COURSE CODE: CSC 101

COURSE TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE

NO. OF CREDITS: 3 CREDIT UNITS

 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

1.1 Computer Literacy

The vocabulary of computing is all around you. Before the advent of
computers, memory was the mental ability to recall previous experiences;
storage was an area where you kept out of season clothing; and
communication was the act of exchanging opinions and information through
writing, speaking, or signs. In today’s world, these words and countless
others have taken on new meanings as part of the common terminology used
to describe computers and their use.
When you hear the word computer, initially you may think of those found in
the workplace – the computers used to create business letters, memos, and
other correspondence; calculate payroll; track inventory; or generate
invoices. In the course of a day or week, however, you encounter many other
computers. Your home, for instance, may contain a myriad of electronic
devices, such as cordless telephones, VCRs, handheld video games, cameras,
and stereo systems that include small computers.
Computers help you with your banking in the form of Automatic Teller
Machines (ATMs) used to deposit or withdraw funds. When you buy
groceries, a computer tracks your purchase and calculates the amount of
money you owe; and sometimes generates coupons customized to your buying
patterns. Even your car is equipped with computers that operate the
electrical system, control the temperature, and run sophisticated anti­theft
devices.
Computers are valuable tools. As technology advances and computers extend
into every fact of daily living, it is essential you gain some level of computer
literacy. To be successful in today’s world, you must have a knowledge and
understanding of computers and their uses.
1.2 WHAT IS COMPUTER ?
A computer is an electronic machine, operating under the control of
instructions stored in its own memory that can accept data (input),
manipulate the data according to specified rules (process), procedure results
(output), and store the results for future use.
Data is a collection of un­organized facts, which can include words, numbers,

images, and sounds. Computers manipulate and process data to create

information.
Information is data that is organized, has meaning, and is useful.

Examples are reports, newsletters, a receipt, a picture, an invoice, or a check.

Data entered into a computer is called input. The processed results are called
output. Thus, a computer processed input to create output. A computer also
can hold data and information for future use in area called storage. This
cycle of input, process, output, and storage is called the Information

Processing Cycle.

A person that communicates with a computer or uses the information it

generates is called a user. The electric, electronic, and mechanical equipment
that makes up a computer is called hardware. Software is the series of
instruction that tells the hardware how to perform tasks. Without software,
hardware is useless; hardware needs the instructions provided by software to
process data into information.
1.3 Basic Functions Of A Computer

When a computer processes data it actually performs a number of separate

functions as follows:
• Input: The computer accepts data from outside for processing within.

• Storage: The computer holds data internally before, during and after

processing.
• Processing: The computer perform operations on the data it holds within.

• Output: The computer produces data from within for external use.

This is summarized in the following figure.

1.4 Data Processing Methods

The following are the three major methods that have been widely used for
data processing over the years:
• Manual method
• Mechanical method
• Computer method.
1.4.1 Manual Method:
The manual method of data processing involves the use of chalk, wall, pen,
pencil and the like. These devices, machine or tools facilitate human efforts
in recording, classifying, manipulating, sorting and presenting data or
information. The manual data processing operations entail considerable
manual efforts. Thus, manual method is cumbersome, tiresome, boring,
frustrating and time consuming. Furthermore, the processing of data by the
manual method is likely to be affected by human errors. When there are
errors, then the reliability, accuracy, neatness, tidiness, and validity of the
data would be in doubt. The manual method does not allow for the processing
of large volume of data on a regular and timely basis.
1.4.2 Mechanical Method:
The mechanical method of data processing involves the use of machines such
as typewriter, adding machines and the like. These machines facilitate
human efforts in recording, classifying, manipulating, sorting and presenting
data or information. The mechanical operations are basically routine in
nature. There is virtually no creative thinking.
The mechanical operations are noisy, hazardous, error prone and untidy. The
mechanical method does not allow for the processing of large volume of data
continuously and timely.
1.4.3 Computer Method:
The computer method of carrying out data processing has the following
major features:
• Data can be steadily and continuously processed
• The operations are practically not noisy
• There is a store where data and instructions can be stored temporarily and
permanently.
• Errors can be easily and neatly corrected.
•Output reports are usually very neat, decent and can be produced in
various forms such as adding graphs, diagrams, pictures etc.
• Accuracy and reliability are highly enhanced.
1.5 Characteristics/Features Of Computers
A computer’s power is derived from its capability of performing the
information processing cycle operations with speed, reliability, and accuracy;
its capacity to store huge amounts of data, instructions, and information; and
its ability to communicate with other computers.
1.5.1 Speed
Inside the system unit, operations occur through electronic circuits. When
data, instructions, and information flow along these circuits, they travel at
close to the speed of light. This allows billions of operations to be carried out
in a single second.

1.5.2 Reliability
The electronic components in modern computers are dependable because
they have a low failure rate. The high reliability of components enables the
computer to produce consistent results.
1.5.3 Accuracy
Computers can process large amounts of data and generate error­free
results, provided the data is entered correctly. If inaccurate data is entered,
the resulting output will be incorrect. This computing principle known as
Garbage­In, Garbage­Out (GIGO), point out that the accuracy of a
computer’s output depends on the accuracy of the input.
1.5.4 Storage
Many computers can store enormous amounts of data and make this data
available for processing any time it is needed. Using current storage devices,
the data can be transferred quickly from storage to memory, processed, and
then stored again for future use.
1.5.5 Communications
Most computers today have the capability of communicating with other
computers. Computers with this capability can share any’ of the four
information processing cycle operations – inputs, process, output, and
storage – with another computer. For example, two computers connected by
a communications device such as a modem can share stored data,
instructions, and information. When two or more computers are connected
together via communications media and devices, they comprise a network.
The most widely known network is the Internet. A worldwide collection of
installations, educational institutions, and individuals.

