogeneous mixture of loosely packed broken rock together with some organic
matter and minerals forming top most portion of the earth’s mass of varying depths.
Constituents of soil
 Soil particle
 Air
 Water
Solids, water, air as a
heterogeneous mixture
Air
Water
Solid
matter
Fig. 1 Phase diagram of soils
For most common soils, the soil phase occupies from 40 to 70% of the total space
(Singh, 1995). The remaining 30 to 60% is pore space filled usually with water and
air. If the pore space is completely filled with water (no air present), the soil is called
saturated and if contains some air and water, it is called unsaturated.
Functions of soil
 soil mass store food for the plant
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 soil is source of water for plants because plants derive their water through the
soil
 Soil crust provide anchorage for the roots (mechanical support)
Properties of soil
(a) Colour
Depend upon composition, porosity and age. Soil containing organic matter is
grey, black or brown, and if contains iron, it will be either yellow or red
(b) Texture it is the sizes of particles

Sand 2 to 0.06mm
Silt 0.06 to 0.002mm
Clay <0.002mm
(c) Structure
Arrangement of soil particles in a soil mass (granular, prismatic and columnar)
(d) Void ratio

Volume of voids per unit volume of solid particles in a given soil mass and varies
with density.
(e) Permeability
That property of soils which allows water to move through the soil mass and it is
the velocity of flow under a unit gradient. Texture, structure and temperature
affect permeability.
(f) Alkalinity and acidity

Caused by upward capillary movement of soil moisture and evaporation at the
ground surface (Salt efflorescence).A pH of 7 indicates a good soil suitable for
cultivation. Alkali soil has a pH greater than 8.5 and usually contains sodium
carbonate. Saline soils have a pH of 7 to 8.5 and contain excessive amounts of
soluble salts of sodium, magnesium, calcium and potassium in the form of
chlorides or sulphates.
SOIL-PLANT WATER RELATIONSHIPS

Movement of water in the soil is complex due to:
 Various states and directions in which the water moves
 Forces involved
Irrigation water moves as a front, from saturated soil layer to an unsaturated layer. In
dry soil, the movement of the front is unsteady. Water builds up behind the front until
the larger pores are filled and then moves to the next layer of large pores. Water is
held in the soil by adhesion and cohesion
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Adhesion: Water held tightly at the soil water interface

Cohesion Water molecules holding other water molecules
The force, with which water is held, depends on the amount of water in the soil. The
less the amount of water in the soil, the greater the tension needed. Thus water
moves from an area where tension is low to an area where tension is high. In other
words from a wet soil where the tension is low to a dry area where the tension is
high.
Soil moisture tension

Soil-moisture tension is a measure of the tenacity with which water is retained in the
soil and shows the forces per unit area that must be exerted to remove water from
the soil. The soil water pressure [N/m2] in unsaturated zone is below that of the
surrounding atmosphere and in saturated soil is greater than that of the surrounding
atmosphere. If one take the atmospheric pressure as a reference, the soil-water
pressure head in the unsaturated zone is negative [<0]. For this reason, soil-water
pressure head in the unsaturated zone is often called tension or suction head. In the
saturated zone the pressure head is positive [>0]. Fig. 2 illustrates an idealized
representation of the pressure head distribution with respect to depth z in a typical
soil profile. The moisture-characteristic curve (tension moisture extraction) is shown
in Fig. 2. Where F= Force required to remove the moisture still remaining in the soil.
From the graph it can be seen that sand has a high release of moisture at low
tension than clay.
Fig.2 Moisture characteristic curve
Energy relationships
Knowing the amount of water in soil is often not enough. The water content itself
gives no indication whether a soil is saturated or unsaturated. Water content also
provides no measure of availability for plant uptake and is no value in determining its
direction of water flow. The complete evaluation of water in soil requires knowledge
of energy status of water in soil and the energy status of water is expressed through
the soil-water potential.
Soil water potential
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Ability of soil water to do work measured relative to some reference state. It is the
work required in moving an incremental volume of water from soil to some standard
reference state, where the total soil-water potential is zero by definition. Soil water
potential results from the forces of gravity, capillary and adsorptive forces (Cuenca,
1989). The soil water potential represents the work (energy) required to overcome
the forces acting on the soil water referenced from a given datum to the point of
interest. In an unsaturated soil energy must be expanded to remove water, so the
soil water potential is negative. Water will move from a wet soil where potential is
near to zero to a dry soil where the potential is lower (negative). In other words a
potential gradient exists which is equivalent to the rate of decrease of potential
energy with distance, and is the driving force causing soil water flow.
Reference state
The reference state has zero potential and is pure water with a flat air-water interface
at the same temperature as water in the soil-water system at atmospheric pressure
and specified elevation.
Potential difference between two soil water systems

The work that one system is capable of doing with reference to work that can be
done by water in the second system, which is the driving force causing movement of
water in the soil water system.
Types of potentials
 gravitational (G)
 pressure (P)
 osmotic or solute potential (Pos)
Gravitational potential
It is the potential due to position of a point relative to some datum.
Osmotic potential
Results from the difference in potential energy between soil solution and pure free
water. Decrease in potential energy of soil water is due to solutes relative to pure
water and therefore is caused by the high concentrations of salts in the soil-water
solution. Increasing the concentration of the salts in the soil water solution will cause
an increase in the attractive force due to salts.
Pressure potential
Potential due to the attraction of soil surface for water, influence of soil pores and the
curvatures of the soil water interface (Capillary tension) in unsaturated soil. Its value
is always negative in unsaturated soils. In saturated soils, capillary forces are zero,
but water below the water table surface is subjected to pressure from the overlying
water (hydrostatic pressure head).
Total potential, T  Z  P  Pos

Thus in unsaturated soil, the total pressure head or hydraulic potential equals the
sum of pressure head, P and gravity elevation Z or G. Hydraulic potential in
unsaturated soils is always negative, becomes zero at the water table and positive
below the water table. The absolute value of the negative pressure potential in
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unsaturated soil is also called tension. Solute potential does not contribute much
driving force for water flow except at the soil-root interface where solute potential
differences are most important for water uptake into roots. In the absence of roots
and when osmotic potential is everywhere equal or negligible, moisture movement is
governed by hydraulic potential (H).
H=Z+P
Measuring soil water potential

Since pressure head is negative (suction) in the unsaturated zone, it can not be
measured with piezometers, but rather with a tensiometer
Principle
A porous ceramic cup filled with water is set in the soil and connected to a pressure-
measuring device (Fig.4). If the water is initially at atmospheric pressure and the soil
moisture pressure is negative, then the water will move through the porous cup in to
the soil until equilibrium is reached. Then  give the soil moisture tension in mm of
water. The pressure measuring devices is usually mercury (Fig.5).
Fig 5: Schematic illustration of a tensiometer (Note Fig. 5 not related to equations

below)
Pressure potential at p or at the soil end:
 P  W ghw   B   mghm
But  B  0
Therefore pressure potential at P becomes:
 P  W ghw   mghm
There are two methods to express the status of water in soil. The most common
method is to determine the amount i.e. the volume or mass of water in the soil
(Gravimetric). The other method is to determine the energy status of water in soil.
Also there are several methods to determine the soil moisture content (Jensen,
1990).
The tensiometer in irrigation measures soil tension, which is directly related to the
amount of soil moisture available to the plants through a vacuum gauge. It is
necessary to measure soil moisture for irrigation scheduling to meet the crop-water
requirements. Where repetitive measurements are needed, other indirect methods
of determining water content are:
 Newton scattering
 Gamma ray attenuation
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Hydraulic conductivity
It is the proportionality constant between potential for flow and velocity of soil water
movement. The potential for flow is defined by the hydraulic gradient, which is
equivalent to the change in total potential, measured over some distance. For the
general case, the hydraulic gradient measured between two points may be
expressed as:
dT T2  T1
i 
ds s2  s1
ds is the distance measured between points 1 and 2.
T1  Z1  P1  Pos1
When the magnitude of the osmotic potential between two points is negligible (Po=0),
the total potential is equal to the sum of the gravitational plus pressure potential and
the above equation can be rewritten in terms of the hydraulic potential, h and
hydraulic gradient, dh/ds
T1  Z1  P1  h1
T2  Z2  P2  h2
dh h2  h1  Z1  P1    Z2  P2 
Therefore:  
ds s2  s1 S2  S1
If v is the equivalent velocity of flow of soil water across the entire cross-sectional
area, that is not just pore area, and then v can be defined as a function of the
hydraulic conductivity and gradient (Darcy’s Law):
dh
v  k
ds
Where k is the hydraulic conductivity. The minus sign is used to determine the
direction of flow with respect to the reference datum and is required since flow is
from the point of higher to lower potential. Water will move from a wet soil where
potential is near to zero to a dry soil where the potential is lower (negative). In other
words a potential gradient exists which is equivalent to the rate of decrease of
potential energy with distance, and is the driving force causing soil water flow. v is
cross the entire cross-sectional area, which is made up of soil and pore space
(Darcian velocity). Water moves only through pore space and the pore water
velocity or seepage velocity, vp under saturated conditions is given as:
v
vp 
N
Where N is the soil porosity. In most applications in irrigation system design, we are
concerned with the Darcian velocity rather than the pore velocity. The pore velocity
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is more applicable in solute transport in groundwater flow. Also in irrigation we are

interested in the value of conductivity under saturated soil conditions. The hydraulic
conductivity should be expressed as a function of volumetric soil-water content, v,
and for a soil water system, Darcy’s law gives:
dh
v   k v
ds
Vw
v  
VT
Where Vw is the volume of water contained or actual and VT is the volume of voids.
0    N (Cuenca, 1989)
For a soil-water plant system in which osmotic potential may rise across the root
membrane, v is given as:
dT
v   k v
ds
There are several laboratory and in situ methods to measure hydraulic conductivity
(Bootstra, 1991; Masch and Deny, 1996; and Trenter, 1998).
Soil moisture
Vadose zone
The unsaturated zone above the water table and contains the crop root zone.
Hygroscopic water
These are particles of water forming a very thin layer on the soil and it is held in
static state with atmospheric water vapour. The water is attached to the soil particles
through loose chemical bonds and can be removed by heat only. This water is not
capable of any movement by gravity or capillary forces and is unavailable to plants.
Capillary water
Water particles, which exist in the pore spaces of soil mass. The particles are
retained in their position by virtue of surface tension against the force of gravity. It
moves slowly than free water and can move in any direction but always in the
direction of the greatest tension and this water is available to plants.
Gravitational water
It is water in an unsaturated zone, which is in excess of hygroscopic and capillary
water or free-water. It drains (moves) downwards under the influence of gravity after
rainfall or irrigation and this water is not available to plants.
% Distribution of water with depth

57%
23%
I.25m root zone
13%
7%
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Field capacity
Water remaining in the soil after removal of gravitational water or the fraction of
moisture remaining after free drainage has stopped. It depends on soil moisture
tension and porosity.
Permanent wilting point

The soil moisture fraction at which the plant leaves wilt permanently and applying
additional water after this stage will not relieve the wilting condition.
Available water
It is the maximum moisture, which can be stored in the soil for plant use, and is the
difference in moisture content of soil between its field capacity and permanent wilting
point within the root zone.
AM =FC –PWP
Saturation = Hygroscopic + capillary
+gravitational water
Field capacity = hygroscopic + capillary

water
Permanent wilting point =

hygroscopic water
Oven dry
conditions
If it is expressed as a depth:
AM   FC  PWP  d
Where d is the root zone.
Soil moisture can be allowed to be depleted below the field capacity but not below
the permanent wilting point before irrigation is applied. The permissible amount of
depletion is referred to as the management allowed deficit, which depends on crop
and stage of growth and is between 40 to 75% of the available moisture (i.e.
permissible level of moisture depletion). In Zimbabwe, 60% is normally used for
design purposes (AGRITEX, 1990), and therefore the readily available moisture
(RAM) is given as:
RAM  0.6 AM  RAM
Consumptive use
The total amount of water required by the plants during the whole vegetation period.
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Volumetric water content present in the root zone at any given state can be
expressed as:
Vw  wAd1  nGs
Where; A = surface area of soil
d = depth of root zone
n = volume of voids to the total volume of soil
G = specific gravity
Ms Mw Va  Vw Vv Vw wAd1  nGs
Gs  , w n  e 
Vs  w Ms V V A d
Vw
d  wd 1  nGs
A
d  wd 1  nGs

d d 1  nGS
w

d d  FC  PWP
w
At a time when the soil moisture is Vw, the soil moisture deficit for the crop will be
Ds   RAM  Vw  ]
Irrigation frequency
Time that should elapse between the beginning of two successive irrigations and
depends on:
 water needs of crop
 Availability of water
 storage capacity of root zone
Shallow rooted crops generally require more frequent irrigation than deep-rooted
crops. It should be noted that because of the capacity of a soil to store water, it is
not necessary to apply water to the soil on a daily basis even though the
consumptive use takes place continuously. The frequency decides that moisture
content is close to optimum at each irrigation event, and the moisture may range
between field capacity and permanent wilting point.
Classification of water potential with reference to irrigation
Hygroscopic water
These are particles of water forming a very thin layer on the soil. It is attached to soil
particle through loose chemical bonds. This water is not capable of any movement
by the force of gravity or capillary forces. It is held in static state with atmospheric
water vapour and can only be removed by heat, and thus this water is unavailable to
plants.
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Capillary water
Water particles which exist in the pore spaces of soil mass. The particles are
retained in their position by the virtue of surface tension against the force of gravity,
and it moves more slowly than the free water and can move in any direction but
always in the direction of the greatest tension, and this water is available to plants.
Gravitational Water
This is the water in the saturated zone, which is in excess of hygroscopic and
capillary water, and prevents the circulation of air in the void spaces. It moves
downwards due to gravity and drains under the influence of gravity soon after rainfall
or irrigation.
Field capacity
Water remaining in the soil after the removal of gravitational water.
Chapter 3: Infiltration
Infiltration
This is the entry of water into the soil profile. The infiltration capacity will determine
the rate that water can be applied to the surface without runoff. The following factors
affect the infiltration rate:
 Soil properties
 Initial soil moisture
 Application rates
 Surface crusting
 Air entrainment
 Permeability
 Cultivation practices
 Climate
 Surface storage
 Salts in soil
 Land levelling
 Sediments in irrigation water
Some of these factors are graphically illustrated in Figs. 1 to 4).
Soil properties
Soil texture affects the rate of infiltration (Fig. 1 and 2). Infiltration rates tend to
increase with coarser soil texture.
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Fig. 1 Relationship between infiltration and soil types
Initial water content

