Theory Lecture Outlines

1. Waterlogging Introduction and definition, causes of waterlogging and its effects on

crop production, dimensions of the problem in the country

2. Salt affected Types of salts in the soil, units of salinity and relationship among
soils them, classification of salt affected soils
3. Reclamation of Salt balance, Reclamation methods of salt affected soils, leaching
salt affected requirement for saline soils, gypsum requirement for alkaline soils.
soils
4. Irrigation water Chemical properties of irrigation water, Assessment of the quality of
quality irrigation water
5. Drainage Definition, Classification of drainage systems, types of surface
methods drainage methods and their application, drainage coefficient and its
importance in drainage design.
6. Surface Various methods to determine drainage coefficient, design of surface
drainage drains
7. Sub-surface Purpose and benefits of sub-surface drainage, Classification of sub-
drainage surface drainage, importance of hydraulic conductivity and drainable
porosity in explaining flow through soil profile
8. Drain spacing Dupuit-Forchhemeir assumptions and their applicability, Derivation of
for Hooghoudt’s equation for spacing between sub-surface drains in
(i) Homogeneous homogeneous soil profile, Solution of drain spacing using equivalent
soil profile depth concept

9. (ii) Derivation of Ernst’s equations for spacing between drains in

Heterogeneous heterogeneous soil profile.
soil profile
10. Design of tile Design of sub-surface drainage system especially tile drains, Ancillary
drainage system components in sub-surface drainage system

11. Drainage Reconnaissance survey, detailed survey of drainage basin, Physical

investigations properties of drainage basin and the soil profile
12. Groundwater Investigations pertaining to groundwater flow and fluctuation, Analysis
investigation of groundwater data.
13. Non- Non-conventional drainage systems (Vertical drainage, bio-drainage,
conventional pump drainage, mole drain etc.) and their applicability
drainage
systems
14. Installation of Layout, construction and installation of drain pipes, drain outlet
drainage system

15. Economic Conjunctive use of fresh and saline water in irrigation, Economic
feasibility analysis of drainage system
1. Measurement of in-situ hydraulic conductivity by Hooghoudt’s method
2. Measurement of in-situ hydraulic conductivity by inverse auger hole method
3. Measurement of in-situ hydraulic conductivity of two layered soil profile by Ernst’s
method
4. Determination of drainage coefficient based on time distribution of runoff
5. Determination of drainage coefficient using empirical relations
6. Plotting of intensity versus duration graphs at various recurrence intervals
7. Development of water table contour maps and isobath maps
8. Determination of drainable porosity of soil
9. Design of surface drainage system
10. Design of sub-surface drainage system
11. Determination of electrical conductivity of soil and water
12. Determination of pH of soil and water
13. Determination of gypsum requirement for reclamation of alkaline soils
14. Installation procedure of tile drains
15. Cost analysis of drainage systems
1. Land and Water Management Engineering by V V N
Murty & M K Jha.

2. Luthin, J.N. Drainage Engineering. Wiley Eastern.

3. Bhattacharya, A.K. and Michael, A.M. Land

Drainage – Principles, Methods and Applications,
Konark Publishers Pvt. Ltd., Delhi.

4. Ritzema, H.P. Drainage Principles and Applications.

ILRI
5. Kumar, R. and Singh, J. Textbook of Drainage
Engineering, ICAR Publications, New Delhi.
“No grain is ever produced without water, but too
much of water tends to spoil the grain. An inundation
is as injurious to growth as dearth of water”.

Narada Smriti
 What do you mean by
Sustainable Development?
Sustainable agricultural production

It is the ability of the production system to

enhance productivity towards the potential &
maintain it without degrading the resource
bases (such as land & water).

Two such odds : (i) Excess of water

(ii) Excess of salt
Agricultural production depends on:

 Availability
of water in right quantity
 Agronomic practices
 Soil management
 Drainage need

A neutral and non-saline soil with soil moisture range

between FC to 50% ASM is ideal for proper growth
and yield of most of the crops. (excluding rice and
jute)
 Forms of Excess water

Ponding Waterlogging
Standing water on the Accumulation of excess
soil surface water in the crop root-
zone (Root-zone depth
remains saturated for a
long period)
 Forms of Excess Salt

Saline Alkali Saline-alkali

Neutral or non-saline soil - ideal for proper crop

growth and yield

Under excess water or high salt concentration in root-

zone or land surface - Roots do not work properly
Is irrigation alone a sustainable
approach for increasing crop
production?
258.43 4.528 7.006
 Waterlogging -
Categorization and Effects
General concept

Waterlogging is the condition of the land

caused due to rise of water table to or very near
to the crop root-zone resulting in:

Unsuitable condition for land preparation

 Improper crop growth
 Reduction in crop yield below normal
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
An area is said to be waterlogged where the soil
remains temporarily saturated or where GWT is too
shallow such that capillary rise of water encroaches
upon the crop root-zone or may even reach the soil
surface.
National Commission of Agriculture (NCA)
An area is said to be waterlogged when water table
causes saturation of crop root-zone resulting in :
Restricted aeration
Decline in O2 level

Increase in CO level
 MoWR Classification of Waterlogging

 Waterlogged area - (GWT < 2 m)