1.6 Application Areas of Computers

The following are few areas where computers are use daily.
1.6.1 Business :
A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or
versatility which made it an integrated part in all business organizations.
Computer is used in business organizations for: Payroll calculations,
Budgeting, Sales analysis, Financial forecasting, Managing employees
database, Maintenance of stocks, etc.
1.6.2 Banking:
Today banking is almost totally dependent on computer. Banks provide
following facilities: Online accounting facility, which includes current
balances, deposits, overdrafts, interest charges, shares, and trustee records.
ATM machines are making it even easier for customers to deal with banks.
1.6.3 Insurance:
Insurance companies are keeping all records up­to­date with the help of
computers. The insurance companies, finance houses and stock broking firms
are widely using computers for their concerns. Insurance companies are
maintaining a database of all clients with information showing: procedure to
continue with policies, starting date of the policies, next due installment of a
policy, maturity date, interests due, survival benefits, bonus, etc.
1.6.4 Education:
The computer has provided a lot of facilities in the education system. The
computer provides a tool in the education system known as CBE (Computer
Based Education). CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.
The computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of number of
computer students. There are number of methods in which educational
institutions can use computer to educate the students. It is used to prepare a
database about performance of a student and analysis is carried out on this
basis.
1.6.5 Marketing:

In marketing, uses of computer include but not limited to the following:

Advertising with computers, advertising professionals create art and
graphics, write and revise copy, and print and disseminate ads with the goal
of selling more products. At Home Shopping ­ Home shopping has been made
possible through use of computerized catalogues that provide access to
product information and permit direct entry of orders to be filled by the
customers.
1.6.6 Health Care:

Computers have become important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries.

The computers are being used in hospitals to keep the record of patients and
medicines. It is also used in scanning and diagnosing different diseases.
ECG, EEG, Ultrasounds and CT Scans etc. are also done by computerized
machines. Some major fields of health care in which computers are used are:
Diagnostic System ­ Computers are used to collect data and identify cause

of illness.
Lab­diagnostic System ­ All tests can be done and reports are prepared by

computer.
Patient Monitoring System ­ These are used to check patient's signs for

abnormality such as in Cardiac Arrest, ECG etc.

Pharma Information System ­ Computer checks Drug­Labels, Expiry

dates, harmful drug’s side effects etc.

Surgery: Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery.

1.6.7 Engineering Design:

Computers are widely used in Engineering purpose. One of major areas is
CAD (Computer aided design).that provides creation and modification of
images. Some fields are:
Structural Engineering ­ Requires stress and strain analysis for design of

Ships, Buildings, Budgets, Airplanes etc.

Industrial Engineering ­ Computers deal with design, implementation and

improvement of integrated systems of people, materials and equipments.

Architectural Engineering ­ Computers help in planning towns, designing

buildings, determining a range of buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D

drawings.
1.6.8 Military:
Computers are largely used in defense, intelligence gathering process and
reconnaissance. Modern tanks, missile systems, and modern weapons all use
specialized computers for optimum performance. Military also employs
computerized control systems. Some military areas where a computer has
been used are: Missile Control system, Military Communication, Military
Operation and Planning, Smart Weapons, etc.
1.6.9 Communication:

Communication means to convey a message, an idea, a picture or speech that

is received and understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is
meant for. Some main areas in this category are: E­mail, Chatting, Usenet,
FTP, Telnet, Video­conferencing, etc.
1.6.10 Government:

Computers play an important role in government. Some major fields in this

category are: The Budget office, Inland Revenue Services department,
Income tax department, Computerization of voters lists and issuances of
voters card by INEC, Computerization of driving licensing system by FRSC,
Computerization of e­passport by NIS, Weather forecasting, etc.
1.7 Basic Ideas And Terms

Below are some of the ideas and terminology of computer

1. Computing System: Computing system is made up of the computer

system, the user and the environment in which the computer is

operated.
2. The Computer System: The computer system is made up of the

hardware and the software.

3. Computer: A computer is a device that works under the control of

stored programs , automatically accepting, storing and processing data

to produce information that is the result of the processing.
4. Hardware: is the general term used to describe all the electronic and

mechanical elements of the computer, together with those devices used

 with the computer.
5. Software: Computer software is the series of instructions that enable

the computer to perform a task or group of tasks. Software consist of

system software and application software packages.
6. Computer Users: Computer users are the different categories of

personnel that operates the computer. We have expert users and casual
users. The expert users could be further categorized into computer
engineers, computer programmers and computer operators.
7. The Computing Environment: The computing environment ranges

from the building that is housing the other elements of the computing
system namely the computer and the users, the furniture, auxiliary
devices such as the voltage stabilizer, the Uninterruptible Power
Supply (UPS) System, the fans, the air conditioners etc.

8. Program: A program is a set of instructions that tells the computer

exactly how to manipulate the input data and produce the desired
output.
9. Data: “ Data ” is the name given to basic facts.

10. Information: A distinction is sometimes made between data and

information. When data is converted into a more useful or intelligible

form then it is said to be processed into information.

11. Bit (Binary Digit): The smallest unit of information storable in a

computer, expressed as 0 or 1.
12. Byte (Binary Digit Eight): A set of 8 adjacent bits, which represent a

unit of computer memory equal to that needed to store a single

character.
13. Memory: Physical device that is used to store such information as data

or program on a temporary or permanent basis for use in a computer.

14. Random Access Memory (RAM): is a volatile type of memory, i.e.,

data is lost if the power supply is removed.

15. Read Only Memory (ROM): is a non­volatile type of memory, i.e.,

data is not lost when the power supply is removed.