Infiltration is higher for drier initial conditions because of higher hydraulic gradients
and more available storage volume (Fig. 3).
Fig.2: Cumulative infiltration for different soil types
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Application rates
Fig.3
Fig. 3
Salts in Soil
Salts contained in irrigation water accumulate in irrigated soils and may change soil
properties. This accumulation is serious in arid regions where the majority of water is
supplied by irrigation. It is often necessary to overirrigate (leach) periodically to
manage, reduce, or remove soluble salts from the soil in the root zone area.
Rainwater percolating through the soil in humid areas leaches out most soluble
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salts.Some soluble salts in irrigation water, such as potassium nitrate, may benefit
crops directly. Under some conditions, calcium and magnesium have a positive
effect on the physical properties of soil. High concentration of sodium chloride or
sodium sulfate, however, has a detrimental effect. Soil structure breaks down and
eventually soil colloids are dispersed, which reduces tilth and the infiltration rate.
This type of sealing may be noticeable even on some sandy soils.
Surface Storage
Soil surface roughness and slope influence the amount of water which can be
collected on the surface and thus be reserved for infiltration. Runoff begins when the
application rate exceeds the infiltration rate and surface storage becomes filled.
Storage generally is greater on flat, rough, vegetated slopes than on smooth, steep,
bare slopes.
Temperature
Water intake is greater when it rains in the summer than when it rains in the winter.
Apparently, the coefficient of viscosity of water decreases rapidly as temperature
increases and this causes more rapid infiltration (several studies consider its effect
on infiltration negligible).
Sediments in irrigation water

Silty water applied to fine-textured soil generally adds to the surface sealing
problems, because it slows intake and makes the soil difficult to cultivate, but maybe
beneficial to coarse textured soil. Sediments add some plant nutrients, such as
potassium, calcium, and phosphate, to the soil.
Land Levelling
Moving and mixing of soil during land levelling may change infiltration characteristics.
The effects are similar to those of erosion when more or less permeable soil is
uncovered. Earth-moving equipment that is used in land levelling may compact the
soil, which reduces infiltration. Sub soiling and additions of organic material are often
necessary to remedy the problem.
Effects of air entrapment

Air can be trapped in pores instead of it being driven out. This cause an air pressure
build up in advance of wetting front and this will reduce the infiltration rate.
Ponded infiltration
Infiltration is high at the beginning of rain or irrigation, but decreases with time until a
steady state of infiltration. In other words infiltration will approach a constant rate,
which approximates the hydraulic conductivity (permeability) of the saturated soil
(Jensen, 1980). The soil moisture profile under ponded infiltration into a dry soil can
be divided into the five zones shown in Fig. 5 (Singh, 1995). The schematic
illustration of infiltration rate-time relationships for a ponded surface and for
application rate is shown in Fig. 6. This is infiltration into a soil under constant head.
Water will be continuously added at a rate necessary to keep the ponded depth
constant.
 Between point A and B, the infiltration is ponded and infiltration is governed

by the soil factors.
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 CD The infiltration is not ponded and irrigation water is being applied at a

constant rate, R. The infiltration rate is being limited by the application rate of
water, R.
 DB The surface has become ponded and the infiltration capacity becomes
less than the application rate, R and it is after a period of time, tp.
For sprinkler irrigation, application rates should be selected so that surface runoff
does not occur. This is usually insured by determining, the steady state infiltration
capacity and choosing an application rate that is less than or equal to this value.
Water content
Saturated zone
Transition zone
Soil depth
Initial water content
Transmission zone
Wetting zone
Wetting front
Visible point of water penetration into soil
Fig.5 Soil moisture profile under ponded infiltration into a dry soil.
A
Ponded infiltration
D Application rate, R
C
Infiltration rate
Rainfall infiltration
B
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tp Time
INFILTRATION EQUATIONS
Kostiakov equation
The equation has been found to fit field measured infiltration data over a short period
and makes is particularly adaptable to irrigation systems design. The equation is
given as:
I  ct 
Where: I =the depth of infiltration in, cm

t =the time of infiltration, min
c, α =empirical constants
Philip equation
The equation was derived from one dimensional vertical infiltration into a uniform
soil.
I  S p (t ) 0.5  AP t
Where: I =depth of infiltration, cm

t = time if infiltration, min
Sp =captivity constant, cm/min 0.5
Ap =conductivity constant, cm/min (approximates the saturated
hydraulic conductivity of a soil type being analysed.
Soil conservation services equation (SCS)
i  F  aT b  C
Where: i =F =cumulative intake (mm) or depth of infiltrated water

T =time water is in contact with the soil, min
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a, b, C =constants for each family intake, and these constants

are in Table 1.
The intake family depends on soil, and irrigation method. The selection of an intake
family is by running field tests. The measured cumulative infiltration is plotted on the
intake family curves and the curve closest to which the points fall is selected (Fig. 7).
The intake family approximates the level of the long-term intake rate in mm/hr. The
long term infiltration rate is the point on a Kostiakov type infiltration curve at which
the infiltration rate decreases by 5% within a one hour period.
Table 1 Intake family and furrow advance coefficients
Intake A B c f g
family
0.05 0.5334 0.618 7.0 7.16 1.088x10-4
0.10 0.6198 0.661 7.0 7.25 1.251x10-4
0.15 0.7110 0.683 7.0 7.34 1.414x10-4
0.20 0.7772 0.699 7.0 7.43 1.578x10-4
0.25 0.8534 0.711 7.0 7.52 1.741x10-4
0.30 0.9246 0.720 7.0 7.61 1.904x10-4
0.35 0.9957 0.729 7.0 7.70 2.067x10-4
0.40 1.064 0.736 7.0 7.79 2.230x10-4
0.45 1.130 0.742 7.0 7.88 2.393x10-4
0.50 1.196 0.748 7.0 7.97 2.556x10-4
0.60 1.321 0.757 7.0 8.15 2.883x10-4
0.70 1.443 0.766 7.0 8.33 3.209x10-4
0.80 1.560 0.773 7.0 8.50 3.535x10-4
0.90 1.674 0.779 7.0 8.68 3.862x10-4
1.00 1.786 0.785 7.0 8.86 4.188x10-4
1.50 2.284 0.799 7.0 9.76 5.819x10-4
2.00 2.753 0.808 7.0 10.65 7.451x10-4
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Chapter 4: Crop Water Requirements
Crop-water requirements
The amount of water required by a plant during its vegetative period from
germination to maturity. Field, accurate predictions of crop water requirements are
necessary for an efficient use of irrigation water in crop production. For reliable
estimates of water requirements, information is needed on the crop environment
(climate, soil) and physiological behaviour of the crops. This information has to be
stored and processed adequately in order to extract the useful parameters and data
that will serve irrigation scheduling and management. The total amount of water
required and the timing of water applied is governed by:
 prevailing climatic conditions

 Type of crop
 stage of growth
 extent of root-development
 Soil type
Evaporation
It is a process whereby water is converted to water vapour and removed from
evaporating surface. Energy is required to change water molecules from liquid to
vapour and it mainly comes from solar radiation.
Transpiration
This is the vaporization of liquid water contained in plant tissues, mainly through
stomata. Vaporisation occurs within the leaf (in the intercellular spaces) and the
vapour exchange with the atmosphere is controlled by the stomata aperture. Nearly
all the water taken up is lost by transpiration and only a tiny fraction is used within
the plant.
Evapotranspiration
It is the quantity of water transpired by a plant during growth or released by plant
tissue, plus moisture evaporated from the surface of the soil and vegetation.
ETO The rate of evapotranspiration from an extended surface of 8 to 15cm tall

green grass cover of uniform height, actively growing, completely shading the
ground and no short of water (Doorenbos and Pruit, ). However different
crops can be used as ‘reference crops.’
ETcrop The evapotranspiration of a disease-free crop growing in a large field (one or

more hectares) including sufficient water and fertility and achieving full
production potential of the crop under the given growing environment. It
includes evaporation of water from the soil surface, evaporation from the plant
surfaces and transpiration of water through plant tissues into the atmosphere.
Potential evaporation for different crops will not be the same. The relationship
between ETo and ETcrop is given as:
19
ETcrop  k c ETo (1)
Where: kc =crop coefficient.
The values for kc for different crops have been derived from experiments and the
values of the crop coefficient are different for each crop, and also differs with:
 Stage of growth
 Crop density
 Crop characteristics
The kc values can be applied to ETO derived from any methods for the period under
consideration and usually between 10 to 30 days.
Irrigation water requirements

This is the depth of water needed to meet the water loss through ET crop.
I  ETcrop  Pe (2)
Where: Pe =effective precipitation, which is the rainfall that is useful or

usable in any phase of crop production.
The irrigation water requirement for a given period of time can be estimated from the
water balance equation, written from the volume of the root zone and the plant
canopy (Fig. 1):
I  P  WC  WH I  SRI   ET  Wd  SRO  WH O   S (3)
Where: I =irrigation requirement

P =precipitation which falls
Wc =upward water flux into the root zone
WHI, WHO =inflow and outflow through the vertical boundaries
of the root zone respectively
Wd =downward flux out of the root zone
SRI, SRO =inflow and outflow of water in the form of surface
runoff respectively
ET = evapotranspiration
∆S =change in water storage
ET = ET crop
20
ET
SRi SR0
I
Root zone
WHi
WHO
Wc
Wd Water table
Fig. 1: Schematic illustration of a water balance in the root zone
Rewriting equation 3 and grouping losses together:
I  ET  Pe  WC  WH I  SRI  Wd  SR0  WH O  S
Ws
I n
 ET  Pe  WC  Ws  Z (4)
Where: Pe =effective precipitation

Ws =change in soil water storage in the root zone
In =net irrigation water requirements
Z =losses of irrigation water
21
ET  Pe  Wc  Ws In
or I   (5)
 a
Where: In =net irrigation requirement

ηa =efficiency
If no information is available, the following formulae can be used to estimate effective

precipitation for i<5%:
Pe  0.8P  25 , mm for P>75mm/month (6)
Pe  0.6P  10 , mm for p<75mm/month (7)
Where: P = precipitation which falls in mm
Peak irrigation requirement

It is based on drought conditions. During dry periods, some water balance
components in the equation are insignificant and can be neglected. Therefore:
ET
I (8)

In engineering practice, the peak water requirements are usually predicted for 10
days or monthly periods. Ideally, the length of the period should be the same as that
of the irrigation interval.
Chapter 5: Methods to Determine the Reference

Evapotranspiration (ETO)
There are several methods to determine the ETO and these include:
 direct measurements
 metrological equations
 combination methods
 empirical methods
 pan evaporation
Direct measurement
Crops are grown in soil tanks called lysimeters and then there is periodic
determination of the root zone soil moisture and recording interval rainfall, irrigation
or drainage. From the measured data, a water balance is carried out. Such data
derived from field measurements under field conditions is more reliable and can be
used for designing as well as calibrating of empirical formulations.
22
Metrological equations/climatic
Such methods include:
 mass transfer methods
 infrared radiometry
 tracer techniques
 energy balance
Mass transfer methods

These were proposed by Thornthwaite and Holzman (Svehlik, 1939) and are based
on the principle that moisture moves away from evaporating and transpiring surfaces
due to the turbulent mixing of air and vapour pressure gradient. To estimate the
ETO, the wind velocity and air humidity must be measured at least at two elevations
near the evaporating surface.
Energy balance
They are based on energy balance equation, by balancing the incoming energy
against energy used in evaporation, heating air, soil and other energy outgoings.
However, they require expensive instruments and well trained personnel.
Combination methods‘
They are based on energy balance and aerodynamic equations (radiation and
aerodynamics). According to this theory, there is continuous evaporation if:
 there is supply of water to be evaporated or transpired
 there is a supply of energy to provide latent heat of vaporization
 Mechanism for removing the produced vapour into the atmosphere.
If well calibrated, combination methods produce better results that other methods.
One of the most comprehensive method is the Penman’s method (1948), and can be
applied satisfactorily in most climatic regions.
Empirical formulae
They are based on correlation of the reference evapotranspiration (ETO) and
metrological factors. Some few examples are the Thornthwaite and Blaney-Criddle
methods (Svehlik, 1939).
(a) Thornthwaite
This method is temperature based and is easy to apply and mostly use the
mean air temperature and hours of daylight. Most suitable in humid climatic
conditions, otherwise the results are always low (Svehlik, 1977). The reference
evapotranspiration for 30 days is given as:
a
10T 
ETO  16  Ld , mm
 J 
1.514
12  T 
J  1  i 
5
a  0.016 J  0.5
23
Where: T =mean temperature, OC

Ti =long-term average monthly air temperature, OC.
Ld =day time hours in units of 12
J =yearly heat index
(b) Blaney-Criddle
Is satisfactorily used all over the world, but it needs local or regional coefficients
to give better results. The ETcrop is given as:
1.8t  32
ETcrop  25.4kci p mm/month
100
Where: kci =monthly crop coefficient

t =mean monthly temperature, OC
p =monthly % of annual daytime in hours
(c) FAO Modified Blaney-Criddle

The reference evapotranspiration is given as:
ETO  a  b p0.46T  8.13  a  bf
Where: p = % of annual sunshine during the month on a daily basis

Max  Min
T = mean temperature, OC for the month to be
2
considered
a, b = climatic coefficients, (Cuenca, 1989).