 Potential area for – (2 m < GWT < 3
m)
waterlogging
 Safe area - (GWT > 3 m)
Classification based on seasonal variation of GWT
MoWR Pre-monsoon Post-monsoon
(April/May) (October/November)
Waterlogged <2 m <1m

Critical or Potential 2 to 3 m 1 to 2 m
area for waterlogging
Safe area >3m >2m
 Causes of Waterlogging
(i) Natural
Heavy rainfall
Unfavourable topography Ponding
Backwater entry from river
Rise of groundwater table to crop root-zone
Capillary rise of groundwater
Seepage from canals and adjoining areas

(ii) Man-made
Unscientific use of land and water
Faulty cropping pattern
Blockage of natural outlets
 Causes of Excess salt
soluble salts in parent rocks
sea water intrusion
Natural High evaporation during post-
monsoon period
Backwater flow from river estuary

Man-made Excess irrigation

Application of poor quality water

-
Irrigated area: Low saline water with dominant HCO3
Arid climate: Migration of sodic salts promotes salinity
(Na, Ca, Mg in their Cl & SO4 form)
 Effects of Waterlogging

Physical effect Chemical

effect
Lack of aeration

SoilSalinization
Difficulty in Soil workability
Deterioration of soil structure

Both adversely affect the growth and yield of

the crops
Extent of crop damage depends on the magnitude,
duration and frequency of the waterlogged condition
and the degree of soil salinity
All soils contain salts. Soil salinization refers to
further addition of salt in the soil.
It is the process of accumulation of either soluble or
exchangeable salt in the soil solution or adsorption
complex, respectively .
From agriculture point of view, the soil is called salt
affected when the salt conc. affects the crop growth
and crop production adversely.
 How Salinity develops in soil?
Soil
Solid Water Air
Minerals & organic matter Water and salt solutions O2, CO2, & Methane
etc.

Primary salinity
Mineral composition of the soil is dominated by
the oxides of Si - Al- Fe – Ca – Mg - K – Na in
decreasing order. Hence, all soils contain salt.

Primary salinity develops due to excess conc.

of any of the mineral salts present in the soil.
 Secondary salinity
Occurs due to addition of salt into the soil from
external sources such as:

 Irrigation water
 Rise of groundwater table
 Capillary rise from saline and shallow
groundwater
 Seepage from adjacent saline zone
 Sea water intrusion
Forms of occurrence of salts in the soil

1.Salt ions dissolved in the soil water (soil

solution)
2.Cations adsorbed on the negatively charged
surfaces of soil particles (adsorption
complex)
3.Precipitated salts {poorly soluble alkaline
carbonates (CaCO3, MgCO3 and gypsum
(CaSO4, 2H2O) precipitate under high salt
conc. in the solution}
 The soil solution
Both +vely and –vely charged salt ions in the
soil solution:
Cations : Na+, Ca++, Mg++ and K+
Anions : Cl-, SO4--, HCO3-, CO3-- and NO3-
Characteristic features of saline soil :
High conc. of Na+
Anions of Cl- and SO4-- are predominant
 Na+ among cations & Cl- among anions –
more soluble
Characteristic features of Non-saline soil

 Ca++ or (Ca++ + Mg++) - dominant in the solution.

 Conc. of Na+ < 5%

 HCO3- is present with normal pH (6 – 8)

At higher pH (>8.5), HCO3- changes to CO3–

 Dynamic exchange equilibrium
-
-
b Adsorption complex

- ++ - a

- - b
-
Soil solution

Soil particle
 Adsorption Complex
Dynamic exchange equilibrium exists between the
cations in the soil solution and those adsorbed in the
adsorption complex.

Negatively charged soil surface has a fixed capacity

to adsorb cations from the soil solution. This is called
Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC). It is expressed
in meq/100g of dry soil.
 Adsorption Preference
 Divalent cations adsorbed more easily than
monovalent
 Among the cations of same valency, the adsorption
preference is as follows:

Ca++ > Mg++ > K+ > Na+

 Adsorption complex has more preference for Ca++
than Na+
 When the conc. of Na+ > 50% in the soil solution,
it becomes the dominant cation in the adsorption
complex.
 Gapon
Na  ads Na  sol Equation

K
(Ca  Mg ) ads (Ca  Mg )   sol
2

Where K = proportionality constant

Na  ads
ESP   100
CEC
Na  sol
SAR 
Ca  Mg )   sol in (meq/liter)0.5
2

 (0.0126  0.01475 SAR) 

ESP  100 
 {1  (0.0126  0.01475 SAR )} 
 Nomograph of SAR vs ESP

Relationship between SAR & ESP is valid for a lower limit of

SAR i.e. 0.8542 (meq/l)0.5
Spatio-temporal Variation of salinity

 As soil moisture in soil is highly dynamic, so is the

soil salinity.

