BUILDING STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

Structural system is the specific process of assembling and constructing a building's

structural elements so that they support and transmit applied loads safely to the
ground without going above the members' permissible stress.
Building: It is a group of components that are firmly fixed to the ground in
accordance with the supplied design and specification to offer the necessary service
for human activities.
It is also the process assembling materials to achieve a complete structure as defined
or stated above. This is done passing through sequential construction process.

Building Techniques: the process how to apply different techniques in the process of
construction is to be presented to perform the necessary tasks for achieving required
structure.
There are two types of building structure.
 Super structure
 Sub-structure

Superstructure

The superstructure describes the entire portion of a building that sits above ground or
the foundation. The superstructure is typically more extensive than the substructure
depending on the type and size of the building. 

Some parts of the superstructure may include;

 Floors: Floors separate the levels within the superstructure.

 Beams: These are the horizontal elements within the superstructure that
support all the vertical loads. 
 Lintel: This refers to the area over the doors and windows. It provides support
to the wall area over larger openings. The lintel is made from reinforced
cement concrete or concrete and brick.
 Walls: Walls help to provide enclosure and privacy. Walls also carry some of
the weight from the beams and slabs.  
 Roof: The roof protects the inside of the building from the elements such as
rain and wind. There are countless roofing options available. However, sloped
roofs are recommended in highland areas, while flat roofs work well within
the plains.
 Parapet: Parapets are external walls that extend past the roof slab and are
chiefly used to prevent water from pouring over onto the entrance of the
building.
 Columns: These are the vertical structures that hold most of the loads from
the superstructure and transfer this weight to the foundation. Columns are
essential in tall buildings. 
 Doors, windows, and other openings: Doors, Windows, and other openings
above the ground level are considered part of the superstructure.
 Stairs, ramps, and lifts: Stairs, ramps, and lifts are also part of the
superstructure, allowing movement around the building.
Substructure

The substructure refers to the portion of the building that sits below the ground. The
substructure distributes the weight of the building to the ground beneath the building.
The superstructure is thus built right against the soil. The substructure can make or
break a structure. It is crucial to work with structural engineers to ensure that the
piers, support beams, and foundations within the substructure do not collapse. 

The substructure base is constructed using either reinforced cement concrete or plain
cement concrete. The cement concrete is covered with bricks or stone and additional
concrete to the desired plinth level. A damp-proof course is then laid on top to prevent
moisture from penetrating the substructure. 

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SUPERSTRUCTURE AND SUBSTRUCTURE

Superstructure Substructure

The portion of a building built above The part of a building built below ground
ground level level

May include walls, floors, beams, It consists of the foundation, abutment,

windows, doors, and columns and pier

Transfers loads from the upper part of Transfers loads from the superstructure to
the building to the substructure the soil underneath the building

It covers the portion of the building It covers the part of the building from the
that is below the plinth top of the plinth to the top of the building

Provides living space and protects the It supports the structure and prevents it
building from the elements from collapsing

There are seven basic structure or framing types and an assortment of alternative
structural systems:

1. Wall-bearing, 

2. Reinforced concrete,

3. Structural steel,

4. Tensile structures.

5. Timber

6. Dome
7. Shell

Wall-bearing

Buildings that rely on stone walls to sustain the structural parts of the floor and roof
are referred to as wall-bearing structures. These buildings typically have one or two
stories, but they can have more if the situation calls for them. Buildings with many
stores were commonplace prior to the widespread adoption of skeletal frame, but the
walls at the first story had to be thick (three or four feet) to sustain the unit stresses on
the masonry. Wall-bearing architecture is typically encountered in somewhat complex
buildings where no significant alterations are envisaged. They are relatively simple to
build, but because of the hefty bearing walls and the difficulty and expense involved
in moving them, they often don't have as adaptable floor layouts as other building
types. Because masonry and mortar cannot be laid in damp or freezing conditions,
masonry construction is vulnerable to bad weather.