The above equation can also be solved graphically (Wilson, 199).
n
a  0.0043RH min   1.41
N
RHmin = minimum relative humidity, %

n = ratio of actual to maximum possible sunshine hours, as a fraction
N
b  0.82  0.0041RH min  1.07 n  N  0.066U 2m

n
 0.006 RH min    0.0006 RH min U 2 m
N
Where: U2m =day time wind speed at 2m height, m/s
The relation between wind speed at 2m and wind speed measured at any height is
given as:
0.2
2
U 2m  U Z  
Z 
Where: Z =wind speed measured at any height Z
24
Or the value of b can be established from tables as a function of RHmin, Uday, n/N,
(Cuenca, 199).
Pan Evaporation method

Evaporation pans provide a measurement of integrated effect of metrological factors
on evaporation under conditions of adequate water supply. The measured pan
evaporation is then related to the potential ETO using pan coefficients:
ETO  k p E pan
The consumptive daily use of the crop (ETcrop) is then obtained by simply multiplying
the measured depth of evaporation in the pan by the pan coefficient and the crop
coefficient:
ETcrop  k p k c E pan
Where: kp = pan coefficient

kc = crop coefficient
Epan = pan evaporation, mm/day
The kp is a function of pan type, pan sitting, relative humidity, wind run and fetch
distance. The kp can be determined from the following regression equation:
k p  0.475  0.24  10 3 U 2 m  0.00516 RH mean  0.00118d  0.16  10 4 RH mean   0.101  10 5 d 2

2
 0.8  10 8 RH mean  U 2 m  1  10 8 RH mean  d

2 2
Where: d = fetch distance of the green crop

U2m = wind speed at a height of 2m, km/day
RHmean = mean relative humidity, %
The relationship between the fetch distance and the green crop is shown in Fig.1.
This method is very easy to apply and is mostly used by farmers to schedule their
frequency of irrigation. The method can be reliable depending on the maintenance
of the evaporation site (Svehlik, 1977). The type of the pan has to be known
because the value of kp is a function of the pan type.
25
wind direction
wind direction
pan pan
green crop
dry surface
green crop dry surface
fetch fetch
Fig. 1 The relationship between the fetch distance and the green crop
Applicability of methods
Some methods produce good results for one location and unsatisfactory ones for the
other. It has been found that no single method using meteorological data is
universally adequate under all climatic conditions. However, as result of an expert
Consultation of (FAO, 1990), the FAO Modified Penman’s method is now
recommended as the standard method for the definition and computation of the
reference evapotranspiration (ETo), All methods before use for planning and deign
of irrigation projects need local or regional calibration.
Chapter 6: Penman’s Method
It applies the radiation balance plus aerodynamic approach to estimate ETo.

Penman’s (1948) method uses the radiation balance to indicate part of energy
available for evaporation and the aerodynamic term to quantify the influence of
advection.
The original equation of Penman is given as (Svehlik, 1977):
H  E a
ETO  (1)

Where: ∆H =net radiation

Ea =aerodynamic term
∆ =slope of the saturation vapour pressure curve at mean
temperature
26
 =psychrometric constant: a relation between vapour pressure

deficit and wet bulb depression
Above equation can be written as:
ETO 

Rn  G    f u e , mm/day
 
radiation balance aerodynamic term

=weighting function for elevation and temperature

∆ =slope of saturation vapour pressure versus temperature curve

 = latent heat of vaporisation (2.45 MJ/kg)
Rn =net radiation, mm/day
Rn =soil heat flux + evaporation + air heat =G + E +H
G =soil heat flux, if soil is heating
f (u) = wind function
Rs = incoming short wave (solar) radiation
Rb =net outgoing long wave (terrestrial) radiation
α =coefficient of albedo, α =0.25 for FAO Modified Penman
Δe =vapour pressure deficit, mb
FAO Modified Penman Method

Application of the original Penman method revealed that it is particularly applicable
to cool limited regions as in England and also in hot and semi-arid regions.
Doorenbos et al (1984) slightly modified the equation. The modified equation uses
mean daily climatic conditions since day and night time weather conditions
considerably affect the level of evaporation. It was developed by comparing
Lysimeter- measured evaporation from locations world-wide. Statistical analysis was
performed to determine which additional metrological parameters would reduce the
error between measured and estimated evapotranspiration.
   
ETO  c  Rn  f u e mm/day
    
Or
ETO  cRn  1    f u es  ea 
Where: ω= weighting function for the effect of radiation on ETo at

different elevation and temperature (Agritex).
1-ω = weighting factor for the effect of wind and humidity on ETo at
different temperature and altitudes.
c = adjustment factor to compensate for the effect of day and night
weather conditions
27
The adjustment factor, c is a function of:

 Relative humidity maximum, RHmax
 day to night wind run ratio, Uday/Unight
 day time wind speed at 2m, U2day
 Solar radiation, Rs
Note: In the FAO Penman-Monteith equation, radiation expressed in MJ m-2 day-1

is converted to equivalent evaporation in mm day-1 by using a conversion factor
equal to the inverse of the latent heat of vaporization (1/λ = 0.408):
Equivalent evaporation [mm day−1] = 0.408 x Radiation [MJ m−2 day−1]
Source: FAO, 1998. Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 56, Crop Evapotranspiration
Computation of the input parameters
The adjustment factor, c

The adjustment factor can be established from tables of or can be computed from
(Cuenca, 1989):
U
c  0.68  0.0028RH max  0.018Rs  0.068U 2 day  0.013 day 
U night
 U day 
0.0097U 2 day    0.43  10  4 RH max Rs U 2 day 
U 
 night 
Where: U2day =mean day time wind speed at 2m
Wind function, f(u)

The wind function at a wind speed height of 2m is given as:
28
 U 
f u   0.271  2m 
 100 
and
0.2
2
U 2m  UZ  
Z 
Vapour pressure deficit, ∆
e  es  ea
Where: es = saturation vapour pressure, mb

ea = mean actual vapour pressure of air, mb
es RH mean
ea 
100
Where: RHmean = mean relative humidity
The following expressions for es can be used (Svehlik, 1982).
es  6.1078e x , mb (1mb = 0.1 kPa)
es  4.5812e x , mmHg

es  33.8639 0.00738Tmean  0.8072  0.0000191.8Tmean  48  0.001316
8

19.8374Tmean  0.00831Tmean
2
x
Tmean  273.16
Where: Tmean = mean air temperature in oC
Values of saturation vapour, es are also given in tables as a function of Tmean.
Net radiation, Rn
Rn  1   Rs  Rb , mm/day
 n
Rs   0.35  0.61  Rso , mm/day
 N
Where: Rs = total daily clear sky radiation at the surface of earth, and can
be found in tables as function of latitude.
29
N = maximum possible sunshine hours (can be found from tables

as function of latitude)
n = actual sunshine hours
Rbo = net outgoing clear sky-long wave radiation
 R 
Rb  a s  b Rbo
 Rso 


n
N



Rb  0.9  0.1 0.34  0.44es   Tmean 
0.5 4

Where: a, b = empirical constants
es = saturation vapour pressure.
Rbo  
T 4
mx  Tmin
4

2
Where: ε = emissivity of the surface
δ = Boltzmann constant (4.89995x10-3J/m2Kd
O
K = C+273
  a1  b1 es 0.5
Or 
  0.02  0.261exp  7.77  10 4 Tmean 2 
Slope of saturation, ∆ (mb/oC)
  20.00738Tnean  0.8072  0.00116

7
Where: Tmean = mean temperature of air over a period of interest, oC
Psychrometric constant,  mb/oC
e s  ea
 
Tdry  Twet
Chapter 7: Surface Irrigation
1 Types of irrigation
 Surface
 Overhead
 Trickle
30
2 Surface irrigation
It uses open channel flow to spread water over the field and the driving force is
gravity. Abundant water supplies are required with a smaller initial investment.
3 Factors affecting surface irrigation

 Slope
 Roughness of field
 depth of water to be applied
 length of run and time required
 Field resistance to erosion
4 Types of surface irrigation

There are mainly two types of surface irrigation namely, flood and furrow.
4.1 Flood irrigation

In flood irrigation, water is applied by flooding a smooth and flat land and this type of
irrigation can be divided into the following categories:
 Free flooding
 Border strip
 Check
 Basin
4.1 Free flooding

Water is applied from field ditches without any check or guidance to the flow
and on the other side of the field, a drain is provided to take away excess
water. A schematic illustration is shown in Fig. 1.
4.1.1 Advantages
 Cheap
 Suitable where supply of water is plenty
 irregular surface field
4.1.2 Disadvantages
 No perfect control of flow and therefore low efficiency
 Flow sometimes rapid to fulfil soil moisture deficiency
 Sometimes water is retained on the field for a very long time and
consequently the water is lost to infiltration
31
Lateral
main ditch or drain
15 to 45m
Lateral
Fig. 1 Schematic illustration of free flooding
4.2 Furrow irrigation

Furrow irrigation can be divided into the following groups:
 Deep furrows
 Corrugations (small furrows)
 Furrows
Advantages: Furrows provide better on-farm water management flexibility under

many surface irrigation conditions. The discharge per unit width of the field is
substantially reduced and topographical variations can be more severe. A smaller
wetted area reduces evaporation losses. Furrows provide the irrigator more
opportunity to manage irrigations toward higher efficiencies as field conditions
change for each irrigation throughout a season. This is not to say, however, that
furrow irrigation enjoys higher application efficiencies than borders and basins.
Disadvantages of furrow irrigation: These may include: (1) an accumulation of

salinity between furrows; (2) an increased level of tailwater losses; (3) the difficulty of
moving farm equipment across the furrows; (4) the added expense and time to make
extra tillage practice (furrow construction); (5) an increase in the erosive potential of
the flow; (6) a higher commitment of labour to operate efficiently; and (7) generally
furrow systems are more difficult to automate, particularly with regard to regulating
an equal discharge in each furrow.
4.3 Border strip

The field is divided into number of strips and the strips are separated by low
embankments or levees.
32
Disadvantages of border irrigation

 smooth topography or deep soils are required for adequate levelling
 levelling costs may be high
 growing crops may be damaged
 extra tillage is required for crusting soils
 a light irrigation less than 25mm is difficult to apply
Types of borders
Main types of borders include level and graded borders.
Level Borders
 water application is accomplished by ponding
 no slopes in the direction of flow
 closed at the ends to retain water
 irrigation stream large enough to cover entire strip
 stream turned off when desired volume has been applied
Adaptability of level borders

 no crop restrictions
 soils with moderate to low intake rate, an approximate intake family of < 2.
This implies that they are suitable to soils with low intake rates (The intake
family approximates the level of the long-term intake rate in mm/hr)
 smooth gentle and uniform gentle slopes
Advantages of low level borders

 different crops in sequence can be grown without changes in design
 high application efficiency
 less loss due to runoff and deep percolation
 maximum use of rainfall
 leaching operations made easier
 less labour intensive and less skilled labour required
 ideally suitable to mechanisation
Limitations
 accurate levelling
Design equations
The net infiltration time, Tn or the opportunity time = time required for an intake of
selected depth, given by:
1
 F  C  b
Tn   n  , min
 a 
Where: Fn = in = net application desired (net application depth, mm)
33
Tt
 fraction advance ratio and is a function of the distribution pattern
Tn
efficiency
Where: Tt =advance time

Tn =net infiltration time or opportunity time
The basin length, L is given as:
6  10 4 Qu Tt
L , m
aTt 
b
 C  1798n  8 Qu  16 Tt 16
3 9 3
1 b
Qu = unit flow, Qu = Q/width of border, m3/s.m