 Upward and downward flow of soil water in the

profile changes the vertical distribution of salts

 Salinity increases with distance with application of

irrigation water
1. Osmotic problem – high total salt conc. in the
soil solution
2. Dispersion problem – high percentage
occupancy of the adsorption complex by Na+
(ESP >20%)
3. Toxicity problem: Na toxicity, Cl toxicity and
Boron toxicity

4. Corrosion problem: salts in solution corrode the

construction material (Steel, concrete).
MgSO4 corrodes steel and concrete
 Salinity Measurement
1. Salt concentration
a) ppm = g/million cc = mg/L
4
b)Parts per hundred = g/100 cc = 10 mg/L
c) meq/L = salt conc. (mg/L)/Equivalent wt.
Equivalent wt. = Ratio of Atomic wt. of ion or
compound to its valency
2. Electrical conductivity (EC)
mhos/cm, mmhos/cm, μ-mhos/cm, deciSiemens/m
(dS/m) at 25 0C. EC is temperature sensitive
Name Equiv. wt. Name Equiv. wt.

Ca++ 20.04 CaCl2 55.50

Mg++ 12.16 CaSO4 68.07

K+ 39.10 CaCO3 50.04

Na+ 23 MgCl2 47.62

CO3 30 MgCO3 42.16

HCO3 61.01 KCl 74.56

Cl- 35.46 NaCl 58.45

SO4-- 48.03 Na2CO3 53

NAHCO3 84.01
 ppm (mg/L) = 640 ECe (mmhos/cm or dS/m)

meq/litre = 10 to 12 ECe (mmhos/cm or dS/m)

1 dS/m = 1 mmhos/cm = 1000 μ-mhos/cm = 640

mg/L = 640 ppm = 10 meq/L
ECfc – electrical conductivity for soil water at field
capacity

ECe – EC of soil water at saturation at 25 0C

For most of the soils, ECe = 0.5 ECfc

 EC1 – EC of soil solution when unit wt. of soil is mixed in water of
equal mass, thoroughly stirred and water is extracted

EC2 – EC of soil solution when unit mass of dry soil is

thoroughly mixed in water of double the mass of soil,
thoroughly stirred and water is extracted

Mass of water added to prepare the suspension

EC e  EC1 or 2 
Mass of water required to bring the soil to saturation

Mass of water added to prepare the suspension

EC fc  EC 1 or 2 
Mass of water required to bring the soil to field capacity
Salt affected soil ECe ESP pH
(dS/m) (%)
Saline >4 <15 < 8.5

Alkali or Sodic <4 >15 > 8.5 & <10

Saline-Alkali >4 >15 Nearly 8.5

 pH (power of Hydrogen)
Soil reaction is expressed through pH
It is the logarithm of the reciprocal of hydrogen ion
conc. in soil solution
Or Negative logarithm of hydrogen ion conc. in soil
solution
 1 
Because  
log     log H 
1
 
  log H 
H 

 1 
pH = 7 in logarithmic form log  7   log 10 7  7
 10 
 ESP remaining constant, pH decreases as
EC increases

 EC remaining constant, pH increases with

increase in ESP

 pH remaining constant, ESP increases with

increase in EC
Irrigation water quality is assessed in terms of
soluble salt content in water

Quality of irrigation water is affected when:

Salts such as Na, Ca and Mg and their Cl, SO4, HCO3
and CO3 dissolved in irrigation water

Quality of drinking water is affected when:

Boron, Fe, Mn, Fluorine, Al, Lead, Zinc, Chromium
etc. are dissolved in water
 USDA Classification : 16 classes
C1= 100 – 250 micro-mhos/cm, S1= 0 – 10 SAR
C2= 250 - 750, S2 = 10 - 18
C3 = 750 – 2250 and S3 = 18 - 26
C4 > 2250 S4 > 26

Indian Classification
(Kanwar and Kanwar, 1968): 20 classes

Combination of salinity (C1, C2, C3, C4 & C5) and

Alkalinity (S1, S2, S3 & S4)
Classification of irrigation water by USSL
 Soil Type Vs EC of irrigation water
Soil texture EC of irrigation water
(μmhos/cm)
Deep black soil (clay > 30%) 1500 – 2000
Heavy textured soil (clay 20 to 30%) 2000 – 4000
Medium textured soil (clay 10 to 20%) 4000 – 6000
Light textured soil (clay < 10%) 6000 – 8000

Classification of crops based on their tolerance to

salinity
Sensitive Semi-tolerant Tolerant
Cowpea, lemon, Maize, rice, Wheat,
citrus, beans, sugarcane, sugarbeet,
apple potato, mango,
onion
coconut
RSC = (CO3 -- + HCO3-) – (Ca++ + Mg++) in meq / L

RSC < 1.25 meq/L - safe irrigation water

1.25 to 2.5 – marginal water
> 2.5 - not suitable for irrigation purpose
 Reclamation of Salt Affected Soils

SALINE SOIL: Purpose is to reduce the salt

conc. to acceptable limit

(a) Salts at the surface: (i) Scraping

(ii) Flushing

(b)High salt conc. In soil water under deep water

table condition:
(i) ponding of rain or irrigation water for
leaching of salts
(ii) surface drains
(c) High salt conc. in soil water under shallow water
table condition:
(i) Lowering water table either by vertical
drainage or sub-surface drain;
(ii) Leaching out salt through sub-surface
drainage
Alkali Soil: Purpose is to reduce ESP and remove
the released Na salts from the root
zone.

 Treating with chemical amendments (gypsum,

CaSO4, 2H2O; Sulphur etc.)