Reinforced Concrete

also called reinforced cement concrete (RCC) and ferroconcrete, is a composite

material in which concrete's relatively low tensile strength and ductility are
compensated for by the inclusion of reinforcement having higher tensile strength or
ductility. 

Reinforced concrete framing differs from wall-bearing construction in several ways,

but a primary difference is that it consists entirely of freestanding columns braced by
horizontal beams at each floor level. Skeletal framing is necessary for high-rise
construction, and the columns and beams can be designed to carry almost unlimited
loadings from the dead load of the building weight and the live load of contents,
occupants, and wind. Skeletal framing provides wide flexibility for future changes to
floor layouts, as there are few, if any, solid masonry bearing walls to remove or
relocate.

A paste of a binder ingredient (often Portland cement) and water is added to a mixture
of course (stone or brick chips) and fine (typically sand and/or crushed stone)
aggregates to create concrete. A modest amount of water added to cement causes it to
hydrate and form microscopic opaque crystal lattices that enclose and lock the
aggregate into a hard shape. Injurious elements such as biological contaminants, silt,
clay, lignite, etc. should not be present in the aggregates used to make concrete.
Standard concrete mixtures have a strong resilience to compressive stresses (28 MPa),
but any significant tension will rupture the microscopic hard lattice, causing the
concrete to crack and separate. Because of this, normal non-reinforced concrete needs
to be solidly supported to avoid tension buildup.

Reinforced concrete frames usually are formed on the job and are poured floor by
floor as the structure rises. If beams are a problem, either functionally or aesthetically,
a flat slab floor system can be designed that eliminates beams by thickening the floor
construction. Reinforced concrete is an ideal building material for structures, because
it is naturally fireproof and does not require any additional fire protection measures.
This is especially important in high-rise structures, where fire safety and exit codes
are more stringent.
Two major types of reinforced concrete

Precast concrete framing is preferred over cast-in-place concrete for some situations.
The beams, columns, and even units of the floor slab may be cast in a factory and
delivered to the job site already cured and ready for placement. Quite commonly,
these units are prestressed with steel cables under tension to supply the required
tensile strength for the floor units. The connecting joints are usually welded to steel
plates embedded in the concrete. This technology has unlimited applications, but one
of the most common uses of precast concrete structures is in the construction of
multistory parking garages.

Fiber-reinforced concrete (FRC) is concrete containing fibrous material, which

increases its structural integrity. It contains short, discrete fibers that are uniformly
distributed and randomly oriented. Fibers include steel fibers, glass fibers, synthetic
fibers, and natural fibers. Within these different fibers, the character of fiber-
reinforced concrete changes with varying types of concrete, fiber materials, geometry,
distribution, orientation, and densities.

Basic terminologies in RCC

A singly reinforced beam is one in which the concrete element is only reinforced

near the tensile face and the reinforcement, called tension steel, is designed to resist
the tension.
A doubly reinforced beam is the section in which besides the tensile reinforcement
the concrete element is also reinforced near the compressive face to help the concrete
resist compression and take stresses. The latter reinforcement is called compression
steel. When the compression zone of a concrete is inadequate to resist the
compressive moment (positive moment), extra reinforcement has to be provided if the
architect limits the dimensions of the section.
An under-reinforced beam is one in which the tension capacity of the tensile
reinforcement is smaller than the combined compression capacity of the concrete and
the compression steel (under-reinforced at tensile face). When the reinforced concrete
element is subject to increasing bending moment, the tension steel yields while the
concrete does not reach its ultimate failure condition. As the tension steel yields and
stretches, an "under-reinforced" concrete also yields in a ductile manner, exhibiting a
large deformation and warning before its ultimate failure. In this case the yield stress
of the steel governs the design.
An over-reinforced beam is one in which the tension capacity of the tension steel is
greater than the combined compression capacity of the concrete and the compression
steel (over-reinforced at tensile face). So the "over-reinforced concrete" beam fails by
crushing of the compressive-zone concrete and before the tension zone steel yields,
which does not provide any warning before failure as the failure is instantaneous.
A balanced-reinforced beam is one in which both the compressive and tensile zones
reach yielding at the same imposed load on the beam, and the concrete will crush and
the tensile steel will yield at the same time. This design criterion is however as risky
as over-reinforced concrete, because failure is sudden as the concrete crushes at the
same time of the tensile steel yields, which gives a very little warning of distress in
tension failure.
Steel-reinforced concrete moment-carrying elements should normally be designed to
be under-reinforced so that users of the structure will receive warning of impending
collapse.
The characteristic strength is the strength of a material where less than 5% of the
specimen shows lower strength.
The design strength or nominal strength is the strength of a material, including a
material-safety factor. The value of the safety factor generally ranges from 0.75 to
0.85 in Permissible stress design.
The ultimate limit state is the theoretical failure point with a certain probability. It is
stated under factored loads and factored resistances.
Reinforced concrete structures are normally designed according to rules and
regulations or recommendation of a code such as ACI-318, CEB, Eurocode 2 or the
like. WSD, USD or LRFD methods are used in design of RC structural members.
Analysis and design of RC members can be carried out by using linear or non-linear
approaches. When applying safety factors, building codes normally propose linear
approaches, but for some cases non-linear approaches. To see the examples of a non-
linear numerical simulation and calculation visit the references