 CHAPTER 2 HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF COMPUTER

2.1 Objectives
The objective of this unit is to enable the student to know the processes
leading to the emergence of the modern computer. There can be no present
without the past just as the future depends on the present. By the end of this
unit, students should be able to appreciate and visualize the direction of
research in computer technology in the nearby future .
2.2 Brief History of Computer Technology
Attempts to create a self­motivating and calculating machine that would
emulate many of the thinking patters of human beings have been a
centuries­long quest for many inventors. The eighteenth century Turk was
alleged to be a chess­playing automaton which defeated the likes of Napoleon
Bonaparte and Benjamin Franklin in chess matches; it was later revealed
that the Turk was a hoax controlled by a man inside the machine. Still, the
idea for creating a human­like thinking machine remained alive and well
into the twentieth century. Konrad Zuse, a German engineer, developed the
first truly programmable computer in 1941. It used a stream of paper tape
with holes punched into it to perform calculations based on a complex
algorithm. The first commercial computer was the famous UNIVAC of 1951
produced in the US, invented by John Presper Eckert and John W. Mauchly.
It used a series of vacuum tubes to perform complex calculations and filled
several rooms with its bulk; the computing power of UNIVAC is equivalent
to today's pocket calculators.
In the 1950s most computers relied on vacuum tubes to perform electronic
calculation functions, which kept the size of computers to the equivalent of a
large room. If vacuum tubes were not allowed sufficient space to allow air to
cool them, they would blow out and shut the computer down completely until
the burned­out or defective tube was replaced; a difficult prospect with
20,000 or more tubes to choose from. By the close of the 1950s, the integrated
circuit chip was invented by Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce, which reduced the
size (and cost) of computers.
Earlier in the decade, IBM had gotten into the computer market, but mainly
sold to businesses (such as banks) that had room to spare in their buildings.
The invention and adoption of the chip would allow IBM to become the
premier producer of computing machines throughout the 1960s and 1970s.
2.3 Computer Generations
The history of computer development is often referred in reference to the
different generations of computing devices. Each of the five generations of
computers is characterized by a major technological development that
fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly
smaller, cheaper, and more powerful and more efficient and reliable
computing devices. In this section you will learn about each of the five
generations of computers and the technology developments that have led to
the current devices that we use today. Our journey starts in 1940 with
vacuum tube circuitry and goes to the present day and beyond with artificial
intelligence (AI).
2.3.1 First Generation (1940­1956) Vacuum Tubes
The first generation computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and
magnetic drums for memory, and were often enormous, taking up entire
rooms. They were very expensive to operate and in addition they used a
great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of
malfunctions. First generation computers relied on machine language, the
lowest­level programming language understood by computers, to perform
operations, and they could only solve one problem at a time. Input was based
on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts.
The Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC) and Electronic Numerical
Integrator Analyzor and Computer (ENIAC) computers are examples of first­
generation computing devices. The UNIVAC was the first commercial
computer delivered to a business client, the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951.
2.3.2 Second Generation (1956­1963) Transistors
Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of
computers. The transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread
use in computers until the late 1950s. The transistor was far superior to the
vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more
energy­efficient and more reliable than their predecessors (first­generation).
Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that subjected the
computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube.
Second­generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and
printouts for output. Second­generation computers moved from cryptic
binary/machine language to symbolic, or assembly languages, which allowed
programmers to specify instructions in words. High­level programming
languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions of
COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that
stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from a magnetic
drum to magnetic core technology. The first computers of this generation
were developed for the atomic energy industry. Some computers of this
generation were: IBM1620, IBM 7094, UNIVAC 1108, etc.
2.3.3 Third Generation (1964­1971) Integrated Circuits
The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third
generation of computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon
chips, called semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and
efficiency of computers. Instead of punched cards and printouts, users
interacted with third generation computers through keyboards and monitors
and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to run
many different applications at one time with a central program that
monitored the memory. Computers for the first time became accessible to a
mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their
predecessors. Some computers of this generation were:IBM­360 series,
Honeywell­6000 series, PDP(Personal Data Processor), IBM­370/168 and
others.
2.3.4 Fourth Generation (1971­1980) Microprocessors
The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as
thousands of integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in
the first generation filled an entire room could now _t in the palm of the
hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of
the computer from the central processing unit and memory to input/output
controls on a single chip.
In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984
Apple introduced the Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the
realm of desktop computers and into many areas of life as more and more
everyday products began to use
microprocessors. As these small computers became more powerful, they could
be linked together to form networks, which eventually led to the
development of the Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the
development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices. Some computers of
this generation were: STAR 1000, PDP 11, CRAY­1 (Super Computer).
2.3.5 Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond) Artificial Intelligence
Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still
in development, though there are some applications, such as voice
recognition, that are being used today. The use of parallel processing and
superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality. Quantum
computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the
face of computers in years to come. The goal of fifth­generation computing is
to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are capable of
learning and self­organization.
 CHAPTER 3 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

3.1 Introduction:

Computer has passed through many stages of evolution from the days of the
mainframe computers to the era of microcomputers. Computers have been
classified based on different criteria. In this section, we shall classify
computers according to signal type, purpose and size (or capacity).
3.2 Classification According to Signal Type:

There are basically three types of electronic computers. These are the
Analog, Digital and Hybrid computers.
3.2.1 Analog Computers
Analog computers are the form of computers that are used to process analog
data. Analog data is of continuous nature and which is not discrete or
separate. Such type of data includes temperature, pressure, speed weight,
voltage, depth etc. These quantities are continuous and having an infinite
variety of values.
It measures continuous changes in some physical quantity e.g. The
Speedometer of a car measures speed, the change of temperature is
measured by a Thermometer, the weight is measured by Weights machine.
These computers are ideal in situations where data can be accepted directly
from measuring instrument without having to convert it into numbers or
codes.
Analog computers are widely used for certain specialized engineering and
scientific applications, for calculation and measurement of analog quantities.
They are frequently used to control process such as those found in oil
refinery where flow and temperature measurements are important. They are
used for example in paper making and in chemical industry. Analog
computers do not require any storage capability because they measure and
compare quantities in a single operation. Output from an analog computer is
generally in the form of readings on a series of dial (Speedometer of a car) or
a graph on strip chart.
3.2.2 Digital Computers
A digital computer is a computer that stores and performs a series of
mathematical and logical operations on data expressed as discrete signals
interpreted as numbers, usually in the form of binary notation (0 and 1).So
we can say that digital computers process information which is based on the
presence or the absence of an electrical charge or we prefer to say a binary 1
or 0.
A digital computer can be used to process numeric as well as non­numeric
data. It can perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division and also logical operations. Most of the
computers available today are digital computers. The most common
examples of digital computers are accounting machines and calculators.
The results of digital computers are more accurate than the results of analog
computers. Analog computers are faster than digital. Analog computers lack
memory whereas digital computers store information. We can say that
digital computers count and analog computers measures.
3.2.3 Hybrid Computers
A hybrid is a combination of digital and analog computers. It combines the
best features of both types of computers, i­e. It has the speed of analog
computer and the memory and accuracy of digital computer. Hybrid
computers are used mainly in specialized applications where both kinds of
data need to be processed. Therefore, they help the user, to process both
continuous and discrete data. For example a petrol pump contains a
processor that converts fuel flow measurements into quantity and price
values. In hospital Intensive Care Unit (ICU), an analog device is used which
measures patient's blood pressure and temperature etc, which are then
converted and displayed in the form of digits. Hybrid computers for example
are used for scientific calculations, in defense and radar systems.
3.3 Classification According to Purpose
Depending on their flexibility in operation, computers are classified as either
special purpose or general purpose.
3.3.1 Special Purpose Computers
A special purpose computer is one that is designed to solve a restricted class
of problems. Such computers may even be designed and built to handle only
one job. In such machines, the steps or operations that the computer follows
may be built into the hardware.
Most of the computers used for military purposes fall into this class. Other
example of special purpose computers include:
• Computers designed specifically to solve navigational problems;
• Computers designed for tracking airplane or missiles
• Computers used for process control applications in industries such as oil
refinery, chemical manufacture, steel processing and power generation
• Computers used as robots in factories like vehicles assembly plants and
glass industries
Attributes of Special Purpose Computers: Special purpose computer are
usually very efficient for the tasks for which they are specially designed.
They are very much less complex than the General­ Purpose Computers. The
simplicity of the circuiting stems from the fact that provision is made only for
limited facilities. They are very much cheaper than the General­Purpose type
since they involve less components and are less complex.
3.3.2 General Purpose Computers
General­Purpose computers are computers designed to handle wide range of
problems. Theoretically, a general­purpose computer can be adequate by
means of some easily alterable instructions to handle any problems that can
be solved by computation. However, in practice there are limitations imposed
by memory size, speed and the type of input/output devices. Examples of
areas where the general purpose are employed include the following:
• Cost accounting
• Sales analysis
• Billing
• Banking
• Payroll
Attributes of General Purpose Computers:
• General­Purpose computers are more flexible than special purpose
computers; they can handle a wide spectrum of problems
• They are less efficient than the special­purpose computers due to such
problems as: Inadequate storage and Low operating speed
• Coordination of the various tasks and subsection may take time
• General Purpose Computers are more complex than the special purpose
ones.