Time to cut-off, Tco is the time required to put the gross depth of irrigation (ig or Fg)
in L
Tco 
600Qu ea ed
Where: ea is the application efficiency and ed is the distribution pattern

efficiency.
When the application efficiency, ea= 100%, all water turned in the basin is infiltrated,
and the above equation becomes:
in L
Tco 
600Qu ed
H ridge  1.25  d max
3 9 3
d max  2250n 8 Qu Tco
16 16 , mm
If Tt >Tco, then Tco = Tt in the above equation.
Irrigation efficiencies
Extraction efficiency , ex = volume delivered to distribution
volume extracted from supply
Conveyance efficiency, ec = volume delivered to application devices

volume delivered to distribution
Application efficiency, ea = volume delivered to application surface

volume delivered to application devices
34
Distribution pattern efficiency ed = volume in crop root zone

volume delivered to application surface
Irrigation system efficiency, es = volume stored in crop root zone

es  ex ec ea ed  i.e. overall efficiency indicates the efficiency for the complete
system from water supply to the field.
Land levelling for surface irrigation
1 The importance of land preparations
Levelling, smoothing and shaping the field surface is as important to the surface
system as the design of laterals, manifolds, risers and outlets is for sprinkler or trickle
irrigation systems. It is a process for ensuring that the depths and discharge
variations over the field are relatively uniform and, as a result, that water distributions
in the root zone are also uniform. These field operations are required nearly every
cropping season, particularly where substantial cultivation following harvest disrupts
the field surface. The preparation of the field surface for conveyance and distribution
of irrigation water is as important to efficient surface irrigation as any other single
management practice the farmer employs.
There are perhaps two land levelling philosophies: (1) to provide a slope which fits a
water supply; and (2) to level the field to its best condition with minimal earth
movement and then vary the water supply for the field condition. The second
philosophy is generally the most feasible. Because land levelling is expensive and
large earth movements may leave significant areas of the field without fertile topsoil,
this second philosophy is also generally the most economic approach.
Land levelling always improves the efficiency of water, labour and energy resources
utilization. The levelling operation, however, can be the most intensively disruptive
cultural practice applied to the field and several factors should be considered before
implementing a land levelling project. Major topographical changes will nearly always
reduce crop production in the cut areas until fertility can be replaced. Similarly,
equipment traffic can so compact or pulverize the soil that water penetration is a
major problem for some time. The farmer has many activities which contribute to his
productivity and therefore require his skill and labour. The irrigation system should
be designed with him (or her) in mind. A field levelled to high standards is generally
more easily irrigated than one where undulations require special attention.
New equipment is continually being introduced which provides the capability for
more precise land levelling operations. One of the most significant advances has
been the adaptation of laser control in land levelling equipment. The equipment has
35
made level basin irrigation particularly attractive since the final field grade can be
very precise. Comparisons with less precise techniques have clearly shown that
laser-levelled fields achieve better irrigation and production performance.
Nevertheless, for most irrigated agriculture, laser-controlled precision is unfeasible
because of the high cost of such equipment unless a large number of farmers form a
cooperative or a government programme is started with subsidized land levelling as
one component in an effort to improve farm production.
2 Small-scale land levelling
Most small-scale farming operations rely on animal power or small mechanized

equipment which an individual can own and operate. As the irrigator waters his fields
season after season he is able to observe the locations of high and low spots on the
field. Then as he prepares the fields between plantings, he tries to move soil from
the high spots to the low ones. Over a period of several years individual fields are
smoothed enough to be watered fairly well.
3 Traditional engineering approach
3.1 Initial considerations
Initially, the field should be studied and an overall irrigation strategy identified. Once
accomplished, the land levelling programme derived from traditional engineering
practice can be initiated. The first step is to establish the plane of the field. This
involves placing a reference grid on the field, surveying the existing topography of
the field by establishing the elevations of the grid points, and calculating the new
field topography by adjusting the grid elevations to correspond to the desirable
plane. This is the engineering phase of the land levelling procedure. Once the
surface design has been determined, a land levelling operation begins. This is
typically a private contractor utilizing his equipment to move the earth into the new
position on the field, and the adequacy of the land levelling is dependent on the skill
of the equipment operator.
3.2 Engineering phase
Surveying and mapping the field involves setting a uniform grid system on the field
and establishing the field topography. This need not be a complicated procedure.
The grid spacing can be set at convenient lengths so long as it is square e.g., 10 m x
10 m for small fields and 30 x 30 m for large fields). An initial decision as to the
method of surface irrigation will dictate field slope. Basins are designed to be level in
both field directions. Borders are similar in having zero cross-slope, but may have
advance slopes of up to 2 or 3 percent, depending on crop and soil conditions.
Furrow irrigation systems work well with advance slopes up to 1 to 3 percent and
cross-slopes of 0.5 to 1.5 percent. If the average natural slopes are greater than
these ranges, terraces or benches should be planned.
36
The work should be checked and fall within the 10 cm limits before it is accepted and
reimbursed. One method of reducing cut volumes, and therefore the cost, is to
subdivide the field into terraces or benches. The topography of surface irrigated
fields, even after levelling, is not a static feature of the land. Year to year variations in
tillage operations disturb the surface layers as well as shift their lateral position. The
loose soils may settle differently depending upon equipment travel or depths of
irrigation water applied. Consequently, a major land levelling operation will correct
the macro-topographical problems but annual levelling or planning is needed to
maintain the field surface by correcting micro-topographical variations.
Laser land levelling
The advent of the laser-controlled land levelling equipment has marked one of the
most significant advances in surface irrigation technology. One such system is
shown in Figure 69. It has four essential elements: (1) the laser emitter; (2) the laser
sensor; (3) the electronic and hydraulic control system; and (4) the tractor and
grading implement.
Rotating beam effectively creates a plane of laser light above the field which can be
used as the levelling reference rather than the elevation survey at discrete grid
points in conventional land levelling techniques. The distance between the laser
beam and the earth surface is defined such that deviations from this distance
become the cuts and fills. With laser systems, there is little or no need for the
exhaustive engineering calculations of the conventional approach.
4 Field measurements
The evaluation of surface irrigation at the field level is an important aspect of both
management and design. Field measurements are necessary to characterize the
irrigation system in terms of its most important parameters, to identify problems in its
function, and to develop alternative means for improving the system.
37
System characterization necessitates a series of basic field measurements before,

during, and after the irrigation. The objectives of the evaluation will dictate whether
the field measurements are comprehensive or are simplified for special purposes. In
some cases, there are alternative methodologies and equipment for accomplishing
the same ends. The selection provided herein is based on a limited selection found
to be most useful during numerous field evaluations and, in some measure, the
practicality in the international sense.
Five classes of field measurements are presented: (1) field topography and
configuration; (2) water requirements; (3) infiltration; (4) flow measurement; and (5)
irrigation phases.
4.1 Field topography and configuration: requires that a surveying instrument be used
to measure elevations of the principal field boundaries (including dykes if present),
the elevation of the water supply inlet (an invert and likely maximum water surface
elevation), and the elevations of the surface and subsurface drainage system if
possible. These measurements need not be comprehensive as one would expect for
a land levelling project. Usually one to three lines of stakes placed 20-30 metres
apart or such that 5-10 points are measured along the expected flow line will be
sufficient. For example, a border or basin would require at most three stake lines, a
furrow system as little as one, depending on the uniformity of the topography. The
survey should provide (1) the field slope and its uniformity in the direction of flow and
normal to it; (2) the slope and area of the field; and (3) a reference system in the field
establishing distance and elevation changes.
Determining water requirements: The soil moisture: The soil moisture status
requires periodic measurements in the field, from which one can project when the
next irrigation should occur and what depth of water should be applied. Conversely,
such data can indicate how much has been applied and its uniformity over the field.
As noted in the previous subsections, bulk density, field capacity and the permanent
wilting point are also needed.
An example problem on soil moisture
A cylindrical soil sample 10 cm in diameter and 10 cm long has been carefully taken
so that negligible compaction has occurred. It was weighed before oven drying (1284
grammes) and after (1151 g). What soil parameters can be identified?
1. Bulk Density:
 b = Wb / V (12)
= 1151 g / [(3.14 * (10 cm)2/4) * 10 cm] = 1.466 g/cm3
2. Dry Weight Moisture Fraction:
(5)
= (1284 g / 1151 g) / 1151 g = 0.116
38
3. Volumetric Moisture Content:
= (1.466 g / 1..0 g/cm3) * 0.116 = 0.170 (6)
4. Water Content Expressed as a Depth:
Depth of Water =  * Depth of Soil

= 0.17 cm of water per cm of soil.
Now suppose the soil sample is carefully rewetted to the saturation point, utilizing
314 9 of water to do so. What other soil properties are identified?
5. Porosity:
 = Vp / V (1)
= = 0.40
6. Initial Soil Saturation:
S =  /  = 0.170 / 0.40 = 0.425 (4)
7. Specific Weight of the Soil Particles:
 S =  b / (1 -  ) = 1.466 / 0.60 = 2.44 g/cm3 (7)
Finally, suppose the sample is allowed to drain under conditions where it does not
dry due to evaporation until the water in the sample is under a negative pressure of -
1/3 atm so that one can assume it is at field capacity. The water draining from the
sample was collected and weighed 160 g. What other evaluations are now possible?
8. Field Capacity Volumetric Moisture Content:
 fc =  b Wfc /  w (8)
9. Soil Moisture Depletion at the Time of Sampling:
SMD = ( fc -  i)* RD = (0.196 - 0.170) RD = 0.026 RD (11)
If the root depth is 100 cm,
SMD = 2.6 cm
4.2 Determining water requirements: Important soil characteristics in irrigated
39
agriculture include: (1) the water-holding or storage capacity of the soil; (2) the
permeability of the soil to the flow of water and air; (3) the physical features of the
soil like the organic matter content, depth, texture and structure; and (4) the soil's
chemical properties such as the concentration of soluble salts, nutrients and trace
elements.
4.3 Infiltration: Infiltration is the most important process in surface irrigation. It

essentially controls the amount of water entering the soil reservoir, as well as the
advance and recession of the overland flow. Four commonly employed techniques
for measuring infiltration are noted here. These are (1) cylinder infiltrometers; (2)
ponding; (3) blocked recirculating infiltrometers; and (4) a deduction of infiltration
from evaluation of the advance phase and the tailwater hydrograph.
4.4 Flow measurement: For on-farm monitoring and evaluation flumes and weirs are
usually the most helpful. Flumes include the Parshall flume, the H-flume, the
cutthroat flume, the V-notch flume and the trapezoidal flume. Weirs might include
rectangular, triangular and Cipolletti sharp-crested weirs and various broad-crested
weirs.
4.5 Field evaluation: The phases of a surface irrigation event were listed previously:
Advance phase; Ponding phase or wetting; Depletion phase and Recession phase.
A profilometer is used for determining the cross-sections of furrows.
Chapter 8: Border irrigation
The field is divided into a number of strips and the strips are separated by low
embankments or levees (borders). Water is diverted from the field channel into a
strip and the discharge into the field is controlled by gates. When the desired
volume of water has been delivered to the strip, the inflow is turned off (cut-off). The
water not infiltrated is temporarily stored on the ground surface and moves down the
strip to complete the irrigation. The water flows slowly towards lower end, wetting
the soil as it advances. Any excess water is removed by collector drains and the
flow rate must be such that the desired volume of water applied to the strip should be
equal or slightly less that the amount required. The surface between two
embankments should be essentially level. This helps in covering the entire width of
land strip. The average slope ranges from 0.002 to 0.004 (<5%) with a discharge of
0.015 to 0.3 m3/s depending on soil type. The schematic illustration of a border strip
is shown in Fig.1.
40
This type of irrigation is suitable to a soil which is sufficiently pervious. It is suitable

for all crops, most soil and best for moderate low to moderately high intake rate. It is
rarely used on coarse sand soil and soils of extremely low intake rate.
Advantages
 Field application efficiency is good
 Labour requirements are low
 Width of strip can be designed to accommodate farm machinery
Disadvantages of border irrigation

 smooth topography or deep soils are required for adequate levelling
 levelling costs may be high
 growing crops may be damaged
 extra tillage is required for crusting soils
 a light irrigation less than 25mm is difficult to apply
Collector drain
1.5 to 15m
Field channel
90 to 400m
Low embankments
Fig.1: The schematic illustration of a border strip
Types of borders
Main types of borders include level and graded borders.
Level Borders
 water application is accomplished by ponding

 no slopes in the direction of flow
 closed at the ends to retain water
 irrigation stream large enough to cover entire strip
 stream turned off when desired volume has been applied
Adaptability of level borders

 no crop restrictions
41
 soils with moderate to low intake rate, an approximate intake family of < 2.
This implies that they are suitable to soils with low intake rates (The intake
family approximates the level of the long-term intake rate in mm/hr)
 smooth gentle and uniform gentles slopes
Advantages of low level borders

 different crops in sequence can be grown without changes in design
 less loss due to runoff and deep percolation
 maximum use of rainfall
 leaching operations made easier
 less labour intensive and less skilled labour required
 ideally suitable to mechanisation
Limitations
 accurate levelling
Design equations
The net infiltration time, Tn or the opportunity time required for an intake of selected
depth, is given by:
1
 F  C  b
Tn   n  , min
 a 
Where: Fn = in = net application desired (net application depth, mm)
Tt
 fraction advance ratio and is a function of the distribution pattern
Tn
efficiency and the values are given in Table 1 or can be determined from
graphs (USDA-SCS, 1974).
Where: Tt =advance time

Tn =net infiltration time or opportunity time
Table 1: Ratio of Tt and Tn for various distribution efficiency values
Distribution Ratio (Tt/Tn)

pattern efficiency
95 0.16
90 0.28
85 0.40
80 0.58
75 0.80
70 1.08
65 1.45
42
60 1.90
55 2.45
50 3.20
The basin length, L is given as:
6  10 4 Qu Tt
L , m
aTt 
b
 C  1798n  8 Qu  16 Tt 16
3 9 3
1 b
Qu =unit flow, Qu =Q/width of border, m3/s.m

Time to cut-off, Tco is the time required to put the gross depth of irrigation (ig or Fg)
in L
Tco 
600Qu ea ed
Where: ea is the application efficiency and ed is the distribution pattern efficiency.

When the application efficiency, ea= 100%, all water turned in the basin is infiltrated,
and the above equation becomes:
in L
Tco 
600Qu ed
H ridge  1.25  d max
3 9 3
d max  2250n 8 Qu Tco
16 16 , mm
If Tt >Tco, then Tco = Tt in the above equation.
Irrigation efficiencies
Extraction efficiency , ex = volume delivered to distribution
Conveyance efficiency, ec = volume delivered to application devises

volume delivered to distribution
Application efficiency, ea = volume delivered to application surface

volume delivered to application devices
Distribution pattern efficiency ed = volume in crop root zone

volume delivered to application surface
Irrigation system efficiency, es = volume stored in crop root zone

43
es  ex ec ea ed  i.e. overall efficiency indicates the efficiency for the complete
system from water supply to the field.
Chapter 9: Graded Borders
 The border has a slope in the direction of irrigation and the ends are not
usually closed (blocked).
 The stream of water is applied in time equal to, or slightly less than that
needed by the soil to absorb the net amount required.
 When the desired volume of water has been delivered on to the strip, the
stream is turned off. The water temporarily stored on the ground surface then
moves on down the strip and completes the irrigation.
Adaptability
 Suitable for close growing crops
 Most soils (intake family of 0.5 to 3)
 Not suitable for coarse sand soils of low intake
 Slope <0.005
Advantages
 Field application good
 Labour requirement low
 Use of machinery
 Means of removal of excess surface water
Limitations
 Elimination of cross slope
 Smooth topography required
 Skilled irrigators
Design equations
High gradient borders S > 0.004m/m
Qu 0.2 n1.2

Trl  , min
120S 1.6
Where: Trl = recession lag time, min

Qu = unit flow, m2/m
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient
S = surface slope, m/m
44
The recession lag time is the time between cut-off of water at the head of the field
and the disappearance of water at the head of the field. The recession lag time for
high gradient border (steeper slopes) may be ignored because flow reaches normal
depth quickly. The manning’s roughness coefficient varies with crops, stage of crop
growth and degree of roughness of the soil surface. Normally a high value is used
for maximum flow and a low value for minimum flow rate.
Low graded borders S < 0.004
Qu 0.2 n1.2

Trl  , min
0.0094nQu 
0.175 1.6
 
120 S  
 Tn 0.88 S 0.5 
Where; Tn = net infiltration time, min
For low gradient borders, the depth of flow at the head of border is less that the
normal depth, i.e. hydraulic slope required in Manning’s equation is no longer equal
to the surface slope as in the case of uniform flow at normal depth.
And Tco  Tn  Trl
0.00167in L
Qu  , m2/sec
Tn  Trl ed
Where: in = net depth of irrigation, mm

L = length of border, m
ed = distribution pattern efficiency, %.
The distribution pattern efficiency accounts for water loss due to deep percolation. It
is the ratio of the desired net depth of application to the gross application depth
(Distribution pattern efficiency (ratio of the volume in crop root zone to the volume
delivered to application surface). Greater efficiencies can be expected on gentle
slopes than on steep slopes and in soils that have a moderate to moderately high
intake rate, than on soils that have either a low or extremely high intake rate. Some
of the roughness coefficients, n used in border irrigation are given in Table 1.
Table 1: Roughness coefficients, n
Type of surface n
Smooth, bare soil surfaces non cultivated, oil mulch-treated citrus 0.04
Small grain, drill rows parallel to border strip 0.1
Alfalfa, mint, broadcast small grain and similar crops 0.15
Dense sod crops, small grain with drill rows across the border 0.25
45
Design limitations
Design inflow rate, depth of flow, border slope and length should not exceed
established limitations to avoid erosion and other hydraulic constraints, and the final
design should be checked.
The depth at the head of the high gradient border at normal depth and uniform flow
is computed as ( d hhg ):
d hhg  1000Qu  n0.6 S 0.3 ,

0.6
mm for S > 0.004
and for a low gradient border is given as:
d hlg  2454Trl  Qu 0.5625n 0.375

0.1875
mm for S < 0.004
The depth of flow at the head of the border strip must not exceed the border ridge
height, less an allowance for freeboard (  0.25d hhg ).
For non-sod forming crops (alfalfa and small grains), the unit maximum flow rate is
given as:

Qu max  1.765  10 4 S o0.75  , m2/s
and for well established dense sod crops, pasture and grass, the unit maximum flow
rate is given as:

Qu max  3.53  10 4 S o0.75  m2/s
Maximum slope:
The unit minimum flow is given as:
Qu min  5.95  10 6 LSo0.5 n 1 m2/s
2
 n in 
S o max   
 0.0117ed Tn  Trl  
The maximum length is limited by the maximum unit flow rate (Qu) and erosion (
Lmax  400m ).
For low intake soils and low slopes:
Qu max ed Tn  Trl 

Lmax 
0.00167in
Chapter 10: Design of Borders with no Runoff
46
Higher irrigation efficiencies are achieved and surface runoff is eliminated by:
 By blocking the end and reducing inflow rate
 Extending border length and impounding the runoff on the length extensions.
Border extensions
The border extension length, Le is computed from:
in
Le  ,m
1000S o
Where: Le = length extension and is equivalent to the length adequately

irrigated by the volume of run-off from an open ended border.
in = desired net application depth
or
1 e 
Le   ri rn L ,m
 100 
Where: Le = allowable length extensions with end blocks

e = distribution pattern efficiency, %
ri, rn = factors that express the effect of intake and roughness on
runoff (Table 1)
L = normal design length, m
Table 1: Intake and roughness factors for estimating potential runoff
Intake family Intake factor, Manning Roughness factor,

(dimensionless) coefficient (dimensionless)
(ri) (n) (rn)
0.3 0.90 0.10 0.80

0.5 0.80 0.15 0.75
1.0 0.70 0.20 0.70
1.5 0.65 0.25 0.65
2.0 0.60
3.0 0.50
4.0 0.40
Inflow reduction
If the length of the field is fixed, extensions are not possible. The runoff is eliminated
by use of end blocks and reducing the incoming flow.
47
Qu
Q ue 
 e 
i  rn rn 1  d 
 100 
Where: Que = inflow rate per unit width end block, m2/s (reduced inflow rate)
Qu = design inflow rate, m2/s
Application of the above equations assume that reduction of the inflow stream size to
Que will not result in a significant change in recession time, Trl.
Chapter 11: Furrow irrigation

These are small evenly, shallow channels which are installed down or across the
slope of the field to be irrigated. They are parabolic or trapezoidal in shape with a
side slope of 1: 1 to 2. Water is turned in at the high end and conveyed in small
channels to the vicinity of plants or on bends between the channels. Wetting is done
only on a part of the field. Crops are grown in rows and the water just flows through
the furrow or small ditches. Inside of the field or main ditch, small openings are
made and through the openings water flow into one or more furrows (Fig. 2). Small
adjustable gates may be provided to control the supply of water from the field ditch to
the furrows. They are suitable to:
 most crops except rice which is ponded

 Suitable to medium to moderately fine textured soils of also to soils with a
relatively high holding moisture capacity (fine textured soils).
A typical cross-section of a furrow is shown in Fig.1.
Design parameters
 Length of furrow 800m for field crops and 30m for gardens
 Spacing of furrow 1-2m apart
 Depth of furrow 20-30cm
 Slope of furrow 0.002 to 0.01
67
Or S max 
P30 1.30
Where: P30 =30 minute rainfall in mm on a 2 yr frequency
Advantages
 moderate to high application efficiency
 different crops can be grown in a sequence without major changes in the
design layout
 initial capital investment low
48
 suitable for soils which form crust, because water moves laterally under the
surface
Limitations
 erosion is hazardous on steep slopes
 labour requirements for maintenance of furrows
 lateral spread of water may not be adequate to wet entire soil in coarse
textures soils
 land leveling required to obtain uniform furrows
h=100-
150mm
60mm
Fig. 1 Typical cross-section of furrow
Main ditch
Plants Plants Plants
Furrows
Fig.2 A profile of furrow irrigation
Design equations
Maximum velocities for different soil types:
49
vmax = 0.15m/s for erosive soils

vmax = 0.18m/s for less erosive soils
n = 0.04
Average intake over the length of the furrow is given by:
iavg 
1
Vin  Vout  Vs 
LP
Where: i = equivalent depth infiltrated over the wetted surface area of field, mm
L = length of channel, m
P = adjusted wetted perimeter, m
Vm = inflow volume. litres
Vout = outflow volume, litres
Vs = volume of water in storage, litres
The wetted perimeter is adjusted to increase by an empirical constant to account for

horizontal intake and P < W = furrow spacing
0.425
 Qn 
P  0.265 0.5   0.227 , m
S 
Where: S = ground slope

Q = inflow into the furrow (ℓ/s)
n  0.04 for furrows
L  
0.735
 Qn 
Vs  2.947 0.5   0.0217
0.305  S  
The required infiltration depth must be expressed as an equivalent depth over the
total field area in the furrow system and is given as

i  at   c
b
WP , mm (derived from i  at   c )
b
Where: W = furrow spacing, m
Advance time for stream water moving down the furrow is given by:
x  gx 
Tt  exp  0.5  , min
f  QS 
Where: x = distance down the furrow, m

f, g = advance coefficients
gx

QS 0.5
50
The infiltration opportunity time (time water is available for infiltration), Tn is given as:
Tn  TCO  Tt  Trl , min

Time to cut-off, Tco should be adequate to infiltrate a satisfactory depth of water over
the length of the furrow without causing excessive deep percolation.
TCO  Tt  Tn  Trl , min
This is the time to advance to the end of the furrow plus required infiltration time less
recession time. The recession lag time, Trl =0 for open-ended gradient furrows and
therefore the above equation becomes:
TCO  Tt  Tn
The net infiltration opportunity time, Tn is given as:
1
 W   b
 in  P   C 
Tn      , min
 a 
 
 
The average infiltration opportunity time over distance x down the furrow is given by:
TO  x  TCO 
0.0929
  1exp    1
 0.305 
2
f x  
 x 
For the entire furrow:
T0 x  T0 L ; and x = L in the above equation
iavg is determined by substituting in the above equation T0-L for t

iavg  aT0 L   c
b
WP
Gross depth of application ig is given as:
 
 i 
ig   n 
 ed 
 
 100 
The gross application depth is a function of field geometry
51
60QTCO
ig 
WL
Due to excessive design application, there will be some surface runoff losses and
deep percolation losses. Losses due to surface runoff depth, dro are given as:
d ro  i g  iavg
The losses due to deep percolations are given as:
d p  iavg  in
i.e
i g  in  d p  d ro
losses losses
in
Distribution pattern efficiency = 100 , %
ig
Furrows with cut-back systems

Once the water reaches the end of the furrow, the stream size at the head of the
furrow is reduced. The Tcut back will be equal to the advance time, Tt and this is
optional to the designer.
Tcutback  Tt
QCB  Q
2
The average infiltration opportunity time, Tavg:
Tavg 
0.0929
2
  1exp    1
 0.305 
fxL  
 L 
Average depth of infiltration:

iavg  aTCO  Tavg   c
b
P W
cut back

 aTavg   c
b
 P W P
1 2
ig 
60
QTt   QCB Tn 
WL
52
0.425
Q 
 2 n
PCB  0.265 0.5   0.227
S 
 
Chapter 12: Overhead Irrigation (SPRINKLER)
OVERHEAD IRRIGATION
This method attempts to simulate natural rainfall. The irrigation water is applied
under pressure in the form of a spray through a net work of pipes having spray
nozzles (sprinkles) at their ends. The pressure is developed by the flow of water
under pressure through small orifices or nozzles
Adaptability
 nearly all irrigable soils
 to most topographic conditions without extensive land preparations
 most climatic conditions
Advantages
 It is applicable to all soil typed of any topography.
 water and fertilizers can be used economically
 water applied under full control reducing water logging problems
Disadvantages
 Initial cost of the system is high and also there are recurrent costs form
pumpin and maintenance of the system
 high wind velocities and high temperatures interferes with the distribution
pattern
 labour is required to move pipes and plant
 blockages of pie due to deposition and salts and sediments
TYPES OF SYSTEMS
Farm systems
A system planned exclusively for a given design area or farm unit on which sprinkling
will be the primary method of irrigation. Consists of spray lines, main lines,
submains pumping plant and boosters etc.
Field system
They are designed either for use on several fields of a farm unit or for movement
between fields on several farm units and they may be fully portable.
Fully portable system
53
It has portable sprinkles lines, main lines, submains, pumping plant. Such a system
is designed to be moved from filed to field or to different pump sites in the same filed
or from farm to farm.
Semi- Portable
Water source and pumping plant are fixed and the rest are fully Portable System.
Semi permanent
They are portable sprinkler lines and permanent main lines and stationary pumping
plant
Fully Permanent
It has permanent spaylines main line, pumps (stationery)
Sprinkler Movements
 Hop System
 Side Rolling
Hop System
Sprinklers are placed only at alternate positions along the lateral. When sufficient
water has been applied the sprinkler are disconnected and moved or hopped along
the next position.
Side rolling
Spray lines are moved from position to position.
Header lines
Sections of portable piping used to position lateral lines at spacings which fall
between hydrants (for economic reason).
SYSTEM COMPONETS
A schematic layout of sprinkler irrigation system is shown in Fig. 1 and the system is
made up of the following components:
 Mainline, and submains They are either permanent or portable and laid
above or below ground. Underground pipes and do not use up land space or
interfere with farming operations, and minimum cover of the soil is about
0.75m.
 Laterals: These are the pipes which convey water to the sprinkler. They
mostly portable pipes. However portable pipes need to be strong and light for
easy of lifting when changing from position to position. Hence are usually
made of aluminium or galvanized thin steel and common pipe lengths are 6m
and 9m.
 Pipe Couplers Portable laterals are fitted with special joints (couplers) so
that pipes can be coupled and uncoupled quickly.
 Valves To control flow and are at the hydrants
 Filters To remove grit, dirt, weeds etc. to prevent damaging the pumps
and other ancillary works like the nozzles.
 Risers pipes – small diameter pipes which connect the sprinkler to the lateral
(12 – 25mm in diameter) vary from 10 to 100cm in length.
54
 Sprinkles devices which sprinkles the water through nozzles. Sprinklers

should be located above crop level.
Fig.1 Schematic illustration of sprinkler irrigation

Source: Agritex Handbook (1986), Zimbabwe Government
WATER DISTRIBUTION TO THE SOIL
 Water should be applied uniformly

 Sprinkler irrigation systems should be designed to apply water at a rate less
than the intake rate to prevent surface runoff.
Single sprinkler
Single sprinkler distribution patterns are affected by wind, evaporation, nozzle
pressure, and pressure head. Low pressure reduces the set-stream break-up and
cause the spray to be concentrated at a single radius from the sprinkler. High
pressure cause an excessive jet stream break-up which reduces the radius resulting
in high application rate near the sprinkler.
Moving sprinkler
The application by moving sprinklers integrates the pattern along its travel path. This
reduces the non-uniformity of application observed with stationary sprinklers.
55
Uniformity coefficient
Sprinkler technology has not been developed to the point where complete uniformity
can be obtained. Cu is affected by pressure, nozzle size, sprinkler spacing and wind
conditions. An index of the uniformity is used to measure the degree of uniformity
(Cu), and is computed from field observations of the depths of water caught in open
cans placed at regular intervals within a sprinkler area, given as (Cuenca, 1989):
 x
C u  1001  
 mn 
 
Where: m =mean application

x =absolute deviation of individual observations from the mean
value
n =number of observations
Values of Cu above 0.85 are acceptable and for square spacings, a good Cu is
obtained by aligning the sprinkler laterals at approximately 45 0 to the prevailing wind
(Jensen, 1980).
Precipitation rates
Rate at which water is applied to the soil in mm/hr and the precipitation rate should
be less that or equal to the soil intake rate. (Sprinkler soil intake rate for some soils
are given in Table 1).
Sprinkler application efficiencies

Ratio of water effectively put into crop root zone and utilized by the crop to the
quantity delivered. It varies from 60 – 85% and also depends on temperature. It will
be high in cool areas and lower in hot regions. The sprinkler discharge is given as:
System Layout Considerations

The design depends on the nature of the topography and broken topography may
present problems. Normally alternative layouts are required. The mainline may be
at one end of field or through the filed. Where possible mainlines is placed
perpendicular to the laterals to facilitate connecting the laterals, but this is not
mandatory.
Lateral line layout

To obtain a near-uniform application of water throughout the length of the lateral line,
the line must be so located and must be of a pipe size and length that will result in a
minimum variation in the discharge of individual sprinklers along the line. Total
losses in line due to friction head static head should not exceed 20% of the design
operating pressure and the variation in discharge should not exceed 10%.
 lateral lines should be laid across predominant land slopes

 running lateral lines uphill should be avoided where possible
 lateral lines need to be limited to one or not more than two pipe sizes,
normally a single pipe size is used for simplicity of operation
56
 Laterals should be located at right angles to the prevailing wind direction

where possible.
, USA
Sprinkler discharge
The sprinkler discharge is given as:
SL  SM  I
q , m3/hr
1000
Where: SL = sprinkler spacing along lateral, m

SM = spacing between lateral lines, m
I = precipitation rate, mm/hr
Number of sprinklers operated

A system layout must provide for simultaneous operation of the average number of
sprinklers that will satisfy the required system capacity when operated at design
pressure. The average number of sprinklers operating at the same time is given as:
Q
N sp 
q
Where: Q =system capacity, m3/hr

q = design sprinkler discharge, m3/hr
System capacity
The system efficiency is given as:
d  A 10
Q
t e
Where: d = depth of application per irrigation in mm

A = area in hectares
e = % efficiency of application expressed as a decimal
t = total pumping period in hours to irrigate area
n = number of sprinkler
q = design discharge per nozzle
The number of sprinklers operated at a time should maintain a constant load on the
pumping plant i.e. variation should be minimum. When it’s impossible to maintain a
minimum variation, valves must be used to control pressure and discharge. The
water source should be as near as possible to the centre of the design area and
57
should aim for a centralised point. When static heads are so great booster pumps
must be considered.
Sprinkler Discharge Relationship

qK P, ℓ/s
Where: - q = sprinkler discharge (nozzle discharge), ℓ/s

K = nozzle discharge coefficient
P = pressure at sprinkler
Pressure varies along the lateral due to direction, elevation differences, and
discharge. The ratio of pressure at any point in the lateral to the pressure at any
other point will be constant for a given flow.
q P

qo PO
Where: q = discharge of any sprinkler whose pressure is P

qo = discharge of last sprinkler with pressure Po
(Thus with a 20% variation in pressure along the lateral, the variation in discharge is
about 10%.
Sprinkler spacing, nozzle size and pressure
 Sprinkler spacing vary from: 9m x 9m to 73m x 75m

 Sprinkler nozzle sizes : 1.59mm to 36mm
 Pressure:- 205kPa to 585kPa
Sprinkler spacing depend upon the sprinkler and nozzle combination, operating
pressure, desired coefficient of uniformity (Cu), wind speed. Since it is not possible
to design for all wind conditions, the system should be designed for the average
conditions. As wind increases, spacing must be decreased to maintain the same Cu.
Wind Conditions Lateral Spacing
No wind - 65% of effective wetted diameter

8km/hr 60% of wetted diameter
8 – 16km/hr - 50% of wetted diameter
>16km/hr - 30% of wetted diameter
For Zimbabwean conditions lateral spacing recommended is 50% (8 -16km/hr) or 7

knots. There are about three types of sprinkler spacing which exists:
 square
 rectangular
 triangular
Under variable wind directions, a square spacing gives a good Cu. A rectangular
spacing reduces number of laterals (and is often used). Distance between laterals is
58
increased and sprinklers are close together. Manufacturers provide performance

data for the various sprinklers as different spacings (Table 1).
Diurnal reduction in velocity during night

A sprinkler system should be irrigating a given location during the night when the
preceding irrigation was during the day and vice versa. Wind speed and direction
must be considered in sprinkler design. The design should be based on expected
wind speeds and direction during the irrigation season. Design Charts or
performance guides have been compiled which provide guidelines for sprinkler
spacing under different wind speed ranges (Table 1).
Drop Size Distribution

Small droplets are subject to wind drift, distorting the application pattern. Large
droplets posses’ greater kinetic energy, which is transferred to the soil surface,
causing surface crusting and runoff.
Spray evaporation
Evaporation of the spray from a sprinkler system can change the coefficient of
uniformity and is a direct loss.
Wind effects on spray distribution

Wind speed and direction are the two characteristics considered in sprinkler design
and these are affected by the jet angle and the raiser height.
Jet angle
Wind speed increases with height above a crop or soil surface. Sprinkler spray
ejected high into the air will be subject to greater wind speeds and greater pattern
distortion than spray nearer the surface. Ideal angle for a sprinkler vary between 23-
320 above the horizontal.
Raiser height
The effect of riser height is similar to jet angle. The higher the sprinklers, the greater
the pattern distortion, because of increasing wind velocity with height.
Chapter 13: Hydraulics of Main Lines
The hydraulic of mainlines can be computed from any hydraulic formulae in literature
e.g. Colebrook White, Darcy-Weisbach and Hazen Williams. The equivalent head
59
loss due to friction in through-flow pipe, HL-P from Hazen Williams equation is given
as:
m
Q
 
 K  2 m n ,
C
H LP m/100m
D
Where: m =velocity exponent, m=1.852

n =pipe diameter exponent, n=1.166
K =1.22x1012
C =coefficient of retardation based on pipe characteristics
C =140 for AC pipes
=150 for PVC
=130 or 120 for aluminium/steel
D =diameter of pipe, mm
Q =flow, l/s
v ≤3m/s
Therefore, the above equation becomes:
1.852
Q
 
 K  4.87
C
H LP
D
HYDRAULICS OF LATERAL LINES

Maximum allowable head loss due to friction between the critical sprinklers:
HL 
 H a   H e  m/m
L
Where: θ = maximum allowable pressure, 0.2 (20%)

Ha = nozzle design pressure, m
He = increase in elevation in the direction of flow between the two critical
sprinklers, m (-ve for downhill sloping laterals)
L = distance between the two critical sprinklers, m
Example
Slope =0.004
Nozzle operating pressure =310kPa
L =500M
If the lateral is down slope, determine the maximum allowable head loss
Solution
P 310000 Pa
Ha  =
g 1000kg / m 3  9.81m / s 2
=31.6m
60
H e  SL  0.004m / m  500

(0.231.6)   0.004  500
HL 
500
=0.0166m/m
The allowable head loss due to friction computed must be compared with the actual
head loss in the lateral (HL-ac).
H Lac  f Q, D
The computation of the head loss in the lateral is complicated because it decreases
along the length of the lateral. To compute the head loss, one would start at the last
outlet on the line and work backwards to the supply line. However, Christiansen
formula simplifies the procedure. Christiansen developed an adjustment factor (F), to
correct the friction loss calculated from the general hydraulic formula that assumes
that all of the water is carried to the end of the line. The actual head loss in lateral
becomes:
H Lac  FH L P m/m
Where: HL-ac = actual head loss due to friction, m/m

F = friction factor to account for decrease in the flow along the
lateral (Christiansen factor).
HL-P = equivalent head loss due to friction in through-flow pipe, m/m
The following assumptions are made to compute the actual head loss:
 Sprinklers are evenly spaced at the lateral spacing, SL

 Discharge is the same of each nozzle
 Total flow into the lateral is discharged through the nozzles
The equivalent head loss due to friction in through-flow pipe, HL-P can be computed
from any hydraulic formula e.g. Colebrook White, Hazen Williams, etc.
From Hazen Williams, actual head loss due to friction in a lateral, HL-ac can be
computed as:
1.852
 L  Q 
  
H L ac  FK  100  C 
, m
D 4.87
Where: L = length of lateral, m
When K is 1.22 x 1010, the above equation becomes:
61
1.852
Q
 
 FKL  4.87 ,
C
H L  ac m
D
or
1.852
Q
 
 FK  4.87 ,
C
H L  ac m/m
D
Computation of the Christiansen factor, F
First case
If the first sprinkler is at a distance, SL from the main line, F is computed as:
F
1

1

m  1 0.5
m  1 2N 6N 2
Second case
SL
The first sprinkler is at a distance
2
F
2  1


m  10.5  
 
2N  1  m  n 6N 2 
Where; N = number of sprinklers per lateral

m = exponent on velocity related term in friction head loss formula
m = 1.852 in Hazen-Williams equation
m = 2 in Darcy-Weisbach Equation
Friction losses where more than one size lateral is used
62
D1
D2
Q1 Q2
L1 L2
H f  H f L1  L2 , D1   H f ( L2 , D1 )  H f L2 , D2 
= H f L1 , D1   H f L2 , D2 
 L  L2 
Where: H f ( L1  L2 , D1 )  FH f  1 
 100 
1.852
Q 
K 1 
H f   4.87
C
D1
 L 
H f  L2 , D1  FH f 2 
 100 
1.852
Q 
K 2 
H f   4.87
C
D1
H f L2, D2   FH f
L2
100
1.852
Q 
k 2 
H f   4.87
C
D2
H f L1 , D1   H f L1  L2 , D1   H f L2 , D1 
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
Chapter 14: Trickle Irrigation System (Drip)
Trickle or drip irrigation system

The water is applied at a point or over a very limited fraction of the total surface area
of the field.
Applicability
This type of irrigation is applicable to row crops, orchards, marginal lands or terrain
of water shortage. The crops should be of high value in order to sustain the system.
Used in water scarce areas and where water is expensive.
Advantages
 Reduce irrigation water
 Fertilisers can be added with water
 Frequent application of water in the vicinity of the root zone producing a
continuously high soil-water content in the root zone resulting in no stress.
 There is reduced surface runoff and deep percolation due to close balance
between applied water and ETcrop. Hence, used in water scarce areas
 Reduced weed growth which compete for water and nutrients due to the fact
that limited portions of the field surface are moistened.
 High ratio of yield per unit area and high yield per unit volume
Why consider drip irrigation?

Drip irrigation can help you use water efficiently. A well-designed drip irrigation system loses
practically no water to runoff, deep percolation, or evaporation. Drip irrigation reduces water contact
with crop leaves, stems, and fruit. Thus, conditions may be less favourable for disease development.
Irrigation scheduling can be managed precisely to meet crop demands, holding the promise of
increased yield and quality. Growers and irrigation professionals often refer to “subsurface drip
irrigation,” or SDI. When a drip tape or tube is buried below the soil surface, it is less vulnerable to
damage during cultivation or weeding. With SDI, water use efficiency is maximized because there is
even less evaporation or runoff.
Agricultural chemicals can be applied more efficiently with drip irrigation. Since only the crop root
zone is irrigated, nitrogen already in the soil is less subject to leaching losses, and applied fertilizer
can be used more efficiently. In the case of insecticides, less product might be needed. Make sure the
insecticide is labelled for application through drip irrigation. Additional advantages of drip irrigation
include the following. ◆ Drip systems are adaptable to oddly shaped fields or those with uneven
topography or soil texture; these specific factors must be considered when designing the drip system.
Drip systems also can work well where other irrigation systems are inefficient because parts of the
field have excessive infiltration, water puddling, or runoff. A drip irrigation system can be automated.
For an example of automated drip irrigation; Precise application of nutrients is possible using drip
irrigation. Fertilizer costs and nitrate losses can be reduced. Nutrient applications can be better timed
to meet plants’ needs. ◆ Drip irrigation systems can be designed and managed so that the wheel
traffic rows are dry enough to allow tractor operations at any time. Timely application of herbicides,
insecticides, and fungicides is possible.
Limitations
The balance between the ETcrop and the applied water is maintained over a limited
period of time (24 to 72 hours). The limited capacity of trickle systems operating
over this short time interval requires that particular attention be applied to estimation
of the crop-water requirement or measurement of the soil status by tensiometers.
70
Disadvantages
 Capital costs high as compared to sprinkler and surface irrigation (Drip
irrigation systems typically cost $500 to $1,200 or more per acre. Part of the
cost is a capital investment useful for several years, and part is annual).
 Very limited fluctuations of pressure from design head at the point of water
application, because drip irrigation operates on the principle of applying a very
precise amount of water directly in the vicinity of the root zone.
 Drip irrigation requires a high level of technology for the accurate crop-water
accounting and tight pressure tolerance along the distribution.
 Lack of uniformity especially on the steep slopes, because the emitter
discharge may vary by 50% from the volume intended.
 Increased maintenance costs
 High quality water required because of clogging of the system
 Filtration of water is required to reduce clogging and this will result in increase
operation costs.
 A lot of system components are required
 You might need to redesign your weed control program. Drip irrigation might
be unsatisfactory if herbicides need rainfall or sprinkler irrigation for activation.
However, drip irrigation can enhance weed control in arid climates by keeping
much of the soil surface dry. Tape depth must be chosen carefully for
compatibility with operations such as cultivation and weeding.
System components
A schematic illustration of a trickle irrigation system is illustrated in Fig. 1
 pumps
 chemical injectors
 primary filters to screen the larges particles
 Primary pressure gauges on either side of the filter, to evaluate when the
pressure drop across the filter is high enough to require back-flushing.
 Secondary filters in the submain for finer particles
 Solenoid valves for the system automation
 secondary gauges to verify the operating pressures
 pressure regulators to keep the system operating within the close tolerance of
discharge
 flush valves to clear accumulated debris from the line
 emitters to deliver water directly to the root zone
71
Pressure gauge Water meter

Main line
Chemical
Pump injector Primary
filter
Secondary filter
Non return valve
Submain
Solenoid valve
Pressure regulator
Lateral line
Pressure gauge
Fig.1 A schematic illustration of a trickle irrigation system
Types of emitters
 Long path
 short path
 orifice
 vortex
 pressure compensating
 porous pipes (tube emitters)
Long path emitters

They have a long path head loss occur in the long-flow path sections. The flow in
the long path section is laminar and laminar flow emitters are sensitive to pressure
differences in the trickles system.
Short path
The flow path is short and the entrance characteristic losses dominate the flow and
most are pressure compensating.
Orifice emitters
The flow regime is fully turbulent and water flows through a smaller diameter opening
or series of openings where most of the pressure head loss tales place.
Vortex emitters
It is an orifice emitter which contains a circular wall that causes vertical flow. The
head losses are greater.
72
Compensating emitters
These are designed to yield a nearly constant discharge over a wide range of
pressures. Can be long-path, short-part or orifice compensating emitters.
Factor to be considered on emitter selection

 Flow control: flow should be controlled within narrow limits as a
function of operating pressure to be able to properly balance applied water
within crop water use.
 Flow area: A large flow area is more resistant to clogging by particles
which pass through the screening and filtration or bacterial slime than a
small flow area.
 Resistance to the environment the emitter should be able to resist
fluctuations of temperature and solar radiation.
 Design life of emitter the useful life of the emitter as specified by the
manufacturer is important in determining the operation and maintenance
costs of the irrigation system weaker emitters need to replaced after a
short period of time.
Characteristics of emitters that affect system efficiency

 Flow variation this is the variation of discharges due to manufacturing
tolerances
 Discharge pressure Closeness of the discharge-pressure relationships
of the manufacture to your design specifications of the trickle system.
 Stability of emitter The stability of the discharge-pressure relationships over
a longer time period
 Range of operating pressure A good emitter is one with a wider range of
suitable operating pressures.
 Pressure losses These are losses on the lateral lines which are caused by
the emitter connections
 Clogging Susceptibility to clogging, siltation or accretion of chemical
deposits
Steps to be followed when selecting an emitter

 Evaluate and choose the general type that best fit the needs of the area to be
wetted
 Compute the system requirements like the discharge, head losses, pressure
head, spacing etc.
 Match the system requirements (discharge, head loses pressure head,
spacing etc) to those specified by the manufacturer.
 Compare the variations in pressure heads and the designed system and
make sure that it is allowable and also will give the desired uniformity of
emission (EU).
Chapter 15: Determination of crop water requirements for

trickle irrigation
Daily use rate
73
Trickle irrigation reduces evaporation losses to a minimum, so transpiration by the

crop accounts for practically all of the water consumed. Therefore, estimates of
consumptive use that assume wetting the entire surface should be modified for
trickle irrigation.
The average peak daily transpiration rate can be estimated as:

Td  ETcrop 0.1Pd 
0.5

Where: ET crop = estimated from conventional methods, mm/day
Pd = % of soil surface area shaded by the crop canopies at midday,
%.
The % of soil surface area shaded by the crop canopies at midday is estimated by
marking the area allocated to a plant and observing the % of the area directly under
the plant canopy at noon (Fig. 1).
Area allocated to a
plant
Area under plant canopy
Fig. 1: Plant canopy and allocated plant area

Net depth of irrigation
The maximum net depth per irrigation to replace the soil moisture deficit for trickle
irrigation takes account of the % of wetted area, Pw and not as over the whole crop
area as in other irrigation systems. The net depth to be applied per irrigation is given
as (Keller, 199):
74
d n  0.6Pw Fc  PWP   RootDepth
For straight single systems:
N P S e
Pw   100 , %
S p Sr
Where: % of soil area wetted along a horizontal plane 30cm below the soil
surface
Se emitter spacing
w wetted width=diameter of the circular area wetted by a single emitter.
Sp plant spacing
Sr row spacing
Np number of emitters per tree
The maximum average daily irrigation interval, days

d
fx  n , days
Td
The gross depth per irrigation, dgross:
dnTr
d gross  , mm
EU
100
Where : EU = emission uniformity, %

Tr = peak use period transmission ratio (depth of irrigation water
transmitted to exactly satisfy Td and caters for other losses like
deep percolation, etc)
The gross volume of water required per plant per day, G is a useful design
parameter for selecting emitter discharge rates and is computed as:
d gross
G S p Sr L/day
fx
Where: Sp = plant spacing, m

Sr = row spacing, m
dgross = gross depth, mm
fx = irrigation interval, days
75
Chapter 16: Hydraulics of trickle irrigation systems
Emitter hydraulics
Relationship between emitter discharge and operating pressure is depended upon
flow regime and the Reynolds number describes the different flow regimes and is
generally given as:
vD
Re 
1000
Where: v = velocity of flow, m/s

D = emitter diameter, m m
 = kinematic viscosity of water, m2/s
Regimes flow
Laminar Re ≤ 2 000
Transitional or unstable 2 000 < Re ≤ 4 000
Partially turbulent 4000 < Re ≤ 10 000
Fully turbulent Re > 10 000
Required emitter flow rate, qr is given as (Jensen, 1999):
qt I i
qr  , L/hr
I t Ei N
Where: qt = water requirement per plant. L/day

Ii = irrigation interval, days
Tt = irrigation time per set, hr
Ei = irrigation efficiency
N = number of emitters per plant
Orifice emitter in fully turbulent flow

Discharge equation for an orifice emitter in fully turbulent flow is given as (Cuenca,
199x ):
q  3.6 AC o 2 gH 
0.5
Where: q = emitter discharge, l/hr

A = emitter cross-sectional flow area, mm2
Co = orifice coefficient of discharge, Co  0.6  1
g = acceleration due to gravity
H = orifice operating head, m
76
Long path emitter operating in laminar flow
0.5
  HD 
q  0.11384 A2 g  
  fL 
Long path emitter operating under unstable, partially turbulent and fully
turbulent flow
0.5
  H D 
q  0.11384 A2 g  

  fL 
Where: D =emitter diameter, mm

f =friction factor
L =emitter length, m
hf
f 
Lv
2
 
 D  2g
For laminar flow, f is given as:
64
f 
Re
For transitional flow or unstable (2 000 < Re ≤ 4 000)
f  3.42  10 5 Re
0.85
For partially turbulent (4000 < Re ≤ 10 000), f
f  3.16Re
0.25
For fully turbulent (Re > 10 000), f
1 D
 2 log   1.14
f  
Where: ε =absolute roughness pipe or tubing material, mm

Relative roughness =
D
77
Value of the absolute roughness for various pipes and tubing materials are given in
Table 1.
Table 1: Value of the absolute roughness for various pipes
Absolute roughness (mm)

Material Minimum Maximum
Plastic 0.003 0.03
Commercial steel and 0.03 0.09
wrought iron
Galvanised iron 0.06 0.02
Aluminium 0.1 0.3
Concrete 0.3 3
Reverted steel 0.9 9
Corrugated metal 30 60
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
Chapter 17: Hydraulics of Laterals for Drip Irrigation
Hydraulics of laterals (first method)
The design of drip irrigation lateral involves selecting the pipe size for a given length
of run which can deliver the required amount of water to the plant with the desired
range of uniformity. Normally the maximum lateral length compatible with the field
size and number of sets of the submain lines given the flow conditions, ground slope
and pipe size, and the above conditions can give the following alternatives in the
hydraulic calculations:
 lateral length known but pipe size unknown
 pipe size known but lateral length unknown
 all unknown i.e. pipe size and length
Design parameters which are known at this stage are:

 ground slope
 required emitter flow rate
 emitter flow function
 number of emitter per set
 spacing
 desired uniformity coefficient
Pressure relationship at the head and at the end of the lateral is given as (Jensen,
1980):
1
Po  qo  x
 
Pn  q n 
Where: x = emitter discharge exponent which characterise flow regime

Po = pressure at the end of the lateral
Pn = pressure at the head of the lateral
qn = emitter discharge at the head of the lateral
qo = emitter discharge at the end of the lateral
Emitter flow function
q  Ke H x
Where: q = emitter flow rate, ℓ/hr

x = discharge exponent
Ke = proportionality factor that characterises emitter dimensions
H = emitter operation pressure head, m
Ke and x are found by plotting q vs H on a log-log paper. The gradient of the best fit
line gives x and the intercept gives Ke.
92
Or by determining the two or more discharges from an emitter at two or more

different operating pressures, x can be computed from (Keller, 199x):
q 
log  1 
x  q2 
H 
log  1 
 H2 
1
P   qr  q  x
PO   o  
 K  2  o 
 Pn   e  qn 
Where: qr = required emitter flow rate, l/hr

It = irrigation requirement per plant, l/day
Ii = irrigation interval, day
Ei = irrigation application efficiency, as a decimal
N = number of emitters per plant
Pn
Hn  , Pressure at the head of the lateral

Po
Ho  Pressure at the end of the lateral

Pipe friction energy loss, x in meters is given as:
H  H n  H o  S o L , m
Where: So = ground slope (+ve for down hill and –ve for uphill)
L = length of emitter, m
0.65
 CS 
L  1.70H 0.35
D 1.71
 
 100q r 
Where: S = emitter spacing, m

D = diameter of pipe, mm
C = Hazen-Williams roughness coefficient (130-150)
Hydraulics of laterals (second method)

The friction head loss in a lateral can be computed from Darcy-Weisbach formula
(Cuenca, 199x) or from Hazen-Williams:
Q2
h f  6.377 fL 5 , m (Darcy-Weisbach formula)
D
93
1.852
Q
 
h f  KL  4.87 , m
C
(Hazen-Williams)
D
Where: D = lateral diameter, mm
L = length of lateral
Q = total flow in the lateral, ℓ/hr in Darcy-Weisbach and ℓ/s in
Hazen-Williams equation.
f = friction factor for the different regime of flow as described in
previous equations
The actual head loss in the lateral from Christiansen formulation becomes:
H L ac  Fh f
Where: F = Christiansen factor
94
Chapter 18: Summary: Irrigation and Drainage
18.1 Introduction
Irrigation is defined as the application of water to soil for the purpose of supplying the
moisture essential for plant growth. Irrigation may be accomplished in five different
ways : (1) by flooding; (2) by means of furrows; (3) by applying water underneath the
land surface through sub-irrigation, thus causing the water table to rise; (4) by
sprinkling; (5) or by trickle systems.
Water to supply moisture essential for plant growth may come from different sources,
none of which should be ignored when irrigation water requirements are estimated.
These sources are : (1) precipitation; (2) atmospheric water other than precipitation;
(3) flood water; and (4) groundwater. Failure to consider all these sources and the
proportion of water that each supplies to total plant needs may result in poor design
of an irrigation system. In some areas one of the these sources may supply the
major portion of plant needs; in other areas two or more may contribute to large
amounts of water for plant growth.
This Chapter will address the following topics : (1) soil-water relationships, (2) water
requirements, (3) water quality for irrigation, and (4) irrigation systems.
The following are some basic definitions related to irrigation and drainage concept :
Soil Texture: The sizes of particles making up a soil determine its texture. These
particles range in size from fine gravel to clay. Particles larger than 1.0 millimeter in
diameter are gravel, particles from 0.05 to 1.0 millimeter are sand, particles from
0.002 to 0.05 millimeter are silt, and smaller than 0.002 millimeter are clay.
Soil Structure: The arrangement of soil particles is called soil structure.
Real specific gravity: The real specific gravity of a soil is a dimensionless quantity
and is defined as the ratio of the density of a single soil particle to the density of a
volume of water equal to the volume of the particle of soil. This value ranges from
2.5 to more than 5.
Apparent specific gravity : The apparent specific gravity of a soil is defined as the
ratio of the weight of a given volume of dry soil (air space included) to the weight of
an equal volume of water. This ratio is known as the "volume weight" or "bulk
density".
95
Infiltration : This is defined as the rate at which water will percolate into soil. This
measure is of great importance to irrigation and it is influenced by soil properties and
by moisture.
Intake: The rate of infiltration from a furrow into the soil is referred to as the intake
rate. This term indicates that infiltration occurs under a particular soil surface
configuration.
Permeability: The permeability of soil is defined as the velocity of flow caused by a

unit gradient. Permeability is influenced most by the physical properties of the soil.
Surface tension: This phenomenon is caused due to unbalanced molecular forces

which in turn causes a suction on water within the soil. Suction head is generally
expressed in terms of an equivalent length of vertical water column.
18.2 Soil-Water Relationships
The first step in planning an irrigation project is to establish the capability of the land
to produce crops that provide adequate returns on the investment in irrigation works.
Arable land is land that when properly prepared for agriculture, will have sufficient
yield to justify its development. Irrigable land is arable land for which a water supply
is available. Land classifications are needed to ensure efficient water use and high
productivity.
To be suitable for irrigation, the soil must have a reasonably high water-holding
capacity and must be readily penetrable by water. The infiltration rate should be low
enough to avoid excessive loss of water by percolation below the root zone. The soil
must be deep enough to allow root development and permit drainage. It must be free
of black alkali, a sodium-saturated condition, and free of salts not susceptible to
removal by leaching. Finally, the soil must have an adequate supply of plant
nutrients and free of toxic elements. Land slopes should be such that excessive
erosion will not occur. Lands located in depressions or valley floors may present
drainage problems because of the lack of natural drainage outlets. The land should
be located so that irrigation is possible without excessive pumping or transmission
costs. The general layout and size of the area should be conducive to division into
field units that permit effective farming practices. The land should be adaptable to
more than one crop since changing economic or technological factors may force
changes in cropping patterns.
18.3 Water Requirements for Irrigation
The crop-irrigation requirement is that portion of the consumptive use that must be
supplied by irrigation. It is the consumptive use minus the effective precipitation (U c-
96
Peff). Winter precipitation is effective only to the extent that it remains in the soil until
the growing season. Average moisture retention per foot of depth for various soil
types is given in Table 7.1.
Table 18.1. Moisture storage in various soils
Soil type Storage, in/ft Storage, mm/m
Clay 2.5 200
Silt Loam 2.0 160
Sandy Loam 1.5 120
Fine Sand 1.0 80
Coarse Sand 0.5 40
Source : Linsley et al, 1992, p. 474
Effective winter precipitation is the actual precipitation or the available moisture

storage, which ever is less. Only storage in the root zone, which usually extends to a
depth of about 4 ft (1.2m), should be considered.
Precipitation during the growing season is effective only when it remains in the soil
and is available to plants. The effective growing-season precipitation is the sum of
the monthly values of effective precipitation. The average annual effective
precipitation for the period of record is subtracted from the estimated annual
consumptive use to determine the annual crop-irrigation requirement. Consumptive
use, effective precipitation, and crop irrigation requirement may be estimated using
probabilistic models and computer simulations.
18.4 Irrigation Efficiencies
Many terms have been defined to express irrigation efficiencies. The objective of
these efficiency concepts is to show where improvements can be made which will
result in more efficient irrigation.
Water Conveyance Efficiency : This measure estimates the water losses from
diversions from streams or rivers to the farm. To estimate this value we apply this
formula :
where : Ec : Water-conveyance efficiency
97
Wf: Water delivered to the farm
Wr: Water delivered from the river or reservoir
Water Application Efficiency: The concept of water application efficiency was

developed to measure the efficiency with which water delivered was being stored
within the root zone of the soil, where it could be used by plants. It is expressed in
the following formula :
where : Ea:Water application efficiency
Ws: Water stored in the soil root zone during irrigation
Wf: Water delivered to the farm
Water Use Efficiency : Water use efficiency measures the proportion of the water
delivered which was beneficially used on the farm. This can be calculated using the
following formula :
where : Eu : Water use efficiency
Wu: Water beneficially used
Wd: Water delivered
Water Storage Efficiency : The concept of water storage efficiency focuses on how
completely the needed water has been stored in the root zone during the irrigation.
This can be calculated as follows :
where : Es : Water storage efficiency
Ws : Water stored in the root zone during the irrigation
Wn : Water needed in the root zone prior to the irrigation.
98
18.5 Water Quality for Irrigation
Irrigation water should be within certain limits to be suitable for use. Properties of
water cover physical, chemical and biological aspects in order to ensure that water is
appropriate for irrigation. Standards and guidelines have been set by FAO for
various irrigation methods.
Tables 7.2 and 7.3 show different acceptable parameters for both fresh water and
treated wastewater to be used for irrigation.
Table 18.2. Acceptable parameter of the fresh water for irrigation
Parameter Symbol Unit Normal Range
Electrical conductivity E.C ds/m 0 -3.0
Total Dissolved Solids TDS mg/l 0 - 2000
Calcium Ca+2 mg/l 0 - 20
Magnesium Mg+2 mg/l 0-5
Sodium Na+1 mg/l 0 - 40
Carbonate CO3= mg/l 0 - 0.1
Bicarbonate HýCO3- mg/l 0 - 10
Chloride Cl- mg/l 0 - 30
Solfate SO4= mg/l 0 - 2.0
Nitrate-Nitrogen NO3--N mg/l 0 - 10.0
Ammonium Nitrogen NH4+-N mg/l 0 - 5.0
Phosphorous P mg/l 0 - 2.0
Potassium K+ mg/l 0 - 2.00
Boron B- mg/l 0 - 2.00
Acidity/Bascicity pH 1-14 6 - 8.5
Sodium Adsorption Ratio SAR meq/l 0 - 15
99
Table 18.3. Properties of the treated wastewater used for irrigation
Parameter Symbol Unit Range
Electrical conductivity E.C ds/m 3.0
Total Dissolved Solids TDS mg/l 2000.0
Acidity/Basicity pH 1-14 6-8.4
Chloride Cl- mg/l 350
-
Nitrate - Nitrogen NO3 -N mg/l 30.00
Total Nitrogen T.N mg/l 50.00
Manganese Mn mg/l 0.200
=
Sulfate SO4 mg/l 400.00
-
Bicarbonate HCO3 mg/l 500.00
Sodium Adsorption Ratio SAR meq/l 9.000
Boron B mg/l 1-3.0
+2
Iron Fe mg/l 5.000
+2
Lead Pb mg/l 0.2-1.0
18.6 Irrigation Systems
Irrigation systems include many hydraulic structures, such as dams, gates, sluices,
flumes, inverted siphons, chutes and drops which are built to divert water from
natural sources and convey it to the farms for irrigation. The following is a brief
description of the above irrigation structures.
Check gate: Check gates are usually placed across a stream from which it is desired
to divert water. The function of a check gate is analogous to that of the dam or the
diversion weir on the rivers at the heads of canal systems. Check gates are built
across laterals and ditches for the purpose of diverting part or all of the stream.
Flumes: These are used for crossing natural depressions or narrow canyons, and for
conveying irrigation water along very steep sidehills. Flumes can be made of wood,
metal or concrete.
100
Tunnels: These are built to shorten the length of a diversion canal, to avoid difficult
and expensive construction on steep, rocky hillside, and to convey irrigation water
through mountains from one watershed to another.
Drops and Chutes: These structures are used in places where the actual slopes are
steep in order to prevent erosion and to minimize velocities. Water is dropped and
thus the energy of a flowing stream is dissipated in the stilling basin without causing
erosion.
Inverted Siphons: These are used to cross wide deep depressions or canyons. The
cost of flumes for crossing wide depressions is often so high as to prohibit their
construction. Pipes, by which irrigation water is conveyed across canyons, are
usually built on or near ground surface and are known as inverted siphons.
Underground Pipes: Pipes made of concrete, plastic, and steel are used for
distributing irrigation water. From the underground pipe water flows upward through
riser pipes, and through low-cost irrigation valves to an irrigation ditch or a basin.
101

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Irrigation Systems Design: Dept. of Civil and Water Eng.

, NUST, 17/03/2011 23:52:31

IRRIGATION SYSTEMS AND DESIGN

 Irrigation channels can be a means of water transport

 Affects the local hydrological cycle. Dampens climate and Ecological

Quality requirements for irrigation water

 Chemical and physical properties of crop tolerance

The SAR is calculated as:

Table 1.1 Guidelines for SAR for irrigation water

SAR value Classification Suitability

Chapter 2: Soils and crops

Fig. 1 Phase diagram of soils

(b) Texture it is the sizes of particles

Arrangement of soil particles in a soil mass (granular, prismatic and columnar)

(d) Void ratio

(f) Alkalinity and acidity

SOIL-PLANT WATER RELATIONSHIPS

Adhesion: Water held tightly at the soil water interface

Soil moisture tension

Fig.2 Moisture characteristic curve

Soil water potential

Potential difference between two soil water systems

Total potential, T  Z  P  Pos

Measuring soil water potential

Fig 5: Schematic illustration of a tensiometer (Note Fig. 5 not related to equations

Pressure potential at p or at the soil end:

Therefore pressure potential at P becomes:

ds is the distance measured between points 1 and 2.

is more applicable in solute transport in groundwater flow. Also in irrigation we are

% Distribution of water with depth

Permanent wilting point

Field capacity = hygroscopic + capillary

Permanent wilting point =

RAM  0.6 AM  RAM

Classification of water potential with reference to irrigation

Some of these factors are graphically illustrated in Figs. 1 to 4).

Fig. 1 Relationship between infiltration and soil types

Initial water content

Fig.2: Cumulative infiltration for different soil types

Sediments in irrigation water

Effects of air entrapment

 Between point A and B, the infiltration is ponded and infiltration is governed

 CD The infiltration is not ponded and irrigation water is being applied at a

Initial water content

Visible point of water penetration into soil

Where: I =the depth of infiltration in, cm

Where: I =depth of infiltration, cm

Soil conservation services equation (SCS)

Where: i =F =cumulative intake (mm) or depth of infiltrated water

a, b, C =constants for each family intake, and these constants

Table 1 Intake family and furrow advance coefficients

Chapter 4: Crop Water Requirements

 prevailing climatic conditions

ETO The rate of evapotranspiration from an extended surface of 8 to 15cm tall

ETcrop The evapotranspiration of a disease-free crop growing in a large field (one or

ETcrop  k c ETo (1)

Where: kc =crop coefficient.

Irrigation water requirements

Where: Pe =effective precipitation, which is the rainfall that is useful or

I  P  WC  WH I  SRI   ET  Wd  SRO  WH O   S (3)

Where: I =irrigation requirement

Fig. 1: Schematic illustration of a water balance in the root zone

Rewriting equation 3 and grouping losses together:

Where: Pe =effective precipitation