Structural Steel

Steel-framed buildings have characteristics similar to concrete-framed buildings in

that the structural frame relies on a post-and-beam approach to design, and it is built
as a free-standing structure before the exterior walls are placed. Steel can be erected
faster than poured-in-place structures and also is easier to work with in harsh winter
weather than concrete. Steel-framed buildings range from the relatively simple
prefabricated metal buildings to the more complex and sophisticated “superdomes”
for sports arenas and high-rise structures. Steel structures are shop fabricated and field
erected using rivets, bolts, welds, or combinations of connection techniques.

Steel framing must be fireproofed for certain types of occupancies and for multistory
construction. If a steel structure is not properly protected, it can suddenly collapse in a
fire if the temperature of the steel rises above 1,000°F. This was graphically
evidenced with the tragic events surrounding the collapse of the twin World Trade
Center towers in New York in 2001. Steel construction typically is lighter in weight,
is erected more quickly, and usually has lower initial costs than concrete framing. On
the other hand, it requires the additional cost of fireproofing and does not provide the
same degree of structural “rigidity” as concrete framing. Rigidity can be particularly
important with some building types, such as hospitals, classrooms, or research labs.

What are the different steel grades?

Considering that steel is less prone to bend when under pressure, one may assume that
construction-grade steel should have a reasonably high carbon content. However, the
most typical steel type utilized in building materials is low-carbon steel, usually
referred to as "mild steel." It normally has a carbon concentration of between 0.04%
and 0.3%, making it strong yet ductile. Steel structures, especially tall steel structures,
need to be both robust and somewhat flexible. Overly inflexible structures cannot flex
in the face of strong winds or accommodate natural earth tremors, which can be
brought on by nearby construction or even earthquakes.

 Carbon steels. Structural steel is designated carbon steel when no other alloying
element is added, copper content does not exceed 0.4 to 0.6%, manganese does
not exceed 1.6%, and silicone does not exceed 0.6%. It is commonly used in
structural pipe and tubing.

 High-strength, low-alloy steels. This steel grade is designed to optimize

mechanical properties and corrosion resistance. They contain manganese levels up
to 2%. Trace amounts of chromium, nickel, molybdenum, nitrogen, vanadium,
niobium, and titanium may be used to alter the properties. These are mainly used
in structural shapes and steel plates.

 Forged steels. Forging is the process of shaping metal while still in a solid state.
This is done by applying force or heat to steel ingots or billets. The process
produces a uniform grain structure to the steel, which upgrades integrity by
removing voids and gas bubbles, and increases overall strength.

 Quenched and tempered alloy steels. Quenching and tempering are processes
that strengthen structural steel by heating it while simultaneously cooling in water,
oil, forced air, or nitrogen. It creates a tougher, less brittle, higher-strength
structural steel.

Pros and cons of building with steel

There are many various advantages of structural steel construction.

 Cheap and durable. Steel is cost-effective with significant longevity compared

with other materials, and easy to produce in significant quantities.

 Strong. Steel also boasts a high strength-to-weight ratio, meaning it is lightweight

compared with the amount of weight it can itself support. A 40 x 40 square
centimeter carrier of structural steel can do the same job as a 100 x 100 square
centimeter reinforced concrete carrier.

 Ductile. Structural steel boasts good ductility. It has an elastic nature that allows it
to bend and yield slightly, making sudden failure less likely. Its toughness, or
ability to absorb energy, means structural steel can take a beating and carry
heavier loads without sagging.

 Versatile. Last but not least, structural steel is versatile; it can be modified,
formed, and molded with relative ease.

But there are a few disadvantages of building with structural steel too. It is susceptible
to corrosion, and making it resistant to such processes can be costly. It is also
susceptible to fatigue and buckling, with measurable decreases in strength in higher
temperatures
 Tensile Structures

Another framing system consists of structural supports of either steel or concrete

covered by a tensile fabric system. The fabrics used in this type of system carry loads
generated only from tension, while the structural supporting elements in the system
carry all of the compression loads. Most tensile structures are supported by some form
of compression or bending elements, such as masts, as in The O2, formerly known as
the Millennium Dome, or compression rings or beams. Tensile membrane structures
are most often used as roofs for large arenas or public spaces because they can
economically and attractively span large distances.

Timber Structure

Timber has been used as a structural material for centuries. In the modern-day, graded
structural timber is used by builders, carpenters and DIYers to create strong and load-
bearing buildings and structures. It's crucial that the materials used for building a
load-bearing interior or external structure, such as a floor, stud wall, or roof, are
strong enough to handle the highest expected load, dependable, and most importantly,
safe.

Specifically for that purpose, structurally graded wood, also known as structural
carcassing wood, is used. The grading of structural timber occurs throughout
production. The timber's structural strength and appropriateness for load-bearing uses
are indicated by this rating. There are other strength grades available, but C24, C16,
and CLS are the most well-liked and useful grades. It is crucial to select the
appropriate structural grade for the intended use.

Timber is frequently used as an alternative to or in combination with other structural

elements, such as steel and bricks, by both builders and do-it-yourselfers.

Timber is a very adaptable material that is simple to mold and modify. Numerous
fixtures and fittings, including as screws, nails, bolts, and glues, can be used to join it.
Timber may be easily recycled and can be obtained from natural sources.
Comparatively speaking to other structural materials, structurally graded timber is
rather light due to its high weight to strength ratio. This makes carrying and moving it
much simpler. It is also regarded as an economical option for a variety of structural
applications.

The strength of timber and whether it qualifies for structural use largely
depends on a number of factors.

First off, whether or not the lumber passes muster depends greatly on the species of
the tree from which it is sourced. From one tree species to another, a tree's inherent
qualities can differ. Timbers with a high moisture content are susceptible to decay, so
the lower the moisture level, the more durable and decay-resistant the species is, and
vice versa. All structural timber must be evaluated because variations might exist in
wood from the same species and even the same tree. Once the wood has been kiln
dried and achieves a moisture level of less than 20%, the strength of the material is
assessed. First off, whether or not the lumber passes muster depends greatly on the
species of the tree from which it is sourced. From one tree species to another, a tree's
inherent qualities can differ. Timbers with a high moisture content are susceptible to
decay, so the lower the moisture level, the more durable and decay-resistant the
species is, and vice versa. All structural timber must be evaluated because variations
might exist in wood from the same species and even the same tree. Once the wood has
been kiln dried and achieves a moisture level of less than 20%, the strength of the
material is assessed. The way that the timber is sawn from the tree directly correlates
to the timber’s strength. Timber joists used for structural applications are sawn from
the trunk of the tree. Within the tree trunk, cells are aligned axially. The timber that is
sawn from the trunk contains these cells parallel to their length, which provides axial
and flexural strength. When cut perpendicular to the grain, the compression and
tension of these cells are much weaker, therefore timber should be cut parallel to the
length of the cells to ensure that the timber is strong and durable in structural settings.

There are two methods used to grade timber; visual strength grading or machine
strength grading. Structural timber suppliers must use certified graders or licensed
machines to carry out the grading.

The strength class outcome depends on the following criteria:

 Bending parallel to grain (N/mm2)
 Tension parallel to grain (N/mm2)
 Compression parallel to grain (N/mm2)
 Compression perpendicular to grain (N/mm2)
 Shear parallel to grain (N/mm2)
 Modulus of elasticity minimum (N/mm2)
 Characteristic density (kg/m5)
 Average density (kg/m5)

Softwood vs Hardwood
Structural timber can be made from either hardwood or softwood. Hardwood timber is
sourced from broad-leaved trees, whilst softwood timber is obtained from conifer
trees. Softwood timbers have a lower density and are an ideal lightweight structural
material. They are often more readily available, lower in cost, can be easily worked
and provide a reduced load weight. Douglas Fir is an example of a softwood tree from
which timber is sourced. For structural timber that is exposed, hardwood timber is a
better choice. This is because it tends to be very durable and have aesthetic
characteristics such as grain and pattern.

Structural timber grades

The most commonly used structural timber grades are C16 and C24. The ‘C’ grading
stands for conifer, the type of softwood tree from which the structural timber is
derived. The number gives an indication of the strength grade.

What is the difference between C16 and C24 timber?

 C16 is used for a variety of structural applications including:

 Wallplates
 Stud work
 Floor and roof joists
 Rafters

This grade allows for some defects, such as wanes and grain deviations, which can
reduce the overall strength of the timber. Despite this, it offers great structural
properties including compression, density and bending. It is kiln dried, to reduce
moisture content, which is essential for maintaining the timber’s durability. C16 is
considered a cost-effective structural timber.

 C24 timber is commonly used when superior strength and aesthetics are

important. Applications include:

 Balconies
 Bridges
 Rafters
 Joists

It is most suitable for uses where heavier loads need to be supported or across wide
spans. Whilst C24 is generally a more expensive choice, it offers superior strength in
addition to more visually appealing aesthetic properties. The timber’s premium
quality is visible from the surface of the timber, which is smooth and more uniformed
in appearance. In contrast to C16, C24 structural timber is sourced from trees that are
exposed to a climate that yields a slower growth rate. This means that it contains
fewer defects and has greater overall strength. Bending, compression and tension
parallel to the grain is much greater per N/mm2 and the average density is
significantly higher. C24 is around 50% stronger than C16 timber.

 CLS timber, or Canadian Lumber Standard timber, is another timber that is

suitable for structural applications. Despite its name, it can also be grown in
Europe. CLS is most commonly used to build stud walls for internal partitioning,
carcassing and framing. The timber itself is usually sourced from pine, spruce or
fir trees and is kiln-dried to reduce moisture content.

Dome Structure

Domes are self-supporting curved structures shaped like a partial sphere.

Architectural domes have long been used for buildings of the utmost importance.
From the Kremlin in Moscow to the US Capitol in Washington, DC, domes make an
appearance on some of the most iconic government buildings around the world.
Similarly, domes are often featured in buildings with religious significance, including
the onion domes of St. Basil’s Cathedral in Russia, the Duomo (Florence Cathedral)
in Italy, the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, and even the Taj Mahal in India.

How Are Domes Structured?

It’s essential to understand a dome’s shape as well as the forces of nature that operate
upon it to understand how one works. In simplest terms, a dome is a self-supporting
curved structure shaped like part of a sphere. A dome relies on a few essential forces
to support a hemispherical roof without columns or another support system rising
from the floor beneath:

 Normal force—this force of nature is the support force exerted on the

dome’s structure via contact with the base and the earth the building is
resting on. This force presses upwards from the ground.
 Gravity—this force of nature is caused by the pull the earth has on all
things toward its center and pulls the dome downward. Gravity can also be
described as the weight of the materials used to construct the dome.
 Compression—this force acts on each component of a dome, pressing
into it from both sides. Imagine a dome constructed of bricks; each brick
receives pressure from the bricks surrounding it to hold it in place.
 Tension—this force acts outwardly from each component of a dome. In
our brick dome example, imagine each brick pressing against and
supporting the bricks next to it.
 Thrust—the above forces combine to press upward (normal force) and
pull downward (gravity), compacting the dome and increasing the
compression and tension that stabilizes the dome’s curved surface. When
the forces reach this equilibrium, the line of thrust ensures its stability.

While not constructed out of individual bricks, monolithic domes utilize the same
principles of force to provide an exceptionally strong dome structure. First, a ring-
shaped concrete foundation is built, reinforced by steel rebar. Then, a pneumatic (air-
filled) form shapes the next step—a polyurethane foam insulative layer. Finally,
depending on the diameter of the circle and height of the dome, rebar is extended over
the foam layer, providing a structure to guide the layer of sprayed concrete that will
form the final shell of the dome’s roof.

Why Is Dome Structure Beneficial?

Humans have realized the benefits of dome structures for millennia. Smaller-scale
domes have been in use since some of the first non-cave dwellings known to
mankind, in the form of domed mud hut roofs, igloos, and the like. These smaller
structures naturally lent themselves to dome structure due to the materials and tools
available—mainly natural elements, hands, and simple shaping tools. Better yet,
domes allowed increased space inside a structure without the need for internal
supports.

The ancient Romans, too, realized the benefits of eliminating traditional support
structures. Previously, both Greeks and Romans architects had relied on columns to
support their larger stone buildings, even as the Romans began to use arches liberally
in their large-scale construction. Once it became clear that a dome structure
(essentially, a 360-degree arch) did not require an internal maze of columns to support
it, the dome structure of the Pantheon was born.

Modern monolithic dome structures hold numerous benefits that far exceed their
predecessors, including:

1. Strength. Due to the principles of force listed above as well as the heavy-
duty materials used to construct a monolithic dome, domes can withstand
incredible force and bear heavy loads. Force applied at the apex (highest
point) is distributed across the dome’s surface and down to the concrete
foundation.
2. Durability. Because of this strength, dome structures typically last much
longer than other structures of the same size. They are wind-resistant due
to their curved surface, and quite regularly weather violent storms without
damage. In addition, monolithic domes are water-resistant and fire-
resistant due to their construction.
3. Maintenance. As compared to traditional shingled, tiled, metal, and other
popular industrial and residential roofing materials, the masonry or
concrete of a dome requires relatively little maintenance. Mostly, this is
due to the absence of pests like termites as well as the overall durability of
the materials.
4. Energy efficiency. While the expansive nature of a dome structure may
seem as if it would be costly to heat and cool, the opposite is true in the
case of a monolithic dome. Compared to timber construction, the foam and
concrete construction of a monolithic dome serves to insulate the structure
perfectly. It allows the conditioned air to circulate within without escaping
outside—this has the effect of lowering energy costs.
5. Space. Finally, the most noted benefit of a dome structure is the sheer
amount of space created within the structure without the need for supports
rising from the floor beneath it. The resulting open space allows architects
to design rooms within a dome structure in practically any configuration
and leads to true customization of the interior.

Shell Structure

The geometry of a shell, which is a three-dimensional solid with a thin thickness

relative to other dimensions, as well as the stress results calculated in the middle
plane, which show components that are both coplanar and normal to the surface, are
characteristics of this type of structural element. Essentially, a shell can be created
from a plate by applying loads that are coplanar to the plane of the plate and that
result in large strains, as well as by first creating the center surface as a single or
doubly curved surface. Thin-shell structures (also called plate and shell structures) are
lightweight constructions using shell elements. These elements, typically curved, are assembled to
make large structures. Typical applications include aircraft fuselages, boat hulls, and the roofs of
large buildings. A thin shell is one whose thickness is small in relation to its other dimensions and
whose deformations are small in relation to thickness. The main distinction between a shell
structure and a plate structure is that the shell structure has curvature in the unstressed condition
while the plate structure is flat. In-plane forces (plane stress) are principally responsible for the
membrane action in a shell, but flexural deformations may also produce secondary forces. Shells
are comparable to cables that resist loads through tensile stresses, whereas flat plates behave
similarly to beams under bending and shear pressures. The perfect thin shell must be able to create
both compression and tension.

The most popular types of thin-shell structures are:

 Concrete shell structures, often cast as a monolithic dome or stressed

ribbon bridge or saddle roof
 Lattice shell structures, also called gridshell structures, often in the form
of a geodesic dome or a hyperboloid structure
 Membrane structures, which include fabric structures and other tensile
structures, cable domes, and pneumatic structures.

Types of Shell Structure:

1. Cylindrical shell: This cylindrical shells in which stationary cure called as

directrix or moving curve called generatrix is a straight line. Semi ellipse,
parabola, arch circle, cycloid catenary, horse-shoe shape are the example of some
common cylindrical shells.

2. Multiple cylindrical shells: Multiple cylindrical shells is a series of cylindrical

shells that are parallel and transversely continuous.

3. North light shells: The north light shell in which two springing are provided at
different levels is called the north light shell.The provision of curves at different
levels towards the north gives maximum north-light, this type of shell is usually
provided as a roof in case of factories.
4. Asymmetrical cylindrical shells: This asymmetrical cylindrical shell structure is
not symmetrical about the crown.

5. Barrel shells: This barrel shells is symmetrical about the crown.

6. Barrel vaults: Barrel vaults are most useful for shell structures because of the
greater span capacity of up to 50 m with minimal material. They are very efficient
structures because the arch form is used to reduce stress and thickness in the
transverse direction.

7. Short shells and long Shells: The number of terms has been developed to
describe cylindrical shells depending upon its span short or long.

8. Short shells: If the span length is short, then it is termed as short shells.

9. Intersection shell structure: The structural effectively of the intersection shell is

dependent upon the angle of intersection of the surface. If the angle is small, a rib
fanned by adjacent elements of the original shell is much larger than the adjacent
shell on each side. And if the angle of intersection is too large, it is called a
shallow intersection, if the angle of intersection is 90, it gives a rigid rib.
10. Shell arches: Shell arches are in the same category as small shells. If the stresses
are mainly compressive, all thicknesses can be made much smaller than an arc.
Shells are not a very efficient structure for the high value of bending moment.

11. Translation shells: A translation shell is generated by a vertical curve sliding

along another vertical curve. Curves have different shapes such as circles, ellipse,
and parabola therefore vertical segments are all the same as opposed to a round
dome in which all vertical segments differ in height. In short, translation shell is
simply a square dome in which the shape is generated by curve moving along
another curve.

Advantages of Shell Structures

1. Curved forms are inherently solid pillars that allow for large areas to be span
without the use of internal supports, resulting in an open, unobstructed
interior.
2. Since concrete is comparatively cheap and readily cast onto compound curves,
using it as a building material eliminates both material and construction costs.
3. The resulting construction can be extremely strong and safe; for example,
modern monolithic dome houses have withstood hurricanes and fires.
4. High power in relation to its own weight. ( Major efficiency measurement
criteria ).
5. Extremely Stiffness Protected
6. a large area reduces building costs
7. Aesthetic worth.

Disadvantages of Shell Structures

1. Since concrete is a porous substance, concrete domes sometimes have sealing

problems.
2. Rainwater will seep through the roof and spill into the building’s interior if it
is not handled.
3. The smooth structure of concrete domes, on the other hand, prevents air from
escaping which can contribute to condensation accumulation on the interior of
the shell.
4. Exterior moisture is commonly addressed with shingling or sealants, and
condensation may be addressed with dehumidifiers or ventilation.
5. Since concrete is a porous material, seepage can occur.
6. It is not necessary to put another floor above it due to its geometry.
7. It is essentially the roof covering framework.