3.4 Classification According to Capacity

In the past, the capacity of computers was measured in terms of physical
size. Today, however, the physical size is not a good measure of capacity
because the modern technology has made it possible to achieve compactness.
A better measure of capacity today is the volume of work that computer can
handle. The volume of work that a given computer handles is closely tied to
the cost and to the memory size of computer. Therefore, most authorities
today accept the price of rental price as the standard for ranking computers.
Here, both memory size and cost shall be used to rank (classify) computer
into following categories :
3.4.1 Supercomputers
A supercomputer is the fastest, most powerful computer and the most
expensive. Supercomputers are capable of processing many trillions of
instructions in a single second. Large­scale simulations and applications in
medicine, aerospace, automotive design, online banking, weather forecasting,
nuclear energy research, and petroleum exploration use a supercomputer.
3.4.2 Mainframes
These are large general purpose computers with extensive processing,
storage and input/output capabilities. They are used in centralized
computing environment and normally data input is achieved via terminals
wired to the mainframe computer. Mainframe computers usually need a
specialized environment in which to operate – with dust, temperature and
humidity carefully controlled. Mainframes are usually owned by giant
corporate organizations, such as universities, research institutes, giant
banks, etc.
Mainframes are usually sophisticate and large; thus they call for great detail
of support from their manufacturers and representatives. Example of
mainframes are IBM 360/370 system and NCR V­8800 system. The market
of mainframes is dominated by IBM.

3.4.3 Minicomputers (mini):

Minicomputer is a name originally given to computers that physically went
within a single equipment cabinet, i.e. on the order of a few cubic feet.
Compared with large computers, minicomputers were cheaper and smaller,
with smaller memory. The word minicomputer is no longer used very
specifically, it predates the term microcomputer and a boundary between
these two classes of devise is unclear. Examples of minicomputers are PDP II
, VAX 750/6000 , NCR 9300 , DEC , HP 3000 , IBM system 38 and MV400.

3.4.4 Microcomputers:
Microcomputers are computer systems that utilize a microprocessor as their
central and arithmetic element. The personal computer (PC) is one form. The
power and price of a microcomputer is determine partly by the speed and
power of the processor and partly by the characteristics of other computers of
the system, i.e. the memory, the disk units, the display, the keyboard, the
flexibility of the hardware, and the operating system and other software.
Examples include IBM PC and its compatibles and Apple Macintosh.

3.4.5 Quantum Computer

A quantum computer is a machine designed to use the principles of quantum
mechanics to do things which are fundamentally impossible for any computer
which only uses classical physics.
Classical computers encode information in bits. Each bit can take the value
of 1 or 0. These 1s and 0s act as on/off switches that ultimately drive
computer functions. Quantum computers, on the other hand, are based on
qubits, which operate according to two key principles of quantum physics:
superposition and entanglement. Superposition means that each qubit can
represent both a 1 and a 0 at the same time. Entanglement means that
qubits in a superposition can be correlated with each other; that is, the state
of one (whether it is a 1 or a 0) can depend on the state of another. Using
these two principles, qubits can act as more sophisticated switches, enabling
quantum computers to function in ways that allow them to solve difficult
problems that are intractable using today’s computers.

Quantum computer with 500 qubits gives 2 500 superposition states. Each
state is classically equivalent to a single list of 500 1's and 0's. Operate on
2500 states simultaneously. Equivalent to a classical computer with
approximately 10150 processors.
 CHAPTER 4 COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER

4. Introduction

A computer consists of a variety of hardware components that work together

with software to perform calculations, organize data, and communicate with
other computers.
These hardware components include input devices, output, a system unit,
storage devices, and communications devices.