 Adding organic material,

 Leaching of salt detached from the adsorption

complex

 deep ploughing to break the hard pan for improving

the drainage condition.
Exchangeable sodium required to t/ha per m depth of
be replaced (meq/100 g of soil) soil

1 13.9
2 27.8
3 41.8
4 55.7
5 69.6
6 83.5
7 97.4
8 111.3
9 125.1
10 139.2
GR (meq/100 g of soil) =
2 [Ca conc. of added gypsum solution – (Ca +
Mg) conc. of filtrate]

GR of 1 meq/100 g of soil = 1.72 t ha-1 for 15 cm

depth of soil

kg/ha

f = gypsum application efficiency

 Water balance equation: P + I +G = E + R+ dW

Salt balance equation: P Cp + I Ci + G Cg = R Cr + dZ

Under equilibrium condition : Cp = 0, Cg = Cr, dZ = 0

Ci RG
I Ci = (R – G) Cr Cr

I
 Leaching fraction

Leaching requirement (LR): Amount of water required to leach out

dissolved salts in the root-zone to a prescribed level such that the crop growth
is improved.
I Ci = LR x Cr, Since salt Conc. is linearly related to EC
I ECi = LR x ECr ECi
LR  I
ECr in mm/day
Under equilibrium condition: dW = 0 & dZ = 0
P+I+G=E+R
I = (E – P) + (R – G) And (E – P) = Ic , (R – G)= LR

I = Ic + LR ----------------------(1)
ECr
I  Ic
ECr  ECi

LR under Irrigation (During No Rainfall period)

EC i
LR  I c
EC r  EC i
LR under Rainfall Condition
EC i
LR  E  P 
EC r  EC i

Salt Storage Equation for Non-Equilibrium

condition
Reservoirs in series Continuous column
Salt Balance Equation

Single Reservoir with complete mixing concept

Single Reservoir with mixing and bypass concept

 Series of Reservoirs with complete mixing in each
layer concept

Continuous Column Concept

 What is Drainage ?

Collection and Disposal of excess water

and dissolved salt from the land surface
as well as crop root-zone in order to
improve the soil condition and enhance
crop production.
 What is Surface Drainage?

Removal of excess water from the land

surface by diverting it into natural or
constructed surface drains
 What is Sub-surface Drainage?

Removal of
(i) excess water and (ii) dissolved salt
from the crop root-zone through ditches
or underground pipes such that GWT is
lowered, salinity controlled and crop
production increased.
 Drainage of Agricultural Lands
Collection and disposal of excess water from
agricultural lands.
Surface drainage - when it is from the land
surface
Sub-surface drainage – when it is from the
root-zone depth of
the crops
Approach should be either to:
(i) Control the sources of excess water
(ii) adequate provision for removal of excess
water
Safe removal of excess water from land surface
such that the plants are not stressed.
Both excess rainfall and irrigation water are
collected and disposed of.
Surface drainage problems occur in
(i) Flat areas
(ii) uneven land surface
(iii) areas without outlet

(iv) Heavy soils with low infiltration rate, restricted

vertical percolation and low hydraulic
conductivity.
 Surface Drainage System
The functional parts of surface drainage system

(i) Collection system – Field drains and field laterals

(ii) Conveyance or disposal system – Sub-mains/mains
(iii) Outlet Field drains

Sub-mains

Field laterals

Mains
(i) Random drain system – scattered depression

(ii) Parallel field drain system – field drain field lateral

mains (field ditch system) – Most effective

(iii) Parallel open ditch system – field drains replaced

by open ditches (diversion ditch system)

(iv) Bedding system – Land forming process. Land is

ploughed into beds separated by dead furrows (for
poorly drained soil, flat land & on slopes up to
 Parallel field drain
system

Bedding
system

Recommended bed width

Parallel open ditch

 Operation carried out to change the micro-
topography of land for orderly movement of
water.

Land Smoothing Land Grading

To eliminate minor humps Operation of forming the
and depressions to ensure landscape by cutting, filling
continual flow from all and smoothing to a design
points to field drains grade.
One time operation
 Nichols Terrace / Cross slope drainage system:
it is a channel type graded terrace.
suitable for lands up to 4% slope
applied along the contour
 Mangum terrace / standard erosion control terrace:

Ridge type graded terrace.

Suitable for lands up to 10% slope
A ridge is constructed at the d/s of the channel
Parallel to the contours
 The period and amount of water standing on
the land surface
 No. of days the soil remains workable for
agricultural operations
 Avg. depth of water table during cropping
season
 Seasonal salinity of the root-zone
 Avg. depth of water table during non-cropping
season
 Design of drains or ditches
Capacity of the drain depends upon:
a) Excess rainfall
b) Size of drainage area
c) Characteristics of drainage area
d) Sensitivity of the crops to excess water
 Crops and their drainage requirement

crops Period of Remarks

disposal
Paddy, sugarcane 7 days Panicles not to be
submerged
Cotton 3 days 3 days rainfall to be
drained in 3 days
Maize 2 days 2 days rainfall to be
drained in 2 days
Vegetables 1 day 1 day rainfall to be drained
in the same day
 Drainage coefficient
Amount of water to be removed from the crop land in a
day such that the plants are not stressed due to excess
water.
Unit : depth of water per day
(mm or cm d-1 or lps per ha)
It is the key parameter needed for hydraulic design of the
drainage system.

1 lps per ha = 8.64 mm/day; 1 mm / day = 0.116 lps / ha

In a watershed of 100 ha, drainage coefficient is

1 mm d-1. Calculate the discharge rate at the outlet.
Surface Runoff estimation
 Velocity –Area method
 Slope – Area method
 Stream flow measurement
 Stage – Discharge relationship
 Depth – discharge rating curve
 Hydrograph method
 Empirical formulae
Empirical formulae for sloping areas
 Rational Formula : Q = C i A
 Cook’s method

 SCS – CN / Curve Number method:

AMC Dormant season Growing season

I <12.5 mm <35 mm
II 12.5 – 27.5 35 – 52.5
III >27.5 > 52.5
Empirical formulae for Flat areas
 Cypress Creek formula: Q = CAm (Slope < 0.45%)
C = coefficient depending upon the degree of protection the
crop requires = 0.2098+0.0047Y
Q = design discharge, cumec; m = coefficient (5/6); A = drainage area
(sq. km); Y = direct runoff from max. 24 hour storm by CN method
(mm)

 Boston Society formula: Q = CA1/2

 Raadsma and Schulze method – analysis of rainfall

data and estimating the time required to remove excess
water taking crop tolerance into account
  Simplified hydrologic procedure
 CN method for estimation of direct runoff
 20 : 40 rule
1. When the area of one segment < 20% of the total area

2. When the area of one segment within 20 - 40% of the total area

3. When the area of one segment within 40 - 60% of the total area
1) Quantification of excess rainfall (runoff) Hydrologic
design
2) Drainage coefficient
3) Design discharge rate
4) Cross section of the ditch - trapezoidal
5) Side slope of the ditch Hydraulic
design
6) Velocity of uniform flow using Manning’s formula
Bed slope: should not be milder than 0.2% and
steeper than 0.5%
Velocity of flow: for non-cohesive soil<0.75 m/s
For cohesive soil < 1.5 m/s
Side slope: z = 0.5 to 1 – for fine textured soil
z = 1 to 2 for coarse textured soil
Roughness coefficient (n):
0.02 – 0.045 – unlined channel
0.1 - weed infested channel
 Removal of excess water and dissolved salt
present below the ground surface and within the
root-zone depth. It is accomplished through
lowering of the water table below the root-zone of
the crop.

 Lowering of water table is achieved through the

provision of flow of groundwater under the influence
of gravity from the problem area to an outlet via
deep open drains or pipe drains.
Classification of sub-surface drainage system
(A) Based on the direction of drain
(i) Relief drain :-
(a) To lower the water table
(b) the drains move along the direction
of GW flow
(ii) Interceptor drain:-
(a) To intercept, reduce the flow and
lower the flow line
(b) the drains move against the
direction of GW flow.
Interceptor drain: when waterlogging is caused by
seepage from higher elevation, interceptor drain is
recommended.
 Relief Drainage Field lateral
(i) Buried drains – Required
Collectorsgrade 0.1%
Main drain
(ii) Open ditches – grade
0.01%
Examples: Tile drain (30 to 90 cm), perforated pipes (continuous)
mole drain, drainage well.
Unlined cylindrical conduits formed by mole plough (inherent
stability of the soil.
(B) Based on layout of the buried Drains

Parallel (or) Herringbone Double Random

Gridiron main
Investigations for Sub-Surface Drainage

1. Topographic map
2. Degree of salinity and alkalinity of the soil
3. Fluctuation of water table and artesian
Groun
pressure dwater
studie
4. Groundwater quality
s
5. Logs of soil and sub-soil material
6. Soil physical properties
7. Crops proposed and their drainage
requirement
8. Irrigation practices
Topographic map: It shows details of the features on
land, land slope, possible outlets, existing drainage
pattern and serves as the base map for preparing
water table contour maps and isobath maps.

Groundwater Studies:
(i) Water table depths Piezometer – Hydraulic head of
groundwater
(ii) Fluctuation
Observation well – Depth of Water
(iii) Direction of flow table. data used for preparing GW
hydrograph, GW contour maps and
Isobath maps
(iv) Quality
Groundwater contour map:
(a)the configuration of water table surface

(b)the direction of groundwater flow

(c) the location and extent of high water

table areas
Water table Isobath map:
Isobath line is the line joining points
having equal depth to water table.

Indicates at a glance the areas

 Soil Physical Properties:
(i) Hydraulic conductivity
(ii) Drainable porosity
Hydraulic conductivity:
Rate of flow of water through a porous medium under a
unit hydraulic gradient through unit cross sectional area
at right angles to the direction of flow.

Its magnitude depends on:

(i) texture of the soil
(ii) density and viscosity of the groundwater
1. For homogeneous soil
Single auger hole method, Pipe cavity
method, Cylinder permeameter method,
Pond infiltration test, Reverse auger hole
method.
2. Hydraulic Conductivity of Layered Soil
Drainable porosity / Drainable Pore volume / Drainable
pore space / Effective porosity / Specific yield (μ)
SA
Gravitational water = Drainable pore water
T
FC

Capillary water = Available soil

water
WP
Hygroscopic
water

Volume of water that an unconfined aquifer releases from/takes into

storage per unit surface area of aquifer due to gravity under unit
decline of the water table.
Drainable pore water

Drop in water table

It is dimensionless & expressed in %. Its value ranges from less than

 Crops and their drainage requirement

crops Period of Remarks

disposal
Paddy, sugarcane 7 days Panicles not to be
submerged
Cotton 3 days 3 days rainfall to be
drained in 3 days
Maize 2 days 2 days rainfall to be
drained in 2 days
Vegetables 1 day 1 day rainfall to be drained
in the same day
Irrigation Practices

 Effect of individual irrigation on water table

 Fluctuation of water table throughout

irrigation season and during no irrigation
period

 Irrigation practices should be related to soil

type, crop needs and for maintaining salt
balance
Criterion: Depth and spacing should be such that
the water table midway between the drains
remains below the root-zone
General approach: Deeper the drains, wider the
spacing and less is the number of drains

Depth & spacing of sub-surface drains (pipe drain)

depend on
(i) Hydraulic conductivity of soil
(ii) Kind of crop
(iii) Outlet condition
(iv) Agronomic practices
Relationship among Drain properties - soil
characteristics – depth of water table - the
corresponding discharge derived under
A) Steady state condition
B) Unsteady state condition

Steady state:
Rate of Recharge to GW = Rate of discharge through
pipe drain
Water table remains at the same height as long
as recharge continues.
Unsteady state:
Rate of Recharge varies with time. Flow of GW
towards drains is not steady
Water table between the two parallel drains is curved
and its elevation is highest midway between the
drains and minimum at the drains.

General Assumptions for the flow of groundwater

towards the drain
 Flow is 2-dimensional

 Uniform distribution of recharge

 Soil layer is homogeneous and isotropic

Dupuit-Forchheimer assumptions are used
to convert the two dimensional groundwater
flow towards the drains to one dimensional:
1.Flow pattern is steady

2.Darcy’s equation is applicable

3(a). In a vertical section of aquifer, all velocity

dy
v  k
vectors are horizontal and equal to dx
(b) Hydraulic gradient between two infinitesimally
adjacent sections equals
dy
s  tan  when θ is very small
dx
dy
s  sin  When θ is not small
MM '
 L  dy
Y R   x   qx  K y
2  dx

qx =quantity of water
y passing through the plane
xy per unit time
qx (considering unit thickness)
0
X
4 K H 2  D 2 
R  qx 
x L2
L/2
Donnan equation

 h
8K  D  h
 2 8 K Dh
qx  
L2 L2
 8 KDh  4 Kh 2 Hooghoudt equation
q
L2

When water level in the drain is very low (D ≈ 0)

4 Kh 2 Horizontal flow above drain level
q
L2 Rothe equation

When Depth to impermeable layer is very large (D >>h)

8 KDh
q Horizontal flow below the
L2 drain level

For two layer soil profile

8 K b Dh  4 K t h 2
q
L2
 Principles of Hooghoudt Equation
When the drain bottom does not reach the impermeable layer
 Flow converges near the drain or pipe - radial flow
 Length and velocity of flow increases
 Extra head loss is required to have the same volume of
water flowing into the drains
 Equivalent depth concept

Two vital assumptions

 An imaginary impervious layer above the real
one (D changes to d)
 Real drain/pipe bottoms are replaced by
imaginary ones on the imaginary impermeable layer
 Imaginary
impervious

8 Kdh  4 Kh 2
q
L2
Determination of ‘d’
‘d’ is a function of L, D and ro

(i)From Table value

(For ro = 0.1) d increases with D up to D =
0.25 L
For higher values of D (D> 0.25 L), d remains
unchanged as D ≥ 0.25 L
Equivalent depth table for r0 = 0.1m, and D & L in m
(ii) Van der Molen & Wesseling Formula
L
d  8
L
ln  F ( x)
r0
2D
x 
L
(iii)

u = wetted perimeter
(A) Drain spacing Through nomographs

(k/
(D/h) q)

(h/
u)
Hooghoudt method
 It is applicable for two - layered soil profile having
different K values
 Position of the drain level may be above or below the
interface of the two layers
 it considers radial flow
 Kt < K b
Application of Hooghoudt Equation
 It is applicable for homogeneous soil and for two -
layered soil profile having different K values
 Drain level coincides with the interface of the two layers
 It does not allow radial flow towards the drain
 K t > Kb
 Ernst Concept

h
Dv
y
D1 D Dr
0

Dh D2

Total hydraulic head required (h)= hv+hh+ hr

 Dv L2 L a Dr 
hq    ln where Do or (Do+D2)
 v 8 KD h K r
K u 
& Dr ≤ L/4
Dv = thickness of the layer through which vertical flow
occurs
= y+h for open ditch; = ‘h’ for pipe drain

Dh = average thickness of the layer through which

horizontal flow takes place
Dr = thickness of the layer through which radial flow takes
place

D1 = avg. thickness of the top layer below the

water table with permeability Kt

D2 = thickness of the bottom layer with permeability

Kb
D0 = thickness below drain level up to the interface
of both the layers/impermeable layer in which the
drains are located.
where, a = geometry factor of radial resistance
u =wetted perimeter of the drain
About ‘u’ 2r0
(i) pipe drains run half full. So, u   r0
2

(ii) For open ditch with trapezoidal cross section,

2
u  b  2 y z 1
(iii) Pipe drains in trench where, b = bottom width,

u  b  2r0 y = depth of water in the

drain, z = side slope of the
drain
(iv) Pipe drains surrounded by envelope:
u  b  2(2r0  m) m =height of envelope over the pipe
b = width of the trench
About ‘a’
It is a function of soil profile and position of the drain
Drain in the bottom layer,
a = 1 , since radial flow is restricted to this layer
If drain is in the top layer, value of ‘a’ depends on the
ratio of Kb and Kt

When Kb Bottom layer is considered impervious. So, soil

 0.1
Kt profile becomes one layer and ‘a’ = 1

Kb Db
When Kb an
0.1   50 ‘a’ value is decided based on Kt Dt
Kt d
values by relaxation method and Nomographs
When Kb
 50
Kt then, a = 4
Geometry factor by Relaxation method
Nomograph for determination of geometry factor

a
a
Drains in the bottom layer And Kt < Kb

 2 D1 L2 L D0 

h  q   ln 
 Kt 8 K b D2 K b u 
 Drains in the top layer (i) Kb/Kt > 50

 yh L2 L 4 D0 
h  q   ln 
 Kt 8( K t D1  K b D2 ) K t u 
(ii) 0.1 < Kb/Kt < 50
‘a’ value is to be determined from the table or by nomograph

(iii) Kb/Kt< 0.1

Bottom layer is assumed to be impermeable. The soil
profile becomes homogeneous.

 yh L2 L D0 

h  q   ln 
 Kt 8 K t D1 K t u 
Ernst Equation for Homogeneous layer

 yh L2 L D 
h  q   ln 0 
 Kt 8 K t D1 K t u 
Determination of ‘L’ from nomograph
with Ernst Equation when Do < L/4
h/
q
 Discussion on steady state equations
Soil profile Position of drain Applicable Theory Equation
homogeneous On the top of Hooghoudt 8KDh  4 Kh 2
q
impervious layer L2
Homogeneous Above impervious Hooghoudt with 8 Kdh  4 Kh 2
q
layer equivalent depth L2
2-layered On the interface of Hooghoudt 8 K b Dh  4 K t h 2
q
both the layers L2

2-layered In bottom layer Ernst  2 D1

h  q 
L2

L D 
ln 0 
 Kt 8 K b D2 K b u 
(Kt < Kb)
2-layered In top layer Ernst  yh L2 L 4D 
h  q   ln 0 
(Kb /Kt> 50)  Kt 8( K t D1  K b D2 ) K t u 

(0.1 < Kb/ Kt< 50) Ernst (‘a’ from

 yh L2 L (a) D0 
nomograph or h  q  
8( K t D1  K b D2 ) K t
ln
u 

 Kt
table)
Kb/Kt < 0.1 Ernst  yh L2 L D 
h  q   ln 0 
 Kt 8 K t D1 ) K t u 
 Design Criteria Crop season drainage
Off-season drainage
Crops
Drainage of specific
Soil crop
Heavy
Salt drainage
Climate soils
Medium
Type of soil
Humid
drainage
Temperate Light
Pipe soil
(moderate climate) Economics Mole
Open ditch
Arid
vertical
 Design Components
 Design level of water table
 Sub-surface drainage coefficient
 Design discharge
 Size of tiles
 Grade of tile drains
 Spacing between tiles
 Load calculation on tiles
 Design of envelope material
 Outlet
 Design level of water table
Crop Steady state Unsteady state

Fine Light Fine Light

Field crops 1.2 1.0 0.9 0.9

Vegetables 1.1 1.0 0.3 0.9

Tree crops 1.6 1.2 1.4 1.1

 Sub-surface Drainage coefficient
Analysis of Rainfall and Soil properties
(i) Rainfall intensity, (ii) Hydraulic cond., (iii) Infiltration
rate, (iv) Leaching requirement and (v) Percolation rate.
The smallest among (i) to (v) is the drainage coefficient
using empirical equations for rainfall intensity
0.1353
For eastern region of India i  6 .933 T
t  0.50.8801

where, i = rainfall intensity, cm h-1; T = return period, year;

t = duration of rainfall, h.
Convert i from cm h-1 to m day-1.
 Under irrigated condition
a) equivalent steady state drainage
b) empirical formula
c) water budgeting
Equivalent steady state drainage
Covert unsteady state drainage condition to
equivalent steady state drainage by dividing
the excess irrigation with the irrigation
interval  a 
Di 1  
100
Dc   
Ii
 b) USDA Empirical formula

 Ds  LR  Cs 
Dc    Di
 Ii 

Ds = deep percolation in fraction of depth of irrigation

Cs = conveyance loss through field channel in fraction
of depth of irrigation
Ii = irrigation interval, days

c) Water budgeting (In each irrigation interval)

Dc = Max [(Rainfall + Irrigation depth) –
 Design Discharge

For all the cases, the design discharge is the

volume of discharge at the outlet per unit time
(m3 s-1)

Dc  A Dc  L  W
q 
24  60  60 86400

where, A = Area between two tiles = length of

tile (L) x spacing between tiles (W)
 Size of Tile drain
Assuming the pipe flows full, uniform flow
formula (Manning’s formula) is used.
Dc  L  W 1 2 / 3 1/ 2  2
q  v  c.s. of tile  R S  d
86400 n 4

d  0.0218
nDc LW 
3/8

S 3 /16
For corrugated flexible PVC pipe
q
2.5
 1 to 1.5
d
Uniform flow formula (Manning’s formula) used to
compute the velocity of flow in pipes.
The value of ‘n’ and ‘grade’ (s) are two important
parameters to be used in the formula.

Manning’s Roughness Coefficient (n)

Pipe material n
Concrete tile & vitrified clay tile 0.011
Rigid PVC pipe 0.014 – 0.019
Baked clay tile 0.015 – 0.02
Perforated and corrugated plastic 0.017
pipe
 Grade of tile drain

It is the longitudinal slope (s) between the ground

surface and the outlet. Grade should be such that no
sedimentation or scouring occurs along the flow path.

For laterals, s  0.2% - allowed

s < 0.15% - avoided
Recommended velocity of flow in laterals = 45 cm/s

the grade for the main drains is satisfactory when,

s = 2 to 3%
 Drain pipe Drain filter / Envelope

Short length Continuous

(30 – 60 cm) (6 m – 100 m) Mineral Organic synthetic

Ancillary items
Joints, bends, outlet gates, end plugs,
Man-hole / sedimentation basin, inlets
Drain pipe
Baked clay pipe, asbestos cement pipe, concrete
pipe, rigid PVC pipe, corrugated flexible PVC pipe.
dia. of laterals – 80 to 100 mm, collectors – 160 mm
and higher; for mains, it is still higher.
The gap allowed between two drain pipes in lateral
is 3mm.
Wall thickness – 5 mm
Perforations can be made on pipes to allow more
entry of water into the pipes.
The open area percentage on tiles should match
with the drainable porosity of the soil.
Drain filter
It is a more pervious material than the soil around the
drain pipe.
Filters are for the dewatering portion (laterals) of
drainage system, not for the conveying portion
(Collectors, mains)

Functions
i) Checks entry of coarser soil particles into the drain
ii) Creates a zone of higher hydraulic conductivity
around the drain pipe
iii) Acts as a bedding material to provide extra
support to the drain pipe
iv) Increases the effective dia. of drain pipe
Determination of appropriate size gradation of filter to
enable it to effectively check the soil inflow into the drain
pipe.

For Uniform Soil

d 50 of gravel envelope
 5 to 10
d 50 of soil

For Graded Soil

d 50 of gravel envelope
 12 to 58
d 50 of soil
 Causes of failure of sub-surface drainage system

 Strength of the drain pipe

 Gap between drain pipes

 Non-uniformity of slope in continuous length drain

pipe

 Faulty joints between laterals, laterals and collector

 Malfunctioning of end gate

 Improper filter and inadequate thickness

 Loads on Drain pipe
Load on pipe should not be greater than the crushing strength of the pipe

For narrow trenches: Ditch conduit formula

Wc  Cd w Bd 
2

Wc = total load on the conduit per unit length; C d = load coefficient

for ditch conduit; w = unit wt. of fill material, kg m -3; Bd = width of
ditch at top of the conduit, m.

For wide trenches: Projecting conduit formula

Wc  Cc w Bc 
wide trench 2
trench width is 2 to 3 times wider than
the outer dia. of the pipe.
Cc = load coefficient for projecting conduit; Bc
= outside diameter of the conduit
 B

A C
Wc Wc

Bd Bd

Bc Bc

Ditch conduit Projecting conduit

Load on conduit Load on conduit> wt. of soil above it
< wt. of soil above it
 Testing of tiles
crushing strength of the tile is tested prior to installation.
a) Three edge bearing test
b) Sand bearing test
Load carrying capacity of the tile =
crushing strength x load factor x safety factor

Inlets
Surface inlet (open inlet) – removal of excess
surface water

Blind inlet (French drain)- when surface water

is less and amount of sediment is more
Man-hole
Vertical structures along the drainage line for
inspection and cleaning of any kind of blockage in the line

Sedimentation basin
A structure that provides for sediment
accumulation

Relief pipe and Breathers

Vertical pipes installed on long drainage lines to
prevent the development of vacuum
 Digging of trench

 Laying the tiles to prescribed grade

 Putting the envelope

 Backfilling of the tiles (blinding and back-filling)

 Outlet
Performance of the drainage system depends
on the functioning of the outlet.
1. Gravity outlet
2. Pump outlet
Requirement of a good outlet

a) free flow drainage water

b) discharge of outflow without any erosion
c) prevention of the entry of flood water
 Drainage method

Conventional Non-conventional

Mole Vertical Bio- Pump

surfac Sub-
e surface drainag drainage drainage drainag
e e
Shallow or deep Tube Dug well
well Multiple
well point
system
 Initial investment
+ Cash outflow
Annual variable cost

Differential return due to drainage project

[(production of grains due to drainage – production of Cash inflow
grains from waterlogged area) MSP – production cost]

Present worth of (cash inflow – net return) = Net present value of the
project
n t 1 n t 1

PWco  I nv  PWv PWav   Av 1  f  1  r  t

PWci   Aa r 1  f  1  r t
t 1 t 1

n t 1

PWnr   Anr 1  f  1  r t

t 1