CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY NOTES Nust

CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY NOTES
Complied by Dr M Magombeyi
Cement
The word cement is derived from Caementum, meaning rough stone. In the most general
sense cement is a binding agent. Cement is defined as a fine powder which when mixed with
water for hydration attains cohesive properties. The name Portland arose from a cement that
resembled Portland
Cement is powder and is one of the main ingredients in concrete. Cement and concrete have
been used in construction since at least the Roman Empire. Modern cement is made of
limestone, silicon, calcium, and often aluminum and iron.
The type of cement used in almost all concrete is Portland cement. Portland cement has been
around since 1824. The name Portland does not refer to a brand name, as many might think.
The original inventor, Joseph Aspdin, was a British bricklayer and named his new invention
―Portland‖ because its color reminded him of the color of the natural limestone on the Isle of
Portland which is a peninsula in the English Channel.
Chemical composition of OPC (Ordinary Portland cement)
Lime (CaO) = 60-65%
Silica (SiO) = 20-25%
Alumina (Al2O3) = 4-7%
Iron-oxide (Fe2O3) = < 5%
Although Portland cement is the main cement used in concrete, there are other types of
cement. The three types that are often mentioned are Portland, blended, and hydraulic. All
Portland and blended cements are actually hydraulic cement. What is hydraulic cement,
though? Hydraulic cement is actually the generic term in the construction industry. It refers to
any cement that will set and harden after it is combined with water. Most modern
construction cements are hydraulic. There are six different types of hydraulic cement:
Type GU: General Use

Type HE: High Early Strength (more finely ground)
Type MS: Moderate Sulfate Resistance
Type HS: High Sulfate Resistance
Type MH: Moderate Heat of Hydration
Dept of Civil and Water Eng. TCW 2205: Civil Eng Materials: Concrete Technology Page 1
Type LH: Low Heat of Hydration (normally used in mass concrete)
Portland cement is a particular type of hydraulic cement. Portland cement contains hydraulic
calcium silicates. There are eight specific types of Portland cement that fall into categories
ranging from Type I to Type V. Type I and Type IA are general purpose cements. Type II
and Type IIA contain tricalcium aluminate, but no more than 8%. To compare to the
hydraulic cement types, some of the Type II cements meeting the standard for the moderate
heat of hydration type.
Type III and Type IIIA are similar to Type I cements. However, they have higher early
strengths because they are ground finer. Type IV cements are used in special types of
structures that require a small amount of heat to be generated from hydration. Type IV
cements develop their strength over a longer period of time when compared to other types.
Finally, Type V cement has a high sulfate resistance which means it contains no more than
5% tricalcium aluminate.
The third type of cement is blended cement. Blended cement is also hydraulic cement and is
made by mixing two or more materials. Usually the primary materials used in blended
cement are Portland cement and slag cement. Fly ash, slica fume, calcined clay, pozzolan,
and hydrated lime are also used. There are two main types of blended cement:
Type IS (X): Portland blast furnace slag cement (OPC clinker + 65% granulated slag
to release less hydration heat and gives strength more slowly and is resistant to
chemical attack.
Type IP (X): Portland-pozzolan cement
The X represents the amount of the second material that is in the mixture.
The reason that there are different types of cements is not only required because of the
different uses of the cement, but also because of the type of materials available differ by
location. Many of the types described above actually cross-over between the different
categories. This allows for flexibility in particular construction projects. For example,
different pozzolans and slag are available in different regions. As long as the desired
properties of the concrete can be achieved usually, there is flexibility in the final choice of
cement that is used.
Some texts classify the other types of cement just as slag, pozzolanic (60-80% OPC and 20-
40% pozzolants) and high alumina (combines limestone and low grade bauxite and heating)
cements
In Zimbabwe there are generally 3 types of cement manufactured:
a) High early Strength Portland Cement (HESPC or RHPC= Rapid hardening PC)
b) Portland Cement 15 (PC 15)
c) Portland blast furnace cement (PBFC)
To utilise local materials, selected granulated blast furnace slag from Zisco is included in PC
15 (up to 15 % kg mass) and PBFC (up to 65 % kg mass). The slag is not merely a filler but
a cementing material although it attains strength slowly.
RHPC
It develops high strength at early ages and has the same initial and final setting times as PC
15 and PBFC. The PHPC should be used when higher strengths in the first few days after
casting to allow early stripping of formwork.
PC 15
Most widely used and is satisfactory for all normal concrete and mortar work. Due to the
presence of slag, the curing temperatures should not be allowed to fall too low that moist
curing has to persist as long as practicable to fully realise the cement‘s potential.
PBFC
More affected by low temperatures during curing than PC 15, hence, should be used in thin
sections with large surface areas like floor slabs, plaster e.t.c. This type of cement generates
less hydration heat, hence, is used in mass concrete and locally for foundations and other uses
where low strength (10-15 MPa) are required.
Manufacture of Portland cement

Portland cement is made primarily from calcareous material, such as lime stone or chalk, and
from alumina and silica found in clay or shale.
Process: involves the grinding of raw materials, mixing them thoroughly in certain
proportions and burning in a large rotary kiln at approximately 1400 0C. This makes the
material to sinter and partially fuses into balls known as clinker. Clinker is then cooled and
ground to a fine powder with some gypsum added, resulting in Portland cement.
Manufacture of Cement by Wet process

Chalk is finely broken up and dispersed in water in a washmill, which is a circular pit with
revolving radial arms carrying rakes which break up the lumps of solid matter. Clay is also
broken up and mixed with water, usually in a similar washmill. The two are pumped so as to
mix in predetermined proportions and pass through a series of screens. The resulting cement
slurry flows into storage tanks.
When limestone is used, it has to be first blasted, then crushed into progressively smaller
crushes, and then send into a ball mill with the clay dispersed in water. The resultant cement
slurry is pumped into storage tanks. From here onwards, the process is the same for both
chalk and limestone. The slurry is a liquid of creamy consistence, with a water content of
between 35-50%.
The reaction of Tricalcium aluminate (C3A) with water is very violent and leads to immediate
stiffening of the paste, known as flash set. To prevent this gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) is added to
cement clinker. Gypsum and C3A react to form insoluble calcium sulphoaluminate
(3CaO.Al2O3. 3CaSO4.31H2O).
A peak in the rate of heat development is normally observed within 5minutes of adding water
to cement. This means that some calcium aluminate hydrate is formed directly during that
period, prior to establishment of retardation conditions by gypsum.
The presence of C3A in cement is undesirable as it contributes little or nothing to the strength
of cement except at early stages, and when hardened cement paste is attacked by sulphates.
Expansion due to the formation of calcium sulphoaluminate from C3A may result in a
disruption of the hardened paste. However, C3A acts as a flux and thus reduces the
temperature of burning of clinker and facilitates the combination of lime and silica; for these
reasons C3A is useful in the manufacture of cement. See Fig 1 and Fig 2 for the sequence of
cement manufacturing processes.
Fig. 1. Cement Manufacturing Process
Source of image at: www.smecrusher.com/.../clinker-grinding-unit/

Case study: Cement Manufacturing Process
Lehigh Inland's manufacturing plant in Edmonton is capable of producing one million metric
tonnes of cement per year.
1. The cement manufacturing process begins when limestone, the basic raw material used to
make cement, is transported by rail to the Edmonton plant from the Cadomin limestone quarry
220 kilometres west of Edmonton.
2. The limestone is combined with clay, ground in a crusher and fed into the additive silos.
Sand, iron and bottom ash are then combined with the limestone and clay in a carefully
controlled mixture which is ground into a fine powder in a 2000 hp roller mill.
3. Next, the fine powder is heated as it passes through the Pre-Heater Tower into a large kiln,
which is over half the length of a football field and 4.2 metres in diameter. In the kiln, the
powder is heated to 1500 degrees Celsius. This creates a new product, called clinker, which
resembles pellets about the size of marbles.
4. The clinker is combined with small amounts of gypsum and limestone and finely ground in a
finishing mill. The mill is a large revolving cylinder containing 250 tonnes of steel balls that is
driven by a 4000 hp motor. The finished cement is ground so fine that it can pass through a sieve
that will hold water.
5. The cement manufacturing process consists of many simultaneous and continuous operations
using some of the largest moving machinery in manufacturing. Over 5000 sensors and 50
computers allow the entire operation to be controlled by a single operator from a central control
room.
Fig. 2. A case study of Cement Manufacturing Process
Manufacturing cement, like glass, is a highly energy-intensive process. Cement is an

indispensible building product which has made an enormous contribution to civil engineering
and to our standard of living. Our prosperity and modern standard of living as we know it
would be unimaginable without it. The cement industry consumes about 2 to 3% of the
world’s energy and emits more than 5% of manmade CO2, approximately 3 to 4 times
more than air traffic. Not only does the process involve the mining of limestone as the raw
material, but also includes transport, handling, processing in rotary kilns, stocking
and distribution.
Properties of cement
a Fineness
The reaction between water and cement starts on the surface of the cement particles and
therefore the greater the surface area of a given volume of cement, the greater the hydration.
Fine cement will develop strength and generate more heat quickly than coarse cement. Fine
cements are more expensive. Fine cements improve cohesiveness of fresh concrete and can
be effective in reducing the risk of bleeding, but they increase the tendency for shrinkage
cracking.
b Hydration
Is the chemical combination of water and cement to produce a very hard strong binding
medium for the aggregate particles in concrete and is accompanied by the liberation of heat.
The rate of hydration depends on the C3S and C3A contents, cement fineness and ambient
conditions (temp + moisture). Temperature of concrete is affected by size of structure,
ambient conditions, type of formwork and the rate at which concrete is placed.
c Setting and hardening (Fig. 2b)
These properties are associated with hydration. Initial set- the beginning of noticeable
stiffening in the cement paste i.e. when it begins to lose its fluidity. Final set- further
stiffening occurs as the volume of gel increases and the stage at which this is complete and
the final hardening process responsible for its strength commences is known as the final set.
Time from the addition of water to the initial and final set are known as setting times. Setting
is the stiffening of the concrete after it has been placed. Hardening may continue for weeks or
months after the concrete has been mixed and placed.
Fig. 2b. Setting and hardening
d Flash set
Takes place in cement with insufficient gypsum to control the rapid reaction of C 3A with
water. This can be overcome by adding more water and re-agitating the mix. However, more
water means decrease in strength.
e Strength
This is evident in hardened cement and tests are carried out on concrete and mortar and not
on the cement itself to determine the strength.
f Soundness
An excessive change in volume particularly expansion of cement paste after setting indicates
that the cement is unsound. This unsoundness may result in cracking and disintegration of the
concrete surface. Le Chatelier‘s apparatus are used to measure this property. Cement paste is
placed in a mould and left in water at room temperature for 24 hours and the gap between
apparatus measured. The set is then boiled for 30min and the gap between apparatus
measured. The difference should be ≤ 10mm.
CONCRETE
Concrete is a mixture of cement, water, sand, and gravel. By volume, 10 to 15% of concrete
is cement. As concrete hardens, the mixture becomes stronger. The hardening process can
take years. Concrete has the ability to withstand the pressure of heavy loads because it has
high compression strength. It can also be moulded into any shape, can be made porous or
watertight, and is a relatively cheap material for use in construction projects.
Properties of Water
Should be of good quality. Tap water is preferred (see your class notes)
Aggregates:
Are used as filler in concrete; improves volume stability and durability of the resulting
concrete and should be relatively inert.
Should be durable and not react with cement paste. Soundness of aggregate: is the ability of
aggregate to resist excessive changes in volume as a result of the changes in physical
conditions, such as freezing and thawing, thermal changes and temperature above freezing
and alternating wetting and drying. If the aggregate in concrete is weak, the concrete will also
be weak. Rocks with low strength, such as chalk, are clearly unsuitable for use as aggregate.
Aggregate paste bond: The compactness of the bond between the paste and the aggregate is
critical. If there is no bond, the aggregate effectively represents a void & voids are a source of
weakness in concrete (see your class notes).
Types of aggregates:
Normal aggregates: suitable for most purposes and produce concrete with a density of 2300-
2500kg/m3. They are from crushed stone, sand and gravel deposits formed by alluvial or
glacial action. Sand and gravel should be washed to remove impurities such as clay and silt.
River and marine aggregates should be checked for chloride content. Sandstone aggregates
produce concretes with a high drying shrinkage because of their high porosity. Blast furnace
aggregates improve fire resistance as well as broken-brick aggregates; although these should
not be used in normal concrete if their soluble sulphate content exceeds 1%.
Lightweight aggregates (e.g. sintered shale, foamed slag, expanded clay, sintered pulverised-
fuel ash): used in insulating screeds, reinforced concrete or prestressed concrete, but mainly
used in precast concrete blocks. Such concretes have good ire resistance properties. Highly
porous (moisture content vary), hence should be batched by volume. Bulk densities vary from
350-850 kg/m3 for coarse aggregates to 750-1100kg/m3 for fine aggregates.
Basic Characteristics of aggregates
Aggregates should be strong, resistant to deformation, durable, tough, hard, resistant to
volume change. Also important are relative density and chemical reactivity.
Strength of aggregate becomes more important when its compressive strength is less than or
of the same order as the design strength of concrete.
Deformation: the modulus of elasticity of concrete increases with increasing aggregate
modulus.
Aggregate toughness: is its resistance to failure by impact. Hardness is the resistance of an
aggregate to wear. Toughness (resistance of aggregate to failure by impact) and hardness
(resistance to wear) properties are important for concrete used in road pavements.
Volume changes may result in shrinkage of the concrete and therefore aggregate must resist
these.
Aggregate porosity: affect strength and water absorption and permeability of the aggregate.
Aggregates occupy ¾ of concrete; hence its quality is important. Aggregate is cheaper than
cement, therefore, it is economical to put more of it into the mix.
Particle shape and texture: Roundness measures the relative sharpness or angularity of the
edges and corners of a particle. Shape and surface texture of aggregate influence strength of
concrete. The flexural strength is more affected than the compressive strength. A rough
texture results in greater adhesive force between the particles and the cement matrix. Shape
and texture affect water requirement of the mix made with a given aggregate. Flakiness and
shape of coarse aggregates affect concrete workability.
A rough surface of crushed stone results in a better bond, usually obtained with softer porous
aggregates.
Specific gravity: important in construction of gravity dam, where minimum density of
concrete is essential for the stability of the structure.
Bulk density: when aggregates are batched by volume, it is necessary to know the weight of
aggregate that should fill a container of unit volume. This is known as the bulk density of
aggregate. This density is used to convert quantities by weight to quantities by volume. It
depends on the material of a given specific gravity, on the size distribution and shape of the
particles. Particles of one size can be packed to a limited extent but smaller particles can be
added in the voids between the larger particles thus increasing the bulk density of the packed
material. Shape of the particles greatly affects the closeness‘ of packing that can be achieved.
Moisture content of aggregates: if no water movement into the aggregate is to take place,
the pores must be full of water i.e. aggregate must be in a saturated condition. Any water on
the surface of the aggregate will contribute to the water in the mix and will occupy volume in
excess of that of the aggregate particles (saturated and dry surface aggregates).
Adsorption represents the water contained in aggregates in a saturated and surface-dry
condition, and the moisture content is the water in excess of that state. The total water content
of a moist aggregate is equal to the sum of absorption and moisture content.
Bulking of sand: the presence of moisture in aggregate necessitates correction of the actual
mix proportions: the weight of water added to the mix has to be decreased by the weight of
the free moisture in the aggregate and the weight of the aggregate must be increased a similar
amount.
Sand bulking: is increase in volume of a given weight of sand caused by films of water
pushing the sand particles apart. Bulking does not affect proportioning of materials by
weight. In the case of volume batching, bulking results in a smaller weight of sand occupying
the fixed volume of the measuring box. Hence, the mix becomes deficient in sand and
appears ‗stony‘, and the concrete may be prone to segregation and honeycombing. The yield
of concrete is reduced.
Deleterious substances in aggregate: these are impurities which interfere with the process
of cement hydration or coatings which prevent the development of good bond between
aggregate and cement paste or certain individual particles which are weak or unsound in
themselves. Chemical reactions between the aggregate and cement paste can also be harmful.
Organic impurities: they interfere with the chemical reactions of hydration; decay and
leave voids.
Clay and other fine products (silt and crusher dust)
Salt contamination: salt absorbs water from air and cause efflorescence (slightly
white deposits on the surface of the concrete). A slight corrosion of the reinforcement
may also result.
Unsound particles: there are two types, those that fail to maintain their integrity and those
that lead to disruptive expansion on freezing or even exposure to water. Shale and other
particles of low density are regarded as unsound and so are soft inclusions, such as clay
lumps, wood and coal, as they lead to pitting and scaling adversely affecting concrete
strength. Coal, in addition of being a soft inclusion, it can swell causing disruption of
concrete and if present in large quantities in a finely divided form, it can disturb the process
of hardening of cement paste. Presence of iron pyrites and marcasite cause surface staining of
concrete and disruption of the cement paste as these sulphides react with water and oxygen in
the air.
Alkali-aggregate reaction: the most common reaction is between active silica constituents
of the aggregate and the alkalis (Na2O and K2O) in cement. The product of silica and alkali
reaction has a tendency to expand, leading to cracking.
Alkali-Carbonate reaction: Another type of deleterious aggregate reaction between some
dolomite limestone aggregates and alkalis in cement. Expansion of concrete, similar to that
occurring as a result of alkali-aggregate reaction takes place under humid conditions.
Cracking develops and leads to a network of cracks and a loss of bond between the
aggregates and the cement paste.
Thermal properties of aggregates
These are coefficient of thermal expansion, specific heat and conductivity. The last two are
important in mass concrete or where insulation is required, but not in ordinary structural
work. If the coefficients of thermal expansion of the coarse aggregate and the cement paste
differ too much, a large change in temperature may introduce differential movement and a
break in the bond between aggregates and surrounding paste.
PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE:
Grades of concrete:
Concrete is known by its grade which is designated as M15, M20 etc. in which letter M refers
to concrete mix and number 15, 20 denotes the specified compressive strength (fck) of
150mm cube at 28 days, expressed in N/mm2 or MPa. Thus, concrete is known by its
compressive strength. M20 and M25 are the most common grades of concrete (See Fig. 3
showing placing of concrete below), and higher grades of concrete should be used for severe,
very severe and extreme environments.
Compressive strength
Like load, the strength of the concrete is also a quality which varies considerably for the same
concrete mix. Therefore, a single representative value, known as characteristic strength is
used. Compressive strength
Process control testing is carried out by Holcim of South Africa (source: SANS 878:2004,
Ready-mixed concrete, Pretoria: South African Bureau of Standards, 2003).
Ready mix laboratories for their own quality control purposes to ensure that:
No individual result falls below the characteristic strength minus 3 MPa, and
The average of 30 valid cube results exceeds the specified strength by at least 1,64
times the current standard deviation
Acceptance control is carried out by the customer on site to verify process control,
and to ensure that:
No individual result falls below the characteristic strength minus 3 MPa, and
The average of three consecutive and overlapping results are at least equal to the
specified strength plus 2 MPa
Batching tolerances
Cementitious materials are batched cumulatively by mass to within 2%

Aggregate is batched to within 3%
Admixtures are batched to within 2% or 50 ml
Water is batched to within 2%
Characteristic strength
It is defined as the value of the strength below which not more than 5% of the test results are
expected to fall (i.e. there is 95% probability of achieving this value only 5% of not achieving
the same).
Fig. 3. Placing concrete
Characteristic strength of concrete in flexural member
The characteristic strength of concrete in flexural member is taken as 0.67 times the strength
of concrete cube.
1) Design strength (fd) and partial safety factor for material strength
The strength to be taken for the purpose of design is known as design strength and is given by
Design strength (fd) = characteristic strength/ partial safety factor for material strength
The value of partial safety factor depends upon the type of material and upon the type of limit
state. According to IS code, partial safety factor is taken as 1.5 for concrete and 1.15 for
steel.
Design strength of concrete in member = 0.45fck
2) Tensile strength
Estimate of flexural tensile strength or the modulus of rupture or the cracking strength of
concrete from cube compressive strength is obtained by the relations
fcr = 0.7 fck N/mm2
The tensile strength of concrete in direct tension is obtained experimentally by split cylinder.
It varies between 1/8 to 1/12 of cube compressive strength.
3) Creep
Creep is defined as the plastic deformation under sustain load. Creep strain depends primarily
on the duration of sustained loading. According to the code, the value of the ultimate creep
coefficient is taken as 1.6 at 28 days of loading.
4) Shrinkage
The property of diminishing in volume during the process of drying and hardening is termed
Shrinkage. It depends mainly on the duration of exposure. If this strain is prevented, it
produces tensile stress in the concrete and hence concrete develops cracks.
5) Modular ratio
Short term modular ratio is the modulus of elasticity of steel to the modulus of elasticity of
concrete.
Short term modular ratio = Es / Ec
Es = modulus of elasticity of steel (2×10 5 N/mm2)
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete (5000√fck N/mm2)
As the modulus of elasticity of concrete changes with time, age at loading etc the modular
ratio also changes accordingly. Taking into account the effects of creep and shrinkage
partially IS code gives the following expression for the long-term modular ratio.
Long term modular ratio (m) = 280/ (3fcbc)
Where, fcbc = permissible compressive stress due to bending in concrete in N/mm2.
6) Poisson’s ratio:
Poisson‘s ratio varies between 0.1 for high strength concrete and 0.2 for weak mixes. It is
normally taken as 0.15 for strength design and 0.2 for serviceability criteria.
Durability of concrete:
Durability of concrete is its ability to resist its disintegration and decay. The concrete should
be resistant to weather, wear and other destructive agencies; should not shrink excessively on
cooling or drying.
It is influenced by concrete permeability to water and other potentially deleterious materials.

Desired low permeability in concrete is achieved by having adequate cement, sufficient low
water/cement ratio, by ensuring full compaction of concrete and by adequate curing.
Measurement of durability: using of performance test of service records; bleeding rate (a

measure of permeability); water tightness (a measure of impermeability); volume changes on
setting, wetting and drying, freezing and thawing, heating and cooling; chemical
deterioration; erosion and resistance to wear; creep (change in length of concrete under stress.
Factors affecting durability
Mix proportions: for durability plastic consistency (adequate workability and cohesiveness)
which reduces likelihood of rock pockets, honeycombing, porous layers and scaling is
required.
Cement-water ratio: the higher the cement/water ratio the more durable the concrete
Water: shrinkage is directly proportional to water. An increase in water content from 180-
240ℓ/m3, approximately doubles the shrinkage and permeability of concrete. The bleeding
rate also increases with water content. NB: sufficient water must be used to give adequate
workability.
Curing: adequate curing is one of the most important factors in making durable concrete.
However, it does not reduce shrinkage.
Aggregates: aggregates with lowest water demand make the most durable concrete provided
the mix is cohesive and with a low bleeding rate. Large size aggregate, because of its lower
water demand, it is superior to small stone size. Aggregates must be chemically and
physically stable.
Unit weight of concrete:
The unit weight of concrete depends on percentage of reinforcement, type of aggregate,
amount of voids and varies from 23 to 26KN/m2. The unit weight of plain and reinforced
concrete as specified by IS: 456 are 24 and 25KN/m3, respectively.
EFFECTS OF AGGREGATE PROPERTIES ON CONCRETE
Concrete is a mixture of cementitious material, aggregate (Fig. 4) and water. Aggregate is

commonly considered inert filler, which accounts for 60 to 80% of the volume and 70 to 85%
of the weight of the concrete. Although aggregate is considered inert filler, it is a necessary
component that defines the concrete’s thermal and elastic properties and dimensional
stability.
Fig. 4. Aggregates
Physical and mineralogical properties of aggregate must be known before mixing concrete
to obtain a desirable mixture. These properties include shape and texture, size gradation,
moisture content, specific gravity, reactivity, soundness, and bulk unit weight. These
properties along with water /cementitious material ratio determine the strength, workability
and durability of the concrete.
Shape and texture of the aggregate affects the properties of fresh concrete more than
hardened concrete. Concrete is more workable when smooth and rounded aggregate is used
instead of rough angular or elongated aggregate. Crushed stone produces much more angular
and elongated aggregate, which have a higher surface area to volume ratio and better bond
characteristics but require more cement paste to produce a workable mixture.
Surface texture of the aggregate can be either smooth or rough. A smooth surface can
improve workability yet a rougher surface generates a stronger bond between the paste and
the aggregate creating a higher strength.
Grading or size distribution of aggregate determines the paste requirement for workable
concrete. Required amount of the concrete paste is dependent upon the amount of void space
that must be filled and the total surface area that must be covered. When the particles are of
uniform size the spacing is the greatest but when a range of sizes is used the void spaces are
filled, the less workable the concrete becomes. Therefore, a compromise between
workability and economy is necessary.
The moisture content of an aggregate is an important factor when developing the proper
water/cementitious material ratio.
The density of the aggregate is required in mixture proportioning to establish weight- volume
relationships.
METHODS OF PROPORTIONING CONCRETE
Process of relative proportions of cement, sand, coarse aggregate and water, so as to obtain a
concrete of desired quality is known as the proportioning of concrete.
The proportions of coarse aggregate, cement and water should be such that the resulting
concrete has the following properties:
1. When concrete is fresh, it should have enough workability so that it can be placed in
the formwork economically.
2. The concrete must possess maximum density or in the other words, it should be
strongest and most water-tight.
3. The cost of materials and labour required to form concrete should be minimum.
The determination of the proportions of cement, aggregates and water to obtain the required
strengths shall be made as follows:
a) By designing the concrete mix, such concrete shall be called design mix concrete, or
b) By adopting nominal mix, such concrete shall be called nominal mix concrete.
Design mix concrete is preferred to nominal mix.

Concrete of each grade shall be analysed separately to determine its standard
deviation.
Standard Deviation
Where, = deviation of the individual test strength from the average strength of n samples.
n = Number of sample test results.
Methods of proportioning concrete:
(1) Arbitrary Method
The general expression for the proportions of cement, sand and coarse aggregate is 1 : n : 2n
by volume.
1 : 1 : 2 and 1 : 1.2 : 2.4 for very high strength.
1 : 1.5 : 3 and 1 : 2 : 4 for normal works.
1 : 3 : 6 and 1 : 4 : 8 for foundations and mass concrete works.
Recommended Mixes of Concrete
The concrete as per IS 456: 2000, the grades of concrete lower than M20 are not to be used in
RCC work.
M10 1:3:6
M15 1:2:4
M20 1 : 1.5 : 3
M25 1:1:2
(2) Fineness Modulus Method:
Fineness modulus is used to indicate an index number which is roughly proportional to the
average size of the particle in the entire quantity of aggregates.
Fineness modulus is obtained by adding the percentage of weight of the material retained on
the following sieve and divided by 100.
The coarser the aggregates, the higher the fineness modulus.
Sieves adopted for:
All aggregates : 80 mm, 40 mm, 20 mm, 10 mm, and Nos. 480, 240, 120, 60, 30 and 15.
Coarse aggregates : mm, 40 mm, 20 mm, 10 mm, and No. 480.
Fine aggregates : Nos. 480, 240, 120, 60, 30 and 15.
Proportion of the fine aggregate to the combined aggregate by weight
Where, P = desired fineness modulus for a concrete mix of fine and coarse aggregates; =
fineness modulus of fine aggregate; = fineness modulus of coarse aggregate.
(3) Minimum Void Method (Does not give satisfactory result)
Quantity of sand used should be such that it completely fills the voids of coarse aggregate.
Similarly, the quantity of cement used shown such that it fills the voids of sand, so that a
dense mix the minimum voids is obtained.
In actual practice, the quantity of fine aggregate used in the mix is about 10% more than the
voids in the coarse aggregate and the quantity of cement is kept at about 15% more than
the voids in the fine aggregate.
(4) Maximum Density Method: (Not very Popular)
Where, D = maximum size of aggregate (i.e. coarse aggregate); P = percentage of material

finer than diameter d (by weight); d = maximum size of fine aggregate.
A box is filled with varying proportions of fine and coarse aggregates. The proportion which
gives heaviest weight is then adopted.
(5) Water – Cement Ratio Method:
According to the water – cement ratio law given by Abram as a result of many experiments,
the strength of well compacted concrete with good workability is dependent only on the ratio.
The lower water content produces stiff paste having greater binding property and
hence the lowering the water-cement ratio within certain limits results in the increased
strength.
Similarly, the higher water content increases the workability, but lower the strength of
concrete.
The optimum water-cement ratio for the concrete of required compressive strength is
decided from graphs and expressions developed from various experiments.
Amount of water less than the optimum water decreases the strength and about
10% less may be insufficient to ensure complete setting of cement. An increase of
10% above the optimum may decrease the strength approximately by 15% while
an increase in 50% may decrease the strength to one-half.
According to Abram’s Law water-cement law, lesser the water-cement ratio in a
workable mix greater will be the strength.
If water- cement ratio is less than 0.4 to 0.5, complete hydration will not be secured.
Some practical values of water- cement ratio for structure reinforced concrete :
0.45 for 1 : 1 : 2 concrete
0.5 for 1 : 1.5 : 3 concrete
0.5 to 0.6 for 1 : 2 : 4 concrete.
Concrete vibrated by efficient mechanical vibrators require less water- cement ratio, and
hence have more strength.
Thumb Rules for deciding the quantity of water in concrete:
(i) Weight of water = 28% of the weight of cement + 4% of the weight of total aggregate
(ii) Weight of water = 30% of the weight of cement + 5% of the weight of total aggregate
RECOMMENDED VOLUMETRIC MIXES FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF
CONSTRUCTION
Table 1. Recommended volumetric mixes for various types of construction
Kind of work Approx. Maximum Water for one cement bag batch (ltr)
Mix size of Total for dry For Best
aggregates aggregates aggregates consistency
(mm) condition
from dry to
moist
Small precast work, 1:2:2 16 20 15 to 16 Soft
fence posts, poles,
garden furniture and
other work of very thin
sections
Storage tanks, cisterns, 1:2:3 20 25 19 to 22 Medium
sewers, well knerbs,
watertight work, and
columns or other
structural parts subjected
to high stresses
Reinforced concrete 1:2.5:3.5 20 32 23 to 27 Medium or
work, floor slab, beams, soft
columns, arches, stairs
etc
Ordinary floors, 1:2.5:3.5 20 23 20 to 23 Stiff
footpaths, drive ways,
steps, roads, pavements
Building and basement 1:2:4 40 30 23 to 26 Stiff or
walls, silos, sills, lintels, Medium
machine foundations
subject to vibration,
bridges, dams, piers, etc
exposed to action of
water and frost
foundation concrete for
masonry walls
Culverts, retaining walls, 1:3:5 40 34 26 to 30 Stiff or
compound walls, Medium
ordinary machine bases,
etc.
Mass concrete for heavy 1:3:6 63 36 30 to 32 Medium
walls, lean concrete for
levelling course of RCC
foundations
NOTES: When both fine and coarse aggregates are poorly graded, the following general rules regarding
suitable proportioning of these will be found helpful:
1. For maximum size of coarse aggregates as 40mm and over, sand should be half as much as coarse
aggregates.
2. For maximum size of coarse aggregates as 20mm and over, sand should be two-thirds as much as
coarse aggregates.
3. For maximum size of coarse aggregates as 16mm, sand and coarse aggregates should be in equal parts.
MIX DESIGN OF HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE
Properties of a high-strength concrete-mix with a compressive strength of more than 40 MPa

is greatly influenced by the properties of aggregates in addition to that of the water-cement
ratio. To achieve high strength, use lowest possible water-cement ratio, which invariably
affects the workability of the mix and necessitates the use of special vibration techniques for
proper compaction. In the present state of art, a concrete with a desired 28 day compressive
strength of upto 70 MPa can be made with suitably proportioning the ingredients using
normal vibration techniques for compacting the concrete mix.
Erntroy and Shacklock’s Empirical Graphs: Erntroy and Shacklock have suggested
empirical graphs relating the compressive strength to an arbitrary ‗reference number‘ for
concrete made with crushed granite, coarse aggregates and irregular gravel. These graphs are
shown in Fig. 5 and 6 for mixes with ordinary Portland cement and in Figs. 7 and 8 for mixes
with rapid hardening Portland cement. The relation between water-cement ratio and the
reference number for 20mm and 10mm maximum size aggregates is shown in Fig. 9, in
which four different degrees of workability are considered. The range of the degrees of
workability varying from extremely low to high, corresponding to the compacting factor
values of 0.65 and 0.95, respectively.
The relation between the aggregate-cement and water-cement ratios, to achieve the desired
degree of workability with a given type and maximum size of aggregate are compiled in
Table-2 and 3 for two different types of cements. The limitations of these design tables being
that they were obtained with aggregates containing 30 percent of the material passing the
4.75 mm IS sieve. Thus, if other ingredients are used, suitable adjustments have to be made.
Aggregates available at site may be suitably combined by the graphical method to satisfy the
above requirement. In view of the considerable variations in the properties of aggregates, it is
generally recommended that trial mixes must first be made and suitable adjustments in
grading and mix proportions effected to achieve the desired results.
Table 2. Aggregate cement ratio (by weight) required to give four degrees of workability
with different water –cement ratios using ordinary Portland cement
Table 3. Aggregate cement ratio (by weight) required to give four degrees of workability
with different water –cement ratios using rapid hardening cement
MIX DESIGN PROCEDURE:
1. The mean design strength is obtained by applying suitable control factors to the
specified minimum strength.
2. For a given type of cement and aggregates used, the reference number corresponding
to the design strength at a particular age is interpolated from Figure 5 to 9.
3. The water-cement ratio to achieve the required workability and corresponding to the
reference number is obtained from Fig. 9 for aggregates with maximum sizes of
20mm and 10mm.
4. The aggregate-cement ratio to give the desired workability with the known water
cement is obtained by absolute volume method.
5. Batch quantities are worked out after adjustments for moisture content in the
aggregates.
Fig. 5. Relation between compressive strength and reference number (Erntroy and
Shacklock)
Fig. 6. between compressive strength and reference number (Erntroy and Shacklock)
Shacklock)
Shacklock)
Fig. 9. Relation between water-cement ratio and Reference Number
Fig. 10. Combining of Fine aggregates and Coarse aggregates
Table 4. Batch Quantities per cubic metre of concrete
MIX DESIGN EXAMPLE
Design a high strength concrete for use in the production of precast prestressed concrete to
suit the following requirements:
Specified 28-day works cube strength = 50 MPa
Very good degree of control; control factor = 0.80
Degree of workability = very low
Type of cement = ordinary Portland cement
Type of coarse aggregate = crushed granite (angular) of maximum size 10mm.
Type of fine aggregate = natural sand
Specific gravity of sand = 2.60
Specific gravity of cement = 3.15
Specific gravity of coarse aggregates = 2.50
Fine and coarse aggregates contain 5 and 1 percent moisture, respectively and have grading
characteristics as detailed below:
IS sieve size Percentage Passing

Coarse aggregate Fine aggregate
20mm 100 -
10mm 96 100
4.75mm 8 98
2.36mm - 80
1.18mm - 65
600 micron - 50
300 micron 10
150 micron - 0
Solution:
DESIGN OF MIX
Mean strength = (50 / 0.80) = 63 MPa
Reference number (Fig.5) = 25
Water-cement ratio (Fig 9) = 0.35
For a 10mm maximum size aggregate and very low workability, the aggregate-cement ratio for the
desired workability (Table-2) =3.2
The aggregates are combined by the graphical method as shown in Figure 10, so that 30 percent of the
material passes through the 4.75 mm IS sieve.
Ratio of fine to total aggregate = 25%
Required proportions by weight of dry materials:
Cement – 1
Fine aggregates – [(25/100) x 3.2] = 0.8
Coarse aggregates – [(75/100) x 3.2)] = 2.4
Water = 0.35
If C = weight of cement required per cubic meter of concrete, then
GRADING LIMITS FOR AGGREGATES
Grading limit for single – sized aggregates
Table 5. (Clause 4.1 and 4.2 of IS: 383- 1970)
IS Sieve Percentage passing for single sized aggregates of nominal size(mm)

63 mm 40 mm 20 mm 16 mm 12.5 mm 10 mm
80 mm 100 - - - - -
63 mm 85 – 100 100 - - - -
40 mm 0 – 30 85 – 100 100 - - -
20 mm 0–5 0 – 20 85 – 100 100 - -
16 mm - - - 85 – 100 100 -
12.5 mm - - - - 85 – 100 100
10 mm 0–5 0–5 0 – 20 0 – 30 0 – 45 85 – 100
4.75 mm - - 0–5 0–5 0 – 10 0 – 20
2.36 mm - - - - - 0–5
GRADING LIMITS FOR FINE AGGREGATES
Table 6. (Clause 4.3 of IS: 383 – 1970)
IS Sieve Percentage Passing

Designation Grading Zone I Grading Zone Grading Zone Grading Zone
II III IV
10 mm 100 100 100 100
4.75 mm 90 – 100 90 – 100 90 – 100 95 – 100
2.36 mm 60 – 95 75 – 100 85 – 100 95 – 100
1.18 mm 30 – 70 55 – 90 75 – 100 90 – 100
600 micron 15 – 34 35 – 59 60 – 79 80 – 100
300 micron 5 – 20 8 – 30 12 – 40 15 – 50
150 micron 0 – 10 0 – 10 0 – 10 0 – 15
Mixing of concrete
The object of mixing is to coat the surface of all aggregates with cement paste and to blend
all the ingredients of concrete into a uniform mass. This uniformity must not be disturbed by
the discharging process from the mixer. Can be by hand or mechanical (by use of concrete
mixers). Hand mixing is only permitted on small works and where used, allowance should be
made for comparatively low efficiency of the method compared to machine mixing. A
watertight platform made of close fitted timber or iron sheet or a concrete floor is essential;
mixing directly on the ground should never be permitted. Mixing by hand is labour expensive
and difficult to attain uniformity. Turning three times and adding water gradually is usually
required until mix is uniform in colour and consistence.
Machine mixing: appearance of lumps/balls gives rise to concern of 3mm-15mm made of

completely dry cement although their exteriors are thoroughly wet. Possible causes: hot
cement, worn mixer blades, overcharging of mixer, use of damp sand, manner of charging the
mixer—rapid addition of water is main cause.
Causes of inefficiency in mixers are over loading the mixer above rated capacity and
inadequate maintenance or won out or bent blades.
Types of mixers:
Tilting mixer: the mixing chamber, know as the drum, is tilted for discharging. They have a
conical or bowl-shaped drum with vanes inside. Efficiency depends on stipulations of
designer/ manufacturer. Concrete can be tipped rapidly without segregation. They are
preferred for mixes of low workability and those containing large size aggregates.
Non-tilting mixers: the axis of the mixer is always horizontal and discharge is obtained either
by inserting a chute into the drum or by reversing the direction of rotation of the drum (for a
reversing drum mixer) or rarely by splitting of the drum.
Drawbacks: concrete is susceptible to segregation due to slow rate of discharge. The largest
aggregate size may tend to remain in the mixer such that the discharge starts as mortar and
ends as a collection of coated stones.
Pan mixer: generally not mobile and is therefore used either at a central mixing plant on a
large concrete project, at precast factory or in a small version in the laboratory. Advantages:
concrete id thoroughly mixed, scraper blades prevent mortar sticking to the sides of the pan,
are efficient with stiff cohesive mixes hence used in precast concrete, also suitable for mixing
small quantities of concrete.
–As mortars sicks to the walls of the drum-type mixers it is advised to discard the initial
batch. Or as an alternative, a certain amount of mortar may be introduced into the mixer prior
to commencement of concreting, a procedure known as buffering the mixes.
– Loading to a level less than the capacity of the mixer results in non-uniformity of concrete
and uneconomic operation. Mixers can be overloaded by 10% of their capacity.
Dual Drum mixer: used in road construction. Consists of two drums in series. Concrete is
being mixed part of the time in one drum and then transferred to the other for the remainder
of the mixing time and finally discharged. In the meantime, the first drum is recharged and
initial mixing takes place. In this manner, the yield of concrete can be doubled compared to
an ordinary mixer with the same batching equipment.
All the above are batch mixers i.e. one batch of concrete is mixed and discharged before any
more materials are added.
Continuous mixer: discharges mixed concrete steadily and is fed by an automatic weigh
batching system.
Mixing steps: generally a small amount of water should be fed first, followed by all solid
materials, preferably fed uniformly and simultaneously into the mixer. If possible, the greater
part of the water should also be fed during the same time. The remainder of the water being
added after the solids.
Mixing time: mixing time varies with the type of mixer and strictly speaking, it is not the
mixing time but the number of revolutions of the mixer that is the criterion of adequate
mixing. Generally about 20 revs are sufficient. Prolonged mixing time beyond 1 to 1¼
minutes results in no significant improvement in uniformity. Compressive strength (mean and
minimum) increases with mixing time. Mixing over a long period: evaporation of water
occurs with a reduction in workability and increase in strength.
Ready-mixed concrete
This is concrete delivered ready for placing from a central plant. It is particularly useful on
congested sites or in road construction where small space for mixing and plant and for
extensive aggregate stockpiles is available. The concrete is made under better conditions than
those found at a construction site. It is in the nature of a factory-made product; almost
comparable to steel hence, the uncertainty and variability associated with concrete production
on site is removed. Also advantageous when only small quantities of concrete are required or
when concrete is placed only at intervals. However, it is more expensive than concrete
produced on site, but this is offset by savings in the cement content, site organisation and
supervision staff.
Two categories of ready-mixed concrete:
Central-mixed concrete: mixing done at a central plant and then transported in an agitation
truck which revolves slowly so as to prevent segregation and undue stiffening of the mix.
Transit-mixed (truck mixed) concrete: here materials are batched at a central plant but are
mixed in a mixer truck either in transit to the site or immediately prior to the concrete being
discharged. Transit-mixing permits a longer haul and is less vulnerable in case of delay, but
the capacity of a truck used as a mixer is only about ¾ of the same truck used solely to agitate
pre-mixed concrete. The concrete can be partially mixed at a central plant in order to increase
the capacity of the agitator truck. The mixing is completed en-route. Such concrete is known
as shrink-mixed. Agitating differs from mixing solely by the speed of rotation of the mixer:
the agitation speed is between 2 and 6 revs/min compared with the mixing speed of 4 to about
16 revs/min; thus there is an overlap of the definitions. If concrete has not been shrink-mixed
in the central plant mixer, 70 to 100 revs/min in the truck mixer are required.
What is the main problem in the production of ready-mixed concrete? It is the maintenance of
workability of the mix right up to the time of placing. Concrete stiffens with time. The
stiffening is worsened by prolonged mixing and by a high temperature.
Pumped concrete
It is economical only if it can be used over long uninterrupted periods, as at the beginning of
each pumping period the pipes have to be lubricated by mortar and also because at the end of
the operation a considerable effort is required to clean the pipes. Special couplings are used to
facilitate speedy replacement. A short length of flexible hose near the discharge end
facilitates placing but increases the friction. Aluminium pipes must not be used because
aluminium reacts with the alkalis in cement to generate hydrogen. This gas introduces voids
in the hardened concrete with a consequent loss of strength, unless the concrete is placed in a
confined space.
Advantages: can be delivered to point over a wide area that are not easily accessible, with the
mixing plant clear off the site. This is most valuable on congested sites or special applications
such as tunnel linings. Directs concrete from the mixer to the formwork and so avoids double
handling. Pumped concrete is unsegregated but to enable pumping the mix must satisfy
certain requirements. The mix must be well mixed, not harsh or sticky, too dry or too wet.
The slump should be 40-100mm or compacting factor of 0.9-0.95.
Vibration of concrete
The object is to eliminate entrapped air. The oldest means were ramming and punning the
concrete surface in order to dislodge the air and force the particles into a closer configuration.
The use of vibration as a means of compaction makes it possible to use drier mixes than can
be compacted by hand. It means saving on cement although still achieving the same strength.
Internal vibration: consists of a porker housing an eccentric shaft driven through a flexible
drive from a motor. The porker is immersed in concrete and thus applies approximately
harmonic forces to it. Hence, the alternative names of porker—immersion-vibrator.
The frequency of vibration varies up to 12000 cycles of vibrations/minute. 3500-5000 has

been suggested as a desirable minimum, while vibration at 4000-7000 is common. The porker
can be easily moved from place to place and is applied at 0.5-1m centres for 5 to 30 seconds.
A well compacted concrete should not be honey-combed or contain an excess of mortar. The
vibrator should be immersed through the entire depth of the freshly deposited concrete and
into the layer below if this is still plastic. They are comparatively efficient since all work is
done directly on the concrete.
External vibrators: it is clamped to the formwork resting on an elastic support, so that both
form and concrete are vibrated. This means a considerable amount of work done is used in
vibrating the formwork.
Properties of Concrete
Properties of concrete are divided into two major groups
 Properties of Fresh Concrete

 Properties of Hardened Concrete
Fresh Concrete
Fresh concrete is that stage of concrete in which concrete can be moulded and it is in plastic
state. This is also called "Green Concrete". Another term used to describe the state of fresh
concrete is consistence, which is the ease with which concrete will flow.
Properties of Fresh Concrete

Following are the important properties of fresh concrete
1. Setting
2. Workability
3. Bleeding and Segregation
a. Bleeding
b. Segregation
4. Hydration
5. Air Entrainment
Setting of Concrete
The hardening of concrete before its hydration is known as setting of concrete. OR The
hardening of concrete before it gains strength. OR The transition process of changing of
concrete from plastic state to hardened state. Setting of concrete is based or related to the
setting of cement paste. Thus cement properties greatly affect the setting time.
Factors affecting setting:
Following are the factors that affect the setting of concrete.
1. Water Cement ratio
2. Suitable Temperature
3. Cement content
4. Type of Cement
5. Fineness of Cement
6. Relative Humidity
7. Admixtures
8. Type and amount of Aggregate
2 Workability of Concrete
Workability is often referred to as the ease with which a concrete can be transported, placed
and consolidated without excessive bleeding or segregation. OR The internal work required
to overcome the frictional forces between concrete ingredients for full compaction. It is
obvious that no single test can evaluate all these factors. In the case of concrete, consistence
is sometimes taken to mean the degree of wetness; within limits, wet concretes are more
workable than dry concrete, but concrete of same consistence may vary in workability.
Because the strength of concrete is adversely and significantly affected by the presence of
voids in the compacted mass, it is vital to achieve a maximum possible density. This requires
sufficient workability for virtually full compaction to be possible using a reasonable amount
of work under the given conditions. Presence of voids in concrete reduces the density and
greatly reduces the strength: 5% of voids can lower the strength by as much as 30%.
Slump Test can be used to find out the workability of concrete.
Factors affecting workability:

i. Water-Cement ratio
ii. Amount and type of Aggregate
iii. Amount and type of Cement
iv. Weather conditions
1. Temperature
2. Wind
v. Chemical Admixtures
vi. Sand to Aggregate ratio
i. Water content or Water-Cement Ratio

The higher the water-cement ratio the higher the workability of concrete. Since by simply
adding water the inter-particle lubrication is increased. Increased water content also results in
bleeding. Another effect of increased water content can also be that cement slurry will escape
through joints of formwork.
ii. Amount and type of Aggregate

The higher the amount of aggregate the less the workability.
Using smooth and round aggregate increases the workability. Workability reduces if
angular and rough aggregate is used.
Greater size of Aggregate- less water is required to lubricate it, the extra water is
available for workability
Angular aggregates increases flakiness or elongation thus reduces workability. Round
smooth aggregates require less water and less lubrication and greater workability in a
given w/c ratio
Porous aggregates require more water compared to non-absorbent aggregates for
achieving same degree of workability.
iii. Aggregate-Cement ratio
High ratio cause less workability. Since less cement mean less water, so the paste is stiff.
iv. Weather Conditions
1. Temperature
If temperature is high, evaporation increases, thus workability decreases.
2. Wind:
If wind is moving with greater velocity, the high rate of evaporation increases the amount of
water lost and ultimately reducing workability.
v. Admixtures
Chemical admixtures can be used to increase workability. Different types of admixtures:
- retarders / accelerators
- air entraining agents (freeze-thaw)
- viscosity modifiers
- shrinkage reducing admixtures
- expansive agents
- plasticizers and super plasticizers
Use of air entraining agent produces air bubbles which acts as a sort of ball bearing between
particles and increases mobility, workability and decreases bleeding, segregation. Use of fine
pozzolanic materials also have better lubricating effect and improve workability.
Conditions to Declare a Material Pozzolan:

Having silica + Alumina oxide+ ferrous oxide more than 70%.
Surface area on normal admixture is more than 300m²/kg.
Surface area should be more than that of cement used.
Note: Mineral admixtures with small particle size, admixed to Portland cement (preferred by cement
producers!) or directly in the concrete mixture.
Fly ash
Waste from filters in coal power plants; Rounded particles, often hollow, of similar size to
cement; Contain SiO2, pozzolan reaction: Ca(OH)2 + SiO2 → CSH. Slower reaction than
cement, slower strength gain, lower heat of hydration.
Silica fume
Waste from silicon production (now expensive!); Extremely small (<1 μm, difficult
dispersion) amorphous silica particles, essentially SiO2; Very reactive, pozzolanic; in addition
optimum filler; Used in concrete with special requirements: high strength concrete; low
permeability.
Blast furnace slag
Waste of steel production; Similar size and composition to Portland cement (CaO, SiO2,
Al2O3, MgO). Reacts hydraulically after been activated with alkali or sulphates in Portland
cement; Low heat of hydration, slow strength gain, small pores, low permeability and high
durability.
vi. Sand to Aggregate ratio

If the amount of sand is more the workability will reduce because sand has more surface area
and more contact area causing more resistance.
3 (a). Concrete Bleeding

Bleeding in concrete is sometimes referred as water gain. It is a particular form of
segregation, in which some of the water from the concrete comes out to the surface of the
concrete, being of the lowest specific gravity (i.e. water) among all the ingredients of
concrete. Bleeding is predominantly observed in a highly wet mix, badly proportioned and
insufficiently mixed concrete. In thin members like roof slab or road slabs and when concrete
is placed in sunny weather show excessive bleeding.
Due to bleeding, water comes up and accumulates at the surface. Sometimes, along with this
water, certain quantity of cement also comes to the surface. When the surface is worked up
with the trowel, the aggregate goes down and the cement and water come up to the top
surface. This formation of cement paste at the surface is known as “Laitance”. In such a
case, the top surface of slabs and pavements will not have good wearing quality. This laitance
formed on roads produces dust in summer and mud in rainy season.
Water while traversing from bottom to top, makes continuous channels. If the water-cement
ratio used is more than 0.7, the bleeding channels will remain continuous and un-segmented.
These continuous bleeding channels are often responsible for causing permeability of the
concrete structures. While the mixing water is in the process of coming up, it may be
intercepted by aggregates. The bleeding water is likely to accumulate below the aggregate.
This accumulation of water creates water voids and reduces the bond between the aggregates
and the paste.
The above aspect is more pronounced in the case of flaky aggregate. Similarly, the water that
accumulates below the reinforcing bars reduces the bond between the reinforcement and the
concrete. The poor bond between the aggregate and the paste or the reinforcement and the
paste due to bleeding can be remedied by re-vibration of concrete. The formation of laitance
and the consequent bad effect can be reduced by delayed finishing operations.
Bleeding rate increases with time up to about one hour or so and thereafter the rate decreases
but continues more or less till the final setting time of cement.
Prevention of Bleeding in concrete
Bleeding can be reduced by proper proportioning and uniform and complete mixing.
Use of finely divided pozzolanic materials reduces bleeding by creating a longer path
for the water to traverse.
Air-entraining agent is very effective in reducing the bleeding.
Bleeding can be reduced by the use of finer cement or cement of low alkali content.
Rich are less susceptible to bleeding than lean mixes.
The bleeding is not completely harmful if the rate of evaporation of water from the
surface is equal to the rate of bleeding. Removal of water, after it had played its role in
providing workability, from the body of concrete by way of bleeding will do good to the
concrete.
Early bleeding when the concrete mass is fully plastic, may not cause much harm, because
concrete being in a fully plastic condition at that stage, will get subsided and compacted. It is
the delayed bleeding, when the concrete has lost its plasticity, which causes undue harm to the
concrete. Controlled re-vibration may be adopted to overcome the bad effect of bleeding.
3 (b). Segregation in concrete
Segregation can be defined as the separation of the constituent materials of concrete. A good
concrete is one in which all the ingredients are properly distributed to make a homogeneous
mixture. There are considerable differences in the sizes and specific gravities of the constituent
ingredients of concrete. Therefore, it is natural that the materials show a tendency to fall apart.
Segregation may be of three types
1. Coarse aggregate separating out or settling down from the rest of the matrix.
2. Paste separating away from coarse aggregate.
3. Water separating out from the rest of the material being a material of lowest specific
gravity.
A well made concrete, taking into consideration various parameters such as grading, size,
shape and surface texture of aggregate with optimum quantity of water makes a cohesive mix
with no segregation. The cohesive and fatty characteristics of matrix do not allow the aggregate
to fall apart, at the same time; the matrix itself is sufficiently contained by the aggregate.
Similarly, water also does not find it easy to move out freely from the rest of the ingredients.
The conditions favourable for segregation are:
1. Badly proportioned mix where there is insufficient matrix to bind and contain the
aggregates
2. Insufficiently mixed concrete with excess water content
3. Dropping of concrete from heights as in the case of placing concrete in column concreting
4. When concrete is discharged from a badly designed mixer, or from a mixer with worn out
blades
5. Conveyance of concrete by conveyor belts, wheel barrow, long distance haul by dumper,
long lift by skip and hoist promote segregation of concrete
Vibration of concrete is one of the important methods of compaction. It should be remembered

that only comparatively dry mix should be vibrated. If too wet a mix is excessively vibrated; it
is likely that the concrete gets segregated. It should also be remembered that vibration is
continued just for required time for optimum results. If the vibration is continued for a long
time, particularly, in too wet a mix, it is likely to result in segregation of concrete due to
settlement of coarse aggregate in matrix.
4. Hydration in concrete
Fig. 11. Phases of hydration
Concrete derives its strength by the hydration of cement particles (Fig. 11). The hydration of
cement is not a momentary action but a process continuing for long time. Of course, the rate of
hydration is fast to start with, but continues over a very long time at a decreasing rate. In the
field and in actual work, even a higher water/cement ratio is used, since the concrete is open to
atmosphere, the water used in the concrete evaporates and the water available in the
concrete will not be sufficient for effective hydration to take place particularly in the top
layer.
If the hydration is to continue, extra water must be added to replace loss of water on
account of absorption and evaporation. Therefore, the curing can be considered as creation
of a favourable environment during the early period for uninterrupted hydration. The desirable
conditions are a suitable temperature and ample moisture.
Hydration rate roughly doubles every 150C of temperature increase (20-600C) (Hansen and
Pedersen 1977). However, high T0C decreases final strength.
Concrete, while hydrating, releases high heat of hydration (Fig. 12). This heat is harmful from
the point of view of volume stability. Heat of hydration of concrete may also cause shrinkage
in concrete, thus producing cracks. If the heat generated is removed by some means, the
adverse effect due to the generation of heat can be reduced. This can be done by a thorough
water curing.
Heat of Hydration
Fig. 12. Heat of hydration relation with time
The RATE of heat evolution is related to cement composition; cement fineness; cement content
and casting temperature.
The total heat evolved is related to cement composition; degree of hydration and cement
content. The relation of compressive strength with time is shown in Fig. 13.
Fig. 13. Variation of compressive strength with time.
Tricalcium silicate (alite) C3S: Hydrates & hardens rapidly; Responsible for initial set and
early strength.
Dicalcium silicate (belite) C2A: Hydrates & hardens slowly; Contributes to later age strength
(beyond 7 days).
Tricalcium aluminate C3A: Liberates a large amount of heat during first few days; Contributes
slightly to early strength development; Cements with low %-ages are more resistant to
sulphates.
Tetracalcium aluminoferrite C4AF: Reduces clinkering temperature; Hydrates rapidly but

contributes little to strength; Colour of hydrated cement (gray) due to ferrite hydrates (ferrite).
5. Air Entrainment
Air entrainment reduces the density of concrete and consequently reduces the strength. Air
entrainment is used to produce a number of effects in both the plastic and the hardened
concrete. These include:
1. Resistance to freeze–thaw action in the hardened concrete.
2. Increased cohesion, reducing the tendency to bleed and segregation in the plastic concrete.
3. Compaction of low workability mixes including semi-dry concrete.
4. Stability of extruded concrete.
5. Cohesion and handling properties in bedding mortars.
COMMON TESTS ON THE FRESH CONCRETE
Concrete is tested to ensure that the material that was specified and bought is the same material
delivered to the job site. There are a dozen different test methods for freshly mixed and
hardened concrete.
Slump, air content, unit weight and compressive strength tests are most common tests.
Slump is a measure of consistency, or relative ability of the concrete to flow. If the concrete
cannot flow because the consistency or slump is too low, there are potential problems with
proper consolidation. If the concrete would not stop flowing because the slump is too high,
there are potential problems with mortar loss through the formwork, excessive formwork
pressure, finishing delays and segregation.
Air content measure the total air content in a sample of fresh concrete, but does not indicate
what the final in-place air content will be, because a certain amount of air is lost in
transportation consolidating, placement and finishing. Three field tests are widely specified:
the pressure meter and volumetric method are ASTM standards and the Chace Indicator is an
AASHTO procedure.
Unit weight measures the weight of a known volume of the fresh concrete.
Compressive strength is tested by pouring cubes of fresh concrete and measuring the force
needed to break the concrete cubes at prescribed interval as they harden. According to Building
Code Requirements for reinforced concrete (ACI 318) as long as no single test is more than
500 psi below the design strength and the average of three consecutive tests equals or
exceed the design strength then the concrete is acceptable (21 MPa = 3000 psi). If the
strength tests do not meet these criteria, steps must be taken to raise the average.
Finishes to concrete
After concrete has been mixed it is placed and brought to its proper level by means of screeds.
Screeds are guides placed on both sides of the slab, with their tops at the desired level of the
finished concrete. The concrete is then levelled using the screeds as guides. After levelling,
while the concrete is still plastic the surface is floated with a wooden flat-surface tool to
produce a rough textured finish. After sometime, if a smooth finish is required it may be
pressed using steel.
Aggregate maybe exposed to produce a rough textural finish. When the concrete has
potentially set, the surface is scrubbed with a stiff brush, while a stream of water is directed on
it to remove the cement paste and sand from the surface. For a salt finish, a rock salt is
sprinkled over freshly laid concrete surface and pressed; then, the slab is allowed to set. After
hardening, salt is washed away leaving pit/holes on the surface
Curing: i) water curing- covering the slab with a thin layer of water prevents evaporation and
cools concrete. ii) plastic sheeting- prevents evaporation
Economy in Concrete
Proportion for concrete should be selected to make the most economical use of available
material. The economy is measured by costing of placed concrete.
Factors affecting economy:
Type of aggregate: determine the best aggregate to use by equating is cost with its water
demand (and therefore, cement demand). Use the maximum permissible sized stone as its cost
and water demand are low.
Consistency of concrete: use concrete of the stiffest consistency (lowest workability) which can
be placed efficiently, with the equipment available to give a homogenous mass, considering
shape and size of the concrete structure, the amount and disposition of reinforcement or oter
details interfering with the ready filling of the formwork.
Economy is also related to the wastage of material and labour in the handling of aggregates,
batching, mixing, transporting, placing compacting and curing of the concrete. The cost of
good control is generally offset by the prevention of faulty practice, wastage and the resulting
improvement in the quality of concrete.
Properties of hardened concrete
Following are the properties of hardened concrete:
1. Strength of concrete
2. Concrete Creep
3. Shrinkage
4. Modulus Of Elasticity
5. Water tightness (impermeability)
6. Rate of Strength gain of Concrete
1. Strength:
The strength of concrete is referred to as the compressive strength and it depends upon three
factors.
1-Paste Strength
2-Interfacial Bonding
3- Aggregate Strength
1. Paste strength:
It is mainly due to the binding properties of cement that the ingredients are compacted
together. The higher the paste binding strength, the higher the concrete strength.
2. Interfacial bonding:
Interfacial bonding is very necessary regarding the strength. Clay hampers the bonding
between paste and aggregate. The aggregate should be washed for a better bonding between
paste and aggregate.
3. Aggregate strength:
It is mainly the aggregate that provide strength to concrete especially coarse aggregates
which act just like bones in the body. Rough and angular aggregate provides better bonding
and high strength.
Factors affecting Strength of concrete:
1. Water-Cement ratio
2. Type of cementing material
3. Amount of cementing material
4. Type of aggregate
5. Air content
6. Admixtures
7. Maturity
8. Curing
9. Compaction
10. Time of mixing
1. Water-Cement ratio:
It is water-cement ratio that basically governs the property of strength. The lesser the water-
cement ratio, the greater the strength.
2. Type of cement:
Type of cement affect the hydration process and therefore strength of concrete.
3. Amount of cementing material: it is the paste that holds or binds all the ingredients. Thus
greater amount of cementing material, the greater the strength.
4. Air content: the more the air content the less the strength
5. Type of Aggregate:
Rough and angular aggregates are preferable as they provide greater bonding.
6. Admixtures:
Chemical admixtures like plasticizers reduce the water-cement ratio and increase the strength
of concrete at same water-cement ratio. Mineral admixtures affect the strength at later stage
and increase the strength by increasing the amount of cementing material.
7 Maturity: strength depends on maturity which is the product of the age and its curing
temperature. Concrete continues to gain strength with time provided the temperature and
moisture conditions are favourable for hydration.
One of the methods to determine the strength of concrete is to find maturity of concrete.
Maturity of concrete is defined as Summation of product of age and temperature (Curing).
Concrete Maturity = ∑(Time x Temperature)
Hydration can take place at minimum of -10°C, below this water crystals (ice) do not react
with cement:
Datum Temperature = -10°C
If Day Temperature = 15°C then
Curing temperature = 15-(-10) = 25°C
Maturity of concrete after 28 days kept at 25°C is given as
Maturity = 28 x 24 x (25-(-10)) = 23520°C hr.
Concrete is fully matured when it is cured at 18°C till 28 days.
For ordinary concrete maturity should not be less than 19800°C hr
8 Curing: concrete hardening only continue if there is always sufficient water present to
permit the continued hydration of the concrete.
9 Compaction: proper compaction of the concrete in the formwork is of prime

importance. There is ±5 or ± 6% loss of strength for every 1% voids present.
10 Time of mixing: strength increases with mixing time, though there is a definite upper
limit, provided the aggregate does not breakdown.
DEGREE OF WORKABILITY FOR DIFFERENT PLACING CONDITIONS (Table

7).
Table 7. Degree of workability for different placing conditions
Placing Condition Degree of Slump (mm)

Workability
Binding concrete, Very low Use compacting
factor test as per
Shallow Sections IS: 1199
Pavement using
pavers
Mass concrete, Low 25-75
Lightly reinforced
sections in slabs,
beams, walls,
columns, foors, hand
placed pavements,
canal linings, strip
footings
Heavily Reinforced Medium 50 – 100, 75 – 100
sections in slabs,
columns, walls,
slipform work,
pumped concrete
Trench fill, in-situ High 100 – 150
piling
Tensile concrete Very high Use determination
of flow test as per
IS: 9103
Other Properties of Hardened Concrete
Early volume change

Creep Properties
Permeability
Stress-Strain Relation
I. Early Volume Change (Shrinkage)
What is the problem? >> May result in cracking
Plastic Shrinkage
Due to water loss from fresh paste by evaporation or from suction by dry surface
Volume decrease ~ 1% when the paste is still plastic

How to prevent it: control water loss
Drying Shrinkage
Due to loss of water and/or cooling.
15-30% of dry shrinkage occurs in the first 2 weeks, 65-85% in the first year
It can be induced by:
- lack of curing
- high water-cement ratio
- high cement content
- low coarse aggregate content
- existence of steel reinforcement
Depends on size and shape of concrete structure

May be non-uniform due to non-uniform loss of water
Swelling
May occur if concrete is cured continuously in water after settling. Its effects are relatively
small and do not cause significant problems.
II. Stress-Strain Relation (Fig. 14)
Fig. 14. Stress-strain relation
Concrete is not perfectly elastic
Rate of loading affects the E (modulus of elasticity) value (Non-Linear)
- Aggregate and cement paste individually show a linear stress-strain, but concrete is non-
linear
- Why? Micro-cracking between the aggregate and cement paste interface
For structural design, we need compressive strength (fc) and modulus of elasticity (E)
TYPES OF CONCRETE ADMIXTURES
Admixtures are defined as the material other than the aggregate, water and cement added to
the concrete. The use of suitable admixture can result in the enhanced performance of
concrete.
Types of Admixture
1. Air Entraining Agents
Air entraining agents are used primarily to increase the resistance to freezing and thawing.
They also supply greater resistance to deicing chemicals, improve workability, lower water
demands for a particular slump, reduce the amount of fine aggregate needs in the mixture,
reduce segregation and bleeding, increase durability, and improve pump ability. Even though
air entrainments have no effect on drying shrinkage, they do create a slight loss in the
concrete strength.
2. Water Reducing Agents
A certain amount of the water is added to concrete to make the concrete placeable and to
ignite the hydration reaction of Portland cement. Over 50% of the water have no useful effect
and have direct results in drying shrinkage, durability, and the strength of concrete. Water
reducing agents added to the concrete reduce the water demands of the mix, maintain the
workability, increase the strength, reduce the cost, reduce bleeding, reduce segregation,
reduce honeycombing, reduce cracking and permeability, increase bond strength of concrete
to steel, and reduce drying shrinkage. An average of 12-15 % reduction in the total water
content will attain this goal.
3. Set Retarding Agents
These agents are primarily used for delaying the setting time of concrete. Set retards are
useful, but are not the solution to poorly designed mixes, inferior materials, or low cement
factors. The set retarder must be uniformly dispersed throughout the whole mix. Failure to do
so will result in the admixture remaining in voids, causing some areas to remain plastic. This
leads to plastic shrinkage.
4. Accelerating Agents
Accelerating agents are used to shorten the setting time and increase the early strength of the
concrete. These agents are used for concrete to be used immediately.
5. Calcium chloride
Calcium chloride is used in cold weather to hasten the setting time and produces an early
finish of the concrete. Calcium chloride can affect the characteristics of concrete causing
temperature rise, increased internal stresses, corrosion of unprotected reinforcement, a
decrease in the resistance to freeze, an increase in the attack of sulfates, and an increase in the
amount of drying shrinkage between 10 to 50 %.
Tests on hardened concrete

Tests performed on hardened concrete are:
Compressive strength test (most common) – DT (Destructive Test)

Modulus of Elasticity – NDT (Non-Destructive Test)
Split-tension test – DT
Flexural strength test – DT
Rebound hammer test – NDT (discussed in later sections)
Penetration resistance test – NDT (discussed in later sections)
Ultrasonic pulse velocity test – NDT (discussed in later sections)
Maturity test – NDT
1. Compressive Strength Test (fc) (Fig. 15)
Fig. 15. ASTM C39: cylindrical specimen (6 in. by 12 in.) (0.25 in = 6.5 mm)
- For normal-weight concrete: fc range is 21 MPa to 34 MPa (3000 psi to 5000 psi)
Compressive strength depends on specimen size
- Larger specimens = greater probability for weaker elements, reducing strength
- Larger specimens have less variability and better representation of actual concrete
· How does failure occur? Weakest location of hardened concrete is the interface between
cement paste and aggregate
2. Modulus of Elasticity – Ec
ASTM C469 – determine the chord modulus.

3-4 loading steps are needed in this method. Same sample is used.
A useful relationship with strength
The range is 14 GPa – 41 GPa (2000 ksi to 6000 ksi)
Poisson’s Ratio
Also determined using ASTM C469

Range is between 0.11 to 0.21, depending on aggregate, moisture, age, and
compressive strength
3. Split Tension Test (Fig. 16)
Fig. 16. Cylinder is subjected to compressive load
Measures the tensile strength on concrete (ASTM C496)

Cylinder is subjected to compressive load along vertical diameter at a constant rate
until fatigue
Failure occurs along vertical diameter due to tension developed in transverse direction
Split tension is computed by T = 2p/BLD
T = tensile strength, MPa (psi); p= load at failure, N (psi); L = length of specimen, mm (in.);
D = diameter of specimen, mm (in.)
Tensile strength varies from 2.5 MPa to 3.1 MPa (360 psi to 450 psi), about 10% of
compressive strength
4. Flexure Strength Test (ASTM C78) (Fig. 17)
Used for measuring Modulus of Rupture (MR)
Important test for road and airport concrete pavements
Beam specimen of square x-section is loaded into a 3-point loading apparatus
Fig. 17. Measuring Modulus of Rupture (MR)
Calculation of MR
If the fracture occurs in the middle 1/3 of the span
R = PL/(bd^2)
Where: R = flexure strength, MPa (psi); P = maximum load applied, N (lb); L = span length,
mm (in.); b = average width of specimen, mm (in.); a = average depth of specimen, mm (in.)
If fracture occurs further outside the middle third, the results must be thrown out
Useful relationships:
R = (0.62 to 0.83)fc^0.5 (S.I. units)

R = (7.5 to 10)fc^0.5 (English units)
5. Maturity Test (ASTM C1074)
Maturity – degree of cement hydration

Varies with time and temperature
It is assumed that the strength is a function of maturity for a particular concrete
mixture
Devices are used to measure the temperature of concrete with time
I. Permeability
Effects the durability of hardened concrete
Allows water and chemicals to penetrate its surface

Cause reduced resistance to
o frost
o alkali-aggregate reactivity and other chemicals
o corrosion of steel bars
Air voids that affect permeability are obtained from
o incomplete consolidation of fresh concrete

o evaporation of mixing water that is not used for hydration of cement
Increasing the water/cement ratio has strong effects on permeability
Other factors affecting permeability:
age of concrete, fineness of cement particles, air entraining agents
II. Creep Properties
Creep – The gradual increase in strain, with time, under sustained load
Long-term process (several years)

Vary with type of structure
o Increased deflection and increased stress in steel

o Gradual transfer of load from concrete to steel
o Losing some of the prestress force in prestressed concrete
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING OF CONCRETE
The standard method of evaluating the quality of concrete in buildings or structures is to

test specimens cast simultaneously for compressive, flexural and tensile strengths. The
main disadvantages are that results are not obtained immediately; that concrete in
specimens may differ from that in the actual structure as a result of different curing and
compaction conditions; and that strength properties of a concrete specimen depend on its
size and shape.
Although there can be no direct measurement of the strength properties of structural concrete
for the simple reason that strength determination involves destructive stresses, several non-
destructive methods of assessment have been developed. These depend on the fact that
certain physical properties of concrete can be related to strength and can be measured by non-
destructive methods. Such properties include hardness, resistance to penetration by
projectiles, rebound capacity and ability to transmit ultrasonic pulses and X- and Y-rays.
These non-destructive methods may be categorized as penetration tests, rebound tests, pull-
out techniques, dynamic tests, radioactive tests, maturity concept. These methods are briefly
described and their advantages and disadvantages outlined.
Penetration Tests
The Windsor probe is the best means of testing penetration. Equipment consists of a powder-
actuated gun or driver, hardened alloy probes, loaded cartridges, a depth gauge for measuring
penetration of probes and other related equipment. A probe, diameter 0.25 in. (6.5 mm) and
length 3.125 in. (8.0 cm), is driven into the concrete by means of a precision powder charge.
Depth of penetration provides an indication of the compressive strength of the concrete.
Although calibration charts are provided by the manufacturer, the instrument should be
calibrated for type of concrete and type and size of aggregate used.
Disadvantages and Advantages: The probe test produces quite variable results and should not
be expected to give accurate values of concrete strength. However, provides a quick means of
checking quality and maturity of in situ concrete. Also provides a means of assessing strength
development with curing. The test is essentially non-destructive, since concrete and structural
members can be tested in-situ, with only minor patching of holes on exposed faces. It gives a
better estimate than the rebound hammer. Rebound hammer tests only the surface, while
penetration resistance test make measurements into the depth of the sample.
Rebound HammerTest (Fig. 18)
Fig. 18. Rebound Hammer Test (Schmidt Hammer Test)
The rebound hammer, used to test the uniformity of the concrete, is a surface hardness tester
for which an empirical correlation has been established between strength and rebound
number. A Schmidt hammer, which weighs about 4 lb (1.8 kg) is used and is suitable for both
laboratory and field work. It consists of a spring-controlled hammer mass that slides on a
plunger within a tubular housing. The hammer is forced against the surface of the concrete by
the spring and the distance of rebound is measured on a scale. The test surface can be
horizontal, vertical or at any angle but the instrument must be calibrated for each of these
positions. The higher the rebound, the harder the concrete‘s surface, and the greater the
concrete‘s strength
Calibration can be done with cylinders (6 by 12 in., 15 by 30 cm) of the same cement and
aggregate as will be used on the job. The cylinders are capped and firmly held in a
compression machine (Fig. 18). Several readings are taken (10 to 12 readings are performed
per specimen), well distributed and reproducible, the average representing the rebound
number for the cylinder. This procedure is repeated with several cylinders, after which
compressive strengths are obtained.
Disadvantages and Advantages: The results are affected by factors such as smoothness of
surface, size and shape of specimen, moisture condition of the concrete, type of cement and
coarse aggregate, and extent of carbonation of surface. The Schmidt hammer provides an
inexpensive, simple and quick method of obtaining an indication of concrete strength, but
accuracy of ±15 to ±20 % is possible only for specimens cast, cured and tested under
conditions for which calibration curves have been established.
Pull-Out Tests
A pull-out test measures, with a special ram, the force required to pull from the concrete a
specially shaped steel rod whose enlarged end has been cast into the concrete to a depth of 3
in. (7.6 cm). The concrete is simultaneously in tension and in shear, but the force required to
pull the concrete out can be related to its compressive strength. The pull-out technique can
thus measure quantitatively the in-situ strength of concrete when proper correlations have
been made. Over a wide range of strengths, pull-out strengths have a coefficient of variation
comparable to that of compressive strength.
Disadvantages and Advantages: Although pull-out tests do not measure the interior strength
of mass concrete, they do give information on the maturity and development of strength of a
representative part of it. Such tests have the advantage of measuring quantitatively the
strength of concrete in place. Their main disadvantage is that they have to be planned in
advance and pull-out assemblies set into the formwork before the concrete is placed. The
pull-out, of course, creates some minor damage. The test can be non-destructive, however, if
a minimum pull-out force is applied that stops short of failure but makes certain that a
minimum strength has been reached. This information is of distinct value in determining
when formwork can be removed safely.
Dynamic Tests
e.g. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test (ASTM C597) (Fig. 19)
Ultrasonic pulse velocity method is used to test concrete strength in-situ by detecting
discontinuities, cracks and internal deterioration in the structure of concrete. It measures the
time of travel of an ultrasonic pulse passing through the concrete. Length between
transducers/ travel time = average velocity of wave propagation. Fundamental design features
of all commercially available units are very similar, consisting of a pulse generator and a
pulse receiver. Pulses are generated by shock-exciting piezo-electric crystals, with similar
crystals used in the receiver. The time taken for the pulse to pass through the concrete is
measured by electronic measuring circuits.
Fig. 19. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test
Pulse velocity tests can be carried out on both laboratory-sized specimens and completed
concrete structures, but some factors affect measurement:
1. There must be smooth contact with the surface under test; a coupling medium such as
a thin film of oil is mandatory.
2. It is desirable for path-lengths to be at least 12 in. (30 cm) in order to avoid any errors
introduced by heterogeneity.
3. It must be recognized that there is an increase in pulse velocity at below-freezing
temperature owing to freezing of water; from 5 to 30°C (41 – 86°F) pulse velocities
are not temperature dependent.
4. The presence of reinforcing steel in concrete has an appreciable effect on pulse
velocity. It is therefore desirable and often mandatory to choose pulse paths that avoid
the influence of reinforcing steel or to make corrections if steel is in the pulse path.
Disadvantages and advantages: The pulse velocity method is an ideal tool for establishing
whether concrete is uniform. Can be used on both existing structures and those under
construction. Usually, if large differences in pulse velocity are found within a structure for no
apparent reason, there is strong reason to presume that defective or deteriorated concrete is
present.
High pulse velocity readings generally indicate good quality concrete. A general relation
between concrete quality and pulse velocity is given in Table 7.
Table 7. Quality of Concrete and Pulse Velocity
General Conditions Pulse Velocity

ft/sec
Excellent Above 15,000
Good 12,000-15,000
Questionable 10,000-12,000
Poor 7,000-10,000
Very Poor below 7,000
Fairly good correlation can be obtained between cube compressive strength and pulse
velocity. These relations enable the strength of structural concrete to be predicted within ±20
%, provided the types of aggregate and mix proportions are constant.
The pulse velocity method has been used to study the effects on concrete of freeze-thaw
action, sulphate attack, and acidic waters. Generally, the degree of damage is related to a
reduction in pulse velocity. Cracks can also be detected. Great care should be exercised,
however, in using pulse velocity measurements for these purposes, since it is often difficult to
interpret results. Sometimes the pulse does not travel through the damaged portion of the
concrete.
The pulse velocity method can also be used to estimate the rate of hardening and strength
development of concrete in the early stages to determine when to remove formwork. Holes
have to be cut in the formwork so that transducers can be in direct contact with the concrete
surface. As concrete ages, the rate of increase of pulse velocity slows down much more
rapidly than the rate of development of strength, so that beyond a strength of 2,000 to 3,000
psi (13.6 to 20.4 MPa) accuracy in determining strength is less than ±20%. Accuracy depends
on careful calibration and use of the same concrete mix proportions and aggregate in the test
samples used for calibration as in the structure.
In summary, ultrasonic pulse velocity tests have a great potential for concrete control,
particularly for establishing uniformity and detecting cracks or defects. Its use for predicting
strength is much more limited, owing to the large number of variables affecting the relation
between strength and pulse velocity.
Radioactive Methods
Radioactive methods of testing concrete can be used to detect the location of reinforcement,
measure density and perhaps establish whether honeycombing has occurred in structural
concrete units. Gamma radiography is increasingly accepted in England and Europe. The
equipment is quite simple and running costs are small, although the initial price can be high.
Concrete up to 18 in. (45 cm) thick can be examined without difficulty.
CORE SAMPLING AND TESTING OF CONCRETE
While Rebound Hammer, CAPO/Pull-out, Windsor probe and ultrasonic pulse velocity
tests give indirect evidence of concrete quality, a more direct assessment on strength can be
made by core sampling and testing. Cores (Figs. 20 and 21) are usually cut by means of a
rotary cutting tool with diamond bits. In this manner, a cylindrical specimen is obtained
usually with its ends being uneven, parallel and square and sometimes with embedded pieces
of reinforcement. The cores are visually described and photographed, giving specific
attention to compaction, distribution of aggregates, presence of steel etc. the core should then
be soaked in water, capped with molten sulphur to make its ends plane, parallel, at right angle
and then tested in compression in a moist condition as per BS 1881: Part 4: 1970 or ASTM C
42-77. The core samples can also be used for the following:
Strength and density determination

Depth of carbonation of concrete
Chemical analysis
Water/gas permeability
Petrographic analysis
ASHTO Chloride permeability test
The strength of a test specimen depends on its shape, proportions and size. The influence of
height/diameter (H/D) ratio on the recorded strength of cylinder is an established fact.
Strength of cores have to be related to the standard cylinder strengths, i.e. for H/D ratio of 2.
Thus cores should preferably have this ration near to 2. For values of H/D less than 1,
between 1 and 2, a correction factor has to be applied. Cores with H/D ratio less than 1 yield
unreliable results and BS 1881: Part-4:1970 prescribes a minimum value as 0.95. The same
standard specifies the use of 150mm or 100mm cores. However, cores as small as 50mm are
also permitted in the standards.
Fig. 20. Instrument showing core cutting
Fig. 21. Concrete Core
Very small diameter cores exhibit more variability in results than larger diameter cores, hence
their use is generally not recommended. The general rule adopted for fixing the core size,
besides the H/D ratio, is the nominal size of stone aggregate; and the diameter should be not
less than 3 times the maximum size of stone aggregate. For diameter of core less than 3 times
the size of the stone aggregate, an increased number of cores have to be tested.
Following are the factors which affect the compressive strength of extracted concrete
cores:
Size of stone aggregate: If the ratio of diameter of core to maximum size of stone
aggregate is less than 3, a reduction in strength is reported. For concrete with 20mm
size aggregate, 50mm dia core has been tested to give 10% lower results than with
10mm dia cores.
Presence of transverse reinforcement steel: It is reported that the presence of
transverse steel causes a 5 to 15% reduction in compressive strength of core. The
effect of embedded steel is higher on stronger concrete and as its location moves away
from ends, i.e. towards the middle. However, presence of steel parallel to the axis of
the core is not desirable.
H/D ratio: This has been already discussed above. However, its value should be
minimum 0.95 and maximum 2. Higher ratio would cause a reduction in strength.
Age of concrete: No age allowance is recommended by the Concrete Society as some
evidence suggests that in-situ concrete gains little strength after 28 days. Whereas
others suggest that under average conditions, the increase over 28 days‘ strength is
10% after 3 months, 15% after 6 months. Hence, it is not easy to deal the effect of age
on core strength.
Strength of concrete: The effect of reducing the core strength appears to be higher in
stronger concretes and reduction has been reported as 15% for 40 MPa concrete.
However, a reduction of 5.5- 7% is considered reasonable.
Drilling operations: The strength of cores is generally less than that of standard
cylinders, partly as a consequence of disturbance due to vibrations during drilling
operations. Whatever best precautions are taken during drilling, there is always a risk
of slight damage.
Site conditions vis-a-vis standard specimens: Because site curing is invariably
inferior to curing prescribed for standard specimens, the in-situ core strength is
invariably lower than the standard specimens taken and tested during concreting
operations.
REINFORCED CONCRETE CORROSION MONITORING DEVICES
Reinforced concrete structures have the potential to be very durable and capable of
withstanding a variety of adverse environmental conditions. However, failures in the
structures do still occur as a result of premature reinforcement corrosion. The maintenance
and repair of bridges and buildings for their safety requires effective inspection and
monitoring techniques for assessing the reinforcement corrosion. Engineers need better
techniques for assessing the condition of the structure when the maintenance or repair is
required. These methods need to be able to identify any possible durability problems within
structures before they become serious.
Corrosion on existing structures can be assessed by different methods such as:
1. Open circuit potential (OCP) measurements
2. Surface potential (SP) measurements
3. Concrete resistivity measurement
4. Linear polarization resistance (LPR) measurement
5. Tafel extrapolation
6. Galvanostatic pulse transient method
7. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS)
8. Harmonic analysis
9. Noise Analysis
10. Embeddable corrosion monitoring sensor and
11. Cover thickness measurements
12. Ultrasonic pulse velocity technique
13. X-ray, Gamma radiography measurement
14. Infrared thermograph Electrochemical
15. Visual inspection
Open Circuit Potential (OCP) Measurements
The tendency of any metal to react with an environment is indicated by the potential it
develops in contact with the environment. In reinforced concrete structures, concrete acts, as
an electrolyte and the reinforcement will develop a potential depending on the concrete
environment, which may vary from place to place. The schematic diagram for open circuit
potential measurements is as shown in Fig. 22.
Fig. 22. Schematic representation of OCP measurements (rebar =reinforcement bar)
The principle involved in this technique is essentially measurement of corrosion potential of

rebar with respect to a standard reference electrode, such as saturated calomel electrode
(SCE), copper/copper sulfate electrode (CSE), silver/ silver chloride electrode etc. As per
ASTM C 876 standards, the probability of reinforcement corrosion is as follows in Table 8.
Table 8. Probability of reinforcement corrosion
According to this method if the potential of steel in concrete becomes more negative than -
276mV vs. SCE there is a 90% probability that corrosion will occur. It is a non-destructive
test that collects an enormous quantity of data from a large structural area. Establishing
structures potential map, according to ASTM C876-91, is the most commonly applied
electrochemical technique for diagnosing the corrosion risk of reinforced concrete structures.
However, it is generally accepted that corrosion potential measurements must be
complemented by other methods because although reliable relationships between potential
and corrosion rate can be found in the laboratory for well established conditions these can
in no way be generalized, since wide variations in the corrosion rate are possible in very
narrow range of potentials. Open circuit potential measurement is a useful technique in
finding out the anodic and cathodic sites in reinforced concrete structures provided the
reinforcing bars are exposed to the environments.
Surface Potential (SP) Measurements
During corrosion process, an electric current flow between the cathodic and anodic sites
through the concrete and this flow can be detected by measurement of potential drop in the
concrete. Hence, surface potential measurement is used as a non-destructive testing for
identifying anodic and cathodic regions in concrete structure and indirectly detecting the
probability of corrosion of enforcement bar in concrete. Two reference electrodes are used for
surface potential measurements as shown in Fig. 23. No electrical connection to the rebar
(reinforcement bar) is necessary in this technique. In this measurement, one electrode is kept
fixed on the structure on a symmetrical point. The other electrode called moving electrode is
moved along the structure on the nodal points of the grid as mentioned in OCP
measurements. The potential of movable electrode, when placed at nodal points, is measured
against the fixed electrode using a high impedance voltmeter. A more positive potential
reading represents anodic area where corrosion is possible. The greater the potential
difference between anodic and cathodic areas greater is the probability of corrosion.
Fig. 23. Schematic representation of surface potential measurements (rebar

=reinforcement bar).
Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS)
A.C. Impedance spectroscopy is being experimented as a useful non-destructive technique for

quantifying corrosion of steel rebars embedded in concrete. Impedance Z is the ratio of A.C.
voltage to A.C. current. An alternating voltage of about 10 to 20 mV is applied to the rebar
and the resultant current and phase angle are measured for various frequencies. The response
to an A.C. input is a complex impedance that has both real (resistive) and imaginary
(capacitive or inductive) component Z and Z‖ as shown in Fig. 24. From studying the
variation of the impedance with frequency, an equivalent electrical circuit can be determined,
which would give the same response as the corrosion system being studied. Plotting the
imaginary impedance against the real impedance gives a semi-circle, with a diameter equal to
Rt. The semicircle is offset from the origin by a value Rs, which is the ohmic resistance of the
concrete cover zone between the reference half-cell and the reinforcing bar being measured.
At the highest point on the semi-circle the frequency (f) can be found and the double-layer
capacitance value is then given by
In practice, an AC Impedance response will often be a combination of several different semi-

circles, due to different RC parallel components, which could arise from film effects etc. The
value of Cdl is useful because it may be used to identify the corrosion processes and which
part is due to other processes. The A.C. impedance technique has the advantage that it can
give more information than DC LPR measurements, but it can be very time-consuming to
perform and its use has been generally confined to the laboratory rather than on structures
in the field. The EIS is a powerful and general technique suitable for characterizing the
electrochemical processes in non-homogeneous or multiphase materials. It can estimate a
steady-state corrosion rate and subsequently. EIS has been extensively used to evaluate the
corrosion rate of the steel/concrete system. This technique may be very attractive because,
used in a wide range of frequencies; it can give detailed information about the mechanism
and kinetics of the electrochemical reactions.
Fig. 24. Nyquist plot for steel in concrete
Embeddable corrosion monitoring sensor
The Embedded Corrosion Instrument (ECI) is an electronic corrosion sensor that provides
early warning of conditions that damage steel reinforcement, leading to cracking, spalling,
and other deterioration of concrete structures. By monitoring five key factors in corrosion,
and by communicating these through a digital network, the ECI provides comprehensive,
real-time information on structural conditions. This helps facilities managers to avert crisis,
save money on maintenance, and build a detailed record on each structure. The ECI is
designed to monitor bridges, buildings, dams, erosion control structures, flood control
channels, parking garages, piers, pylons, roadways, and spillways. A non-destructive
evaluation (NDE) device gathers and delivers all data without requiring inspectors to cut
samples, interrupt use of a structure, or even visit the site.
The ECI monitors five key factors in corrosion – linear polarization resistance, open circuit
potential, resistivity, chloride ion concentration, and temperature. This provides more
comprehensive data than prior generations of corrosion monitors. It also reveals correlations
among the causes and signs of corrosion, yielding a fuller, more certain picture of the threat.
The ECI integrate processing electronics with its sensors, and so can use digital, rather than
analog communications. This eliminates data corruption by electro-magnetic interference
from power lines, radio waves, and cellular telephones. Digital technology also makes it
possible to connect multiple ECI monitors to a single data logger, saving potentially tens of
thousands of dollars in support electronics per project. The ECI – 1 embeddable corrosion
sensor incorporates 5 sensors into small rugged package that can be easily installed and
placed wherever needed to provide adequate coverage of a structure during construction. The
ECI-1 sensor (Fig. 25) has much application in the construction and maintenance of
commercial and civil structures
Fig. 25. ECI sensor during operation
Vibrating wire and electrical strain gauges
Fig. 26. Installation of VW (vibrating wire) Strain gauge
Conventional devices such as vibrating wire (Fig. 26) and electrical strain gauges have been
demonstrated to exhibit good strain measuring capability and have been used successfully in
structural health monitoring, vibrating wire strain gauges can be embedded in concrete to
measure strain caused by stress variations. The stress can also be evaluated when the
concrete‘s modulus of elasticity is known, taking into consideration thermal, creep and
concrete reaction effects. The advantages of the vibrating wire include its long-term
reliability for absolute strain measurement and the ability of the frequent signal to be
transmitted over long distances. The vibrating wire strain gauge can in principle be used to
detect the formation of internal cracks and delamination in concrete. Electrical strain
gauges, on the other hand, are not suited for monitoring propagation of internal cracks in
concrete, since the formation of a crack, which intersects across these foil sensors, would
render them unsafe. Furthermore, electrical strain gauges require bonding surfaces and
therefore cannot be readily embedded in the volume of the concrete mix for detection of
cracks and delamination.
QUALITY CONTROL MEASURES AT SITE
Quality control measures
Study duties responsibilities, Tender specification, standards, codes of practice and

work instruction.
Evolve effective acceptance/rejection procedures for construction materials in
coordination with the project purchase department.
Do proper sampling and testing of steel, cement, concrete, aggregates, water, etc., and
verify test results in view of standards and work specifications prior to their use in
construction. Also control quality of electrodes to their use in welding.
Set procedures to control quality at the points of storage for raw materials, mixing and
placing of concrete.
Follow the prescribed curing and deshuttering schedules.
Observe procedures to control quality of welded joints of structural steel members.
Evolve a system to check quality of workmanship in all construction activities.
Keep all revised Standards and codes of practice available in QC laboratory and have
them handy during discussion with client/consultant.
Maintain sequence of construction required under any activity.
Discuss QA/QC issues as a separate agenda during site review meetings with staff.
Observe regular schedule for maintenance, repairs and calibration of plants and
equipments.
Keep spare parts/materials for laboratory equipments weigh batchers, batching plant,
etc., always keep spare vibrators ready at site.
Carry work instruction cards in pocket, while supervising/inspecting works.
Regularly maintain the formats prescribed under ISO 9002 Quality assurance system
Practice sound house-keeping methods to achieve saving, safety and quality.
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE- MERITS AND DEMERITS
A combination of steel and concrete in which the steel is put in tension before or after the
concrete is poured. After the concrete has set, the tension on the steel is released and
transferred through its bond to compression on the concrete.
Prestressed concrete has the following merits:
1. Since the technique of prestressing eliminates cracking of concrete under all stage of
loading, the entire section of the structures takes part in resisting the external load. In
contrast to this, in the reinforced concrete, only portion of the concrete above neutral
axis is effective.
2. Easy and speed of erection and reduction in costs
3. Smaller and longer size structures are possible. Saving in weight reduces the size of
foundations required.
4. Since concrete does not crack, the possibility of steel to rust and concrete to
deteriorate is minimized.
5. Absence of cracks results in higher capacity of the structure to bear reversal of
stresses, impact, vibration and shock.
6. In prestressed concrete beams, dead loads are practically neutralized. The reactions
required are therefore much smaller than required in reinforced concrete. The reduced
dead load weight of the structure results in saving in the cost of foundations. The
neutralization of dead load is of importance in large bridges.
7. The use of curved tendons and the pre-compression of concrete helps to resist shear.
8. The quantity of steel required for prestressing about 1/3 of that required for reinforced
concrete, though the steel for the former should have high tensile strength.
9. In prestressed concrete, precast blocks and elements can be assumed and used as one
unit. This saves the costs of shuttering and centering for large structures.
10. With the advent of prestressed concrete, it has been possible now to construct large
size liquid retaining structures not economical to build otherwise. Such structures
have low cost and are preferably safe against cracking and consequent leakage.
11. Prestressed concrete can be used with advantage in all those structures where tension
develops, such as tie and suspender of a bow string girder, railway sleepers, electric
poles, upstream face of gravity dam, etc.
12. Prestressed concrete beams (Fig. 27) have usually low deflection.
Fig. 27. Prestressed concrete
Prestressed concrete construction has following demerits:
1. It requires high quality dense concrete of high strength. Perfect quality concrete in
production, placement and compaction is required.
2. It requires high tensile steel, which is 2.5 to 3.5 times costlier than mild steel.
3. It requires complicated tensioning equipment and anchoring devices, which are
usually covered under patented rights.
4. Construction requires perfect supervision at all stages of construction.

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CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY NOTES

Chemical composition of OPC (Ordinary Portland cement)

Lime (CaO) = 60-65%

Silica (SiO) = 20-25%

Alumina (Al2O3) = 4-7%

Iron-oxide (Fe2O3) = < 5%

Type GU: General Use

In Zimbabwe there are generally 3 types of cement manufactured:

Manufacture of Portland cement

Manufacture of Cement by Wet process

Fig. 1. Cement Manufacturing Process

Source of image at: www.smecrusher.com/.../clinker-grinding-unit/

Manufacturing cement, like glass, is a highly energy-intensive process. Cement is an

Fig. 2b. Setting and hardening

Cementitious materials are batched cumulatively by mass to within 2%

Fig. 3. Placing concrete

Design strength of concrete in member = 0.45fck

fcr = 0.7 fck N/mm2

Short term modular ratio = Es / Ec

Es = modulus of elasticity of steel (2×10 5 N/mm2)

Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete (5000√fck N/mm2)

Long term modular ratio (m) = 280/ (3fcbc)

Where, fcbc = permissible compressive stress due to bending in concrete in N/mm2.

It is influenced by concrete permeability to water and other potentially deleterious materials.

Measurement of durability: using of performance test of service records; bleeding rate (a

Factors affecting durability

Unit weight of concrete:

EFFECTS OF AGGREGATE PROPERTIES ON CONCRETE

Concrete is a mixture of cementitious material, aggregate (Fig. 4) and water. Aggregate is

METHODS OF PROPORTIONING CONCRETE

Design mix concrete is preferred to nominal mix.

n = Number of sample test results.

Methods of proportioning concrete:

(1) Arbitrary Method

1 : 1.5 : 3 and 1 : 2 : 4 for normal works.

1 : 3 : 6 and 1 : 4 : 8 for foundations and mass concrete works.

Recommended Mixes of Concrete

(2) Fineness Modulus Method:

The coarser the aggregates, the higher the fineness modulus.

Sieves adopted for:

Coarse aggregates : mm, 40 mm, 20 mm, 10 mm, and No. 480.

Fine aggregates : Nos. 480, 240, 120, 60, 30 and 15.

Proportion of the fine aggregate to the combined aggregate by weight

(3) Minimum Void Method (Does not give satisfactory result)

(4) Maximum Density Method: (Not very Popular)

Where, D = maximum size of aggregate (i.e. coarse aggregate); P = percentage of material

(5) Water – Cement Ratio Method:

0.45 for 1 : 1 : 2 concrete

0.5 for 1 : 1.5 : 3 concrete

0.5 to 0.6 for 1 : 2 : 4 concrete.

Thumb Rules for deciding the quantity of water in concrete:

Table 1. Recommended volumetric mixes for various types of construction

MIX DESIGN OF HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE

Properties of a high-strength concrete-mix with a compressive strength of more than 40 MPa

Fig. 9. Relation between water-cement ratio and Reference Number

Table 4. Batch Quantities per cubic metre of concrete

MIX DESIGN EXAMPLE

Specified 28-day works cube strength = 50 MPa

Very good degree of control; control factor = 0.80

Degree of workability = very low

Type of cement = ordinary Portland cement

Type of coarse aggregate = crushed granite (angular) of maximum size 10mm.

Type of fine aggregate = natural sand

Specific gravity of sand = 2.60