Computer
System

Softwares Hardwares

Application System Utility System Input Output

Storages
Softwares Softwares programs Unit Devices Devices

4.1 HARDWARE

Computer hardware consists of the components that can be physically

handled. The function of these components is basically divided into four main
categories: input, processing, storage and output services.
The four units are interdependent (i.e. the function of one unit depends on
the function of the other.) They interact harmoniously to provide the full
function of the computer’s hardware. The units connect to the
microprocessors, specifically the computer’s central processing unit (CPU) –
the electronic circuitry that provides the computational ability and control of
the computer.
 Hardwares

System Input Output

Storages
Unit Devices Devices

4.2 The System Unit

The system unit is a box­like case housing he electronic components of a

computer that are used to process data. System unit component include the
processor, memory module, expansion cards and ports and connectors. Many
component reside on a circuit board called the motherboard or system board.
The motherboard contains different types of chips, or small piece of semi
conducting material on which or more integrated circuit (IC) are etched. One
of the more chips is the central processing unit.
4.2.1 Central Processing Unit
The Central Processing Unit (CPU), sometimes refers to as the processor,
interprets and carries out the basics instruction that operate a computer.
That is most of the device connected to the computer communicate with the
CPU in order to carry out a task. The CPU contains the control unit and the
arithmetic/logic unit.
4.2.1.1 The Control Unit

The control unit, one component of the CPU, directs and coordinates most of
the operations in the computer. For every instruction, the control unit
repeats a set of four basic operations called the machine cycle:
(1) fetching the instruction or data item from memory,
(2) decoding the instruction into commands the computer understands,
(3) executing the commands, and, if necessary,
(4) storing, or writing, the result to memory.

4.2.1.2 Arithmetic/Logic Unit

The arithmetic/logic unit, another component of the CPU, performs the

arithmetic, comparison, and logical operations. Arithmetic operations include
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Comparison operations
involve comparing one data item to another to determine if the first item is
greater than, equal to, or less than the other item. Logical operations work
with conditions and logical operators such as AND, OR, and NOT.
4.2.1.3 Registers

The CPU uses temporary storage locations called registers, to hold data and
instructions. The function include storing location of where instruction was
fetched storing an instruction while it is being decoded, storing data while
the ALU processing it, and storing the results of a calculation.

4.2.2 Memory
Memory consists of electronic components that store instructions waiting to
be executed and the data needed by those instructions.
In the system unit, a computer’s memory stores data, instructions, and
information. memory stores three basic items: The operating system and
other system software that control the usage of the computer equipment;
Application programs designed to carry out a specific task such as word
processing; and The data being processed by application programs. The
number of bytes it can store measures memory size a Kilobyte (KB) is
approximately one thousand bytes, and a Megabyte (MB) is approximately
one million bytes.
Although some forms of memory are permanent, most memory keeps data
and instructions temporarily, which mean its contents are erased when the
computer is shut off. Computers and mobile devices contain two types of
memory: volatile and nonvolatile. When the computer’s power is turned

off, volatile memory loses its contents. Nonvolatile memory, by contrast, does
not lose its contents when power is removed from the computer. Thus,
volatile memory is temporary and nonvolatile memory is permanent. RAM is
the most common type of volatile memory. Examples of nonvolatile memory
include ROM, flash memory, and CMOS. The following sections discuss these
types of memory.
4.2.2.1 RAM
RAM (Random Access Memory), also called main memory, is a memory chip

that the processor can read from and write to. RAM is volatile memory,
meaning that its contents are lost when the computer’s power is turned off. it
is the main memory of the computer system that stores the data temporarily
and allows the data to be accessed in any order . Multiple Programs can be
loaded into RAM simultaneously provided you have enough RAM to
accommodate all the programs. The original IBM PC could only use up to
640 KB of memory (just over half a megabyte), whereas a modern computer
can effectively house as much RAM as you can afford to buy. Commonly
modern computers are supplied with over 2 GB of RAM.
4.2.2.2 ROM

ROM (Read­Only­Memory) is a memory chip that only can be read and used;
that is, it cannot be modified. ROM is nonvolatile memory, meaning that bits
contents are not lost when the computer’s power is turned off.
Commonly used for storing of program instructions that is not subjected to
change. Generally provided by manufacturer. RON clips that contain
permanently written data, instruction, or information are called firmware.
Another type of ROM clip, called programmable read only memory (PROM)
clip, is a blank ROM chip on which you can permanently place items. The
instructions used to program a PROM clip are called microcode. Once the
micro­code is programmed into the PROM clip, it functions like a regular
ROM clip and cannot be erases or changed.
4.2.2.3 Memory Access Times
The speed at which the processor can access data from memory directly
affects how fast the computer process data. This speed often is defined as
access time. Access time is measured in fractions of a second. For memory,
access times are measured in terms of a nanosecond, which is one billionth of
a second.
 CHAPTER 5 INPUT DEVICES

5 Introduction:
It is common to divide external computer hardware into two groups. The first
group deals with transferring data or commands from the user into the
computer. These are known as input devices. Once the user has managed to
input the commands and data required into the computer, there are several
output devices that the computer can use to pass the information (the results
of data processed with the help of commands) back to the user.
5.1 Input
Input is any data or instruction you enter into the memory of a computer.

Once input in the memory, the CPU can access it and process the input into
output. four common type of input are:

Data: Data is a collection of unorganized facts that can include words,

numbers, pictures, sound and video. A computer manipulates and processes

data into information, which is useful.
Program: A program is a series of instructions that tells a computer how to

perform the tasks necessary to process data into information. Programs

respond to commands issued by a user.

Commands: a command is an instruction given to a computer program.

Commands can be issued by typing keywords or pressing special keys on the

keyboard.
User Responses: A user response is an instruction you issue to the

computer by replying to a questions posed by a computer program, such as

Do you want to save the changes you made ? Based on your response, the

program perform certain actions.

5.2 Input Devices:
an input device is any hardware component that allows you to data,
programs, commands and user responses into a computer. For users to
communicate or interact with the computer, there are many input devices
provided for that purpose. Input devices let you input data into your
computer. Few important input devices which are used with a computer are:
Keyboard, Mouse, Joystick, Light pen, Track Ball, Scanner, Graphic Tablet,
Microphone, Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR), Optical Character Reader
(OCR), Bar Code Reader, Optical Mark Reader(OMR).

5.2.1 Keyboard:
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps in
inputting data into the computer. The layout of the computer keyboard is
similar to the layout of a traditional typewriter, although there are some
additional keys on a computer keyboard provided for performing additional
functions. Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now
keyboards with 104 keys or 108 keys are also available for Windows and
Internet. The keys on the keyboard are as follows:
1. Typing Keys: These keys include the letter keys (A­Z) and digit keys (0­9)

which generally is identical to that of typewriters.

2. Numeric Keypad: It is used to enter numeric data and generally, it

consists of a set of 17 keys that are laid out in the same configuration used
by most adding machines and calculators.
3. Function Keys: The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard

which are arranged in a row at the top of the keyboard. Each function key
has unique function it performs in different environment.
4. Control keys: These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes

four directional arrow keys. Control keys also include Home, End, Insert,
Delete, Page Up, Page Down, Control (Ctrl), Alternate (Alt), Escape (Esc). 5.

Special Purpose Keys: Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys

such as Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print
Screen.

Note that the exact placement of these keys is up to the keyboard designer,
so variations exist from keyboard to keyboard.

5.2.2 Mouse:
Mouse is the most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor­control
device having a small palm size box with a round ball at its base which
senses the movement of mouse and sends corresponding signals to CPU
when the mouse buttons are pressed. However, modern mice uses optical
lights. Optical mouse have replaced the round ball. Generally it has two
buttons called left and right button and a wheel is present between the
buttons. Mouse can be used to control the position of cursor on screen, but it
cannot be used to enter text into the computer. The advantages of mouse are:
Easy to use, Not very expensive and Moves the cursor faster than the arrow
control keys of keyboard. The mouse can be used for clicking, right clicking,
double clicking, selection, pointing, dragging of objects such as program icons
in the computer system.
5.2.3 Joystick:
The joystick is also a pointing device which is used to move the cursor
position on a monitor screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball at both its
ends, the lower and upper ends, with the lower spherical ball moving in a
socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions and has functions
similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided Design
(CAD) and for playing computer games.

5.2.4 Light pen:

Light pen is a pointing device which is similar to a pen. It is used to select a
displayed menu item or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a
photocell and an optical system placed in a small tube. When the tip of a
light pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen’s button is pressed,
its photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the
corresponding signal to the CPU.
5.2.5 Track ball:
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop
computer, instead of a mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted. By moving
the fingers on the ball, the pointer can be moved. Since it is not the whole
device that is moved, a track ball will require less space than a mouse. A
track ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a button and a square.

5.2.6 Microphone:
A microphone is an input device that enables you to speak into a computer or
mobile device. Many computers and most mobile devices contain built­in
microphones. You also can talk into a headset, which contains both a
microphone and a speaker. Many headsets can communicate wirelessly with
the computer or mobile device.
5.2.7 Digitizer:
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information to digital
form. Digitizer can convert a signal from the television or camera into a
series of numbers that could be stored in a computer. They can be used by
the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had been pointed at.
A digitizer converts graphics and pictorial data into binary inputs and is
used for doing fine works of drawing and image manipulation applications.

5.2.8 Digital Camera:

A digital camera is somewhat similar to a regular camera. However, a
digital camera converts pictures to digital form so they can be used on the
computer without a digitizer. A digital camera can also be said to be an
output device since it has processing power to display images on its screen.
5.2.9 Optical Scanner:
A scanner is a light­sensing input device that converts printed text and
images into a form the computer can process. A popular type of scanner
works in a manner similar to a copy machine, except that instead of creating
a paper copy of the document or photo, it stores the scanned document or
photo electronically. Scanner captures images from the source which are
then converted into the digital form that can be stored on the disk. These
images can be edited before they are printed.

5.2.10 Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR):

MICR (magnetic­ink character recognition) devices read text printed with
magnetized ink. An MICR reader converts MICR characters into a form the
computer can process. The banking industry almost exclusively uses MICR
for check processing. Each check in your checkbook has precoded MICR
characters beginning at the lower­left edge. The main advantages of MICR is
that it is fast and less error prone.
5.2.11 Optical Character Reader (OCR):
OCR is an input device used to read a printed text. OCR scans text optically
character by character, converts them into a machine readable code and
stores the text on the system memory.

5.2.12 Bar Code Readers:

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in form of
light and dark lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labeling goods,
numbering the books etc. It may be a hand held scanner or may be embedded
in a stationary scanner. Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it
into an alphanumeric value which is then fed to the computer to which bar
code reader is connected.

5.2.13 Optical Mark Reader (OMR):

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark
made by pen or pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be
selected and marked. It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of
examinations having multiple choice questions. It is used by examining
bodies such as JAMB and WAEC to mark multiple choice objective questions.

5.2.14 Magstripe Readers

A magstripe reader, short for magnetic stripe card reader, reads the
magnetic stripe on the back of credit cards, entertainment cards, bank cards,
identification cards, and other similar cards. The stripe contains information
identifying you and the card issuer. Some information stored in the stripe
may include your name, account number, the card’s expiration date, and a
country code.

5.2.15 Touch Screens

A touch screen is a touch­sensitive display. Touch screens are convenient
because they do not require a separate device for input. Smartphones and
tablets, and many laptops and all­in­ones offer touch screens.
You can interact with a touch screen by touching areas of the screen with
your finger or a stylus to make selections or to begin typing. Many touch
screens also respond to gestures.

5.2.16 Stylus ( Computing Pen)

A stylus is a small metal or plastic device that looks like a tiny ink pen but
uses pressure instead of ink. Nearly all tablets and mobile devices, some
laptop screens, and a few desktop monitors have touch screens that support
pen input, in addition to touch input. These computers and devices may
include a stylus. Some stylus designs include buttons you can press to
simulate clicking a mouse. To capture a handwritten signature,
a user writes his or her name on a signature capture pad with a stylus that
is attached to the device. Software then transmits the signature to a central
computer, where the signature is stored. Retailers use signature capture
pads to record purchasers’ signatures.
 CHAPTER 6 OUTPUT DEVICES

6. Output
Output is data that has been processed into a useful form called information.
That is, a computer processes input into output. Computer generate several
types of output, depending on the hardware and software being used and
requirements of the user. Four common types of output are:

Text: Consist of characters that are used to create words, sentences and

paragraphs. A character is a letter, number, punctuation mark, or any other

symbol that requires one byte of computer storage space.
Graphics: are digital representation of non­text information such as

drawings, charts, and photographs.

Audio: Is a music, speech or any other sound.

Video: Consists of images that are played back at speeds that provide the

appearance of full motion.

6.1 Output Devices

An output device is any hardware component that conveys information from
a computer or mobile device to one or more people. Some common output
devices include: the visual display unit, printer, plotter, speakers and
projectors.

6.2 Visual Display Unit:

A display is an output device that visually conveys text, graphics, and video
information. Displays consist of a screen and the components that produce
the information on the screen. The display for a desktop typically is a
monitor, which is a separate, physical device. Mobile computers and devices
typically integrate the display in their same physical case. Some displays
have touch screens. Home users sometimes use a digital television or a
Smart TV as a display. A Smart TV is an Internet­enabled high­definition
television (HDTV) from which you can use the Internet to watch video, listen
to the radio, play games, and communicate with others — all while watching
a television show. There are two kinds of viewing screens used for monitors:
Cathode­Ray Tube (CRT) and Flat­Panel Display.
6.2.1 Cathode­Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor
Cathode­Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor display is made up of small picture
elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the better the image clarity, or
resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form whole character,
such as the letter ‘e’ in the word help. A finite number of characters can be
displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be divided into a series of
character boxes ­ fixed location on the screen where a standard character can
be placed. Most screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of data
horizontally and 25 lines vertically. There are some disadvantages of CRT
such as been of Large in Size and High power consumption

6.2.2 Flat­Panel Display Monitor display refers to a class of video devices

that have reduced volume, weight and power requirement in comparison to

the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on your wrists. Current
uses of flat­panel displays include calculators, video games, monitors, laptop
computer display screens, graphics display. These kinds of displays are of
two types:

• Emissive Displays ­ The emissive displays are devices that convert

 electrical energy into light. Examples are plasma panel and Light­
Emitting Diodes (LED).
• Non­Emissive Displays ­ Non­Emissive Displays ­ The Non­emissive

displays use optical effects to convert sunlight or light from some other
source into graphics patterns. Example is Liquid­Crystal Device (LCD)

6.2.3 Smart TV
A Smart TV is an Internet­enabled high­definition television (HDTV) from
which you can use the Internet to watch video, listen to the radio, play
games, and communicate with others — all while watching a television show.
Using a SmartTV, you can stream content from the TV to other Internet­
enabled devices, such as a tablet or smartphone, and use cloud storage
services to share content.

6.3 Printers:
A printer is an output device that produces text and graphics on a physical
medium, such as paper or other material. Printed content sometimes is
referred to as a hard copy or printout. Most printers today print text and
graphics in both black and white and color on a variety of paper types with
many capable of printing lab quality photos. A variety of printers support
wireless printing, where a computer or other device communicates wirelessly
with the printer. There are two types of printers: Impact Printers and Non­
Impact Printers.

6.3.1 Impact Printers, An impact printer forms characters and graphics on

a piece of paper by striking a mechanism against an inked ribbon that

physically contacts the paper. Because of the striking activity, impact
printers generally are noisy. Characteristics of Impact Printers are; cheap
consumables, Very noisy, Useful for bulk printing due to low cost, there is
physical contact with the paper to produce an image.
Impact printers are used in many factories and retail counters because they
can withstand dusty environments, vibration and extreme temperature.
Example Dot Matrix Printer(DMP) and Line Printer
• Dot­Matrix Printers

The Dot­Matrix printer uses print heads containing from 9 to 24 pins.

These pins produce patterns of dots on the paper to form the individual
characters. The 24 pin dot­matrix printer produces more dots than a 9
pin dot­matrix printer, which results in much better quality and clearer
characters. The general rule is: the more pins, the clearer the letters on
the paper. The pins strike the ribbon individually as the print
mechanism moves across the entire print line in both directions, i­e,
from left to right, then right to left, and so on. The user can produce a
color output with a dot­matrix printer (the user will change the black
ribbon with a ribbon that has color stripes). Dot­matrix printers are
inexpensive and typically print at speeds of 50­700 characters per
 second.
• Line printers

In business where enormous amount of material are printed, the

character­at­a­time printers are too slow; therefore, these users need
line­at­a­time printers. Line printers, or line­at­a­time printers, use
special mechanism that can print a whole line at once; they can
typically print the range of 1,200 to 6,000 lines per minute. These
printers are often used with mainframe, minicomputers, or with a
network in applications such as manufacturing, distribution or
shipping.
6.3.2 Non­impact Printers, A Non­impact printer forms characters and

graphics on a piece of paper without actually striking the paper. Some spray
ink, while others use heat and pressure to create images. Because these
printers do not strike the paper, they are much quieter than the impact
printers. Some of the characteristics of Non­impact Printers are speed, not
noisy, high quality printouts, support many fonts and different character
size. Example Laser Printers and Inkjet Printers.
• Inkjet Printers
Ink­jet printers work in the same fashion as dot­matrix printers in the
form images or characters with little dots. However, the dots are
formed by tiny droplets of ink. Ink­jet printers form characters on
paper by spraying ink from tiny nozzles through an electrical field that
arranges the charged ink particles into characters at the rate of
approximately 250 characters per second. The ink is absorbed into the
paper and dries instantly. Various colors of ink can also be used.
• LaserPrinter
A laser printer works like a photocopy machine. Laser printers produce
 images on paper by directing a laser beam at a mirror which bounces
the beam onto a drum. The drum has a special coating on it to which
toner (an ink powder) sticks. Using patterns of small dots, a laser beam
conveys information from the computer to a positively charged drum to
become neutralized. From all those areas of drum which become
neutralized, the toner detaches. As the paper rolls by the drum, the
toner is transferred to the paper printing the letters or other graphics
on the paper. A hot roller bonds the toner to the paper.

6.3.3 Plotters:
Plotters are sophisticated printers used to produce high­quality drawings,
such as blueprints, maps, and circuit diagrams. These printers are used in
specialized fields such as engineering and drafting and usually are very
costly.

6.3.4 3­D Printers

A 3­D printer uses a process called additive manufacturing to create an
object by adding material to a three­dimensional object, one horizontal layer
at a time. 3­D printers can print solid objects, such as clothing, prosthetics,
eyewear, implants, toys, parts, prototypes, and more. A 3­D printer can print
solid objects, such as clothing, prosthetics, eyewear, implants, toys, parts,
prototypes, and more. 3­D printers use a plastic substance that prints in
layers to create a 3­D (three­ dimensional) model.

6.4 Speakers:
Speakers provide audio output. Speakers change the electrical signals from
sound files and convert them into sound waves that we can hear. Once a
sound file is recorded, speakers can be used to listen to the music or other
sound.
6.5 Projectors:
A projector is a device that is connected to a computer or a video device for
projecting an image from the computer or video device onto the big white
screen. A projector consists of an optic system, a light source and displays,
which contain the original images. Projects were initially used for showing
films but now they are used on a large scale for displaying presentations in
various situations.
6.5 Interactive Whiteboards
An interactive whiteboard is a touch­sensitive device, resembling a dry­erase
board that displays the image on a connected computer screen, usually via a
projector. A presenter controls the program by clicking a remote control,
touching the whiteboard, drawing on or erasing the whiteboard with a
special digital pen and eraser, or writing on a special tablet. Notes written on
the interactive whiteboard can be saved directly on the computer and/or
printed.
 CHAPTER 7 STORAGE

7. Storage
Storage, also called secondary storage, auxiliary storage or mass storage,
holds items such as data, instructions, and information for future use.
Storage is non­volatile, which means that items in storage are retained even
when the power is removed from the computer. For example, computers can
store hundreds or millions of student names and addresses permanently.
A computer keeps data, instructions, and information on storage media.
Storage media are physical materials on which items are kept. Examples of
local storage media include hard disks, solid­state drives, USB (universal
serial bus) flash drives, memory cards, and optical discs.

A storage device records (writes) and/or retrieves (reads) items to and from
storage media. Storage devices often also function as a source of input and
output because they transfer items from storage to memory and vice versa.
Drives and readers/writers, which are types of storage devices, accept a
specific kind of storage media. For example, a DVD drive (storage device)
accepts a DVD (storage media).

7.1 Hard Disk

A hard disk is a storage device that contains one or more inflexible, circular
platters that use magnetic particles to store data, instructions, and
information. The entire device is enclosed in an airtight, sealed case to
protect it from contamination. Laptops and desktops often contain at least
one hard disk that is mounted inside the computer’s case.
7.2 Solid­State Drives
A solid­state drive (SSD) is a storage device that typically uses flash memory
to store data, instructions, and information. Flash memory contains no
moving parts, making it more durable and shock resistant than other types
of media. For this reason, some manufacturers are using SSDs instead of
hard disks in their laptops, tablets, and desktops.

7.3 Optical Disc

An optical disc is a type of storage media that consists of a flat, round,
portable metal disc made of metal, plastic, and lacquer that is written and
read by a laser. CDs (Compact Discs) and DVDs (Digital Versatile Discs) are
two types of optical discs.

7.4 Tapes
One of the first storage media used with mainframe computers was magnetic
tapes, a magnetically coated ribbon of plastic capable of storing large amount
of data and information at a low cost. Tape storage requires sequential
access, which refers to reading or writing data consecutively. Like a music
tape, you must forward or rewind the tape to a specific point to access a
specific piece of data.

7.5 Cloud Storage

Instead of storing data, instructions, and information locally on a hard drive
or other media, some users opt for cloud storage. Cloud storage is an Internet
service that provides remote storage to computer users.

Types of services offered by cloud storage providers vary. Some provide

storage for specific types of media, such as photos, whereas others store any
content and provide backup services. A backup is a duplicate of content on a
storage medium that you can use in case the original is lost, damaged, or
destroyed.

7.6 USB Flash Drive

A USB flash drive is a portable flash memory storage device that you plug in
a USB port, which is a special, easily accessible opening on a computer or
mobile device.

USB flash drives are convenient for mobile users because they are small and

lightweight enough to be transported on a keychain or in a pocket.

 CHAPTER 8 COMPUTER SOFTWARE

8. Introduction

Software, also called a computer program or simply a program, is a series of

instructions that tells the hardware of a computer what to do. For example,
some instructions direct the computer to allow you to input data from the
keyboard and store it in memory. Other instructions cause data stored in
memory to be used in calculations such as adding a series of numbers to
obtain a total. Some instructions compare two values stored in memory and
direct the computer to perform alternative operations based on the results of
the comparison; and some instructions direct the computer to print a report,
display information on the monitor, draw a color graph on the monitor, or
store information on a disk.
Before a computer can perform, or execute, a program, the instructions in the
program must be placed, or loaded, into the memory of the computer.
Usually, they are loaded into memory from storage. For example, a program
might be loaded from the hard disk of a computer into memory for execution.
When you purchase a program, such as one that contains legal documents,
you will receive one or more CD­ROMs, or a single DVD­ROM on which the
software is stored. To use this software, you often must install the software
on the computer’s hard disk.
Sometimes, a program can be loaded in memory directly from a CD­ROM or
DVD­ROM so you do not have to install it on a hard disk first. When
computer. It usually has some software already installed on its disk. Thus,
you can use the computer as soon as you receive it.
Software is the key to productive use of computers. With the correct
software, a computer can become a valuable tool. Software can be categorized
into three types: System Software, Application Software and Utility
Program. The following sections describe these categories of software.

Softwares

System Application Utility

Softwares Softwares programs

8.1 System Software

System software, which consists of programs that control the operations of
the computer and its devices, serves as the interface between a user and the
computer’s hardware. It is also a collection of programs designed to operate,
control and extend the processing capabilities of the computer itself. It also
facilitates the optimal use of the hardware systems. System software are
generally prepared by computer manufacturers and software developers.
These software comprise of programs written in low level languages which
interact with the hardware at a very basic level. System software serves as
the interface between hardware and the end users. Three main types of
system software are the Operating System, Language Translators and
Utility Programs. .
8.1.1 Operating System
The operating system contains instructions that coordinate all of the
activities of hardware devices. The operating system also contains
instructions that allow you to run application software. Microsoft Windows is
the name of a popular operating system that is used on many of today’s
computers.
When you start a computer, the operating system is loaded, or copied, into
memory from the computer’s hard disk. It remains in the memory while the
computer is running and allows you to communicate with the computer and
other software.
To use applications, such as a browser or word processing program on a
desktop or laptop, your computer must be running an operating system.
Similarly, a mobile device must be running an operating system to run a
mobile app, such as a navigation or payment app. Desktop operating systems
include Mac OS, Windows, Linux, and Chrome OS. Mobile operating systems
include Android, iOS, and Windows Phone. The operating system, therefore,
serves as the interface between the user, the applications and other
programs, and the computer’s or mobile device’s hardware.
The functions of an OS are:
• starting and shutting down computers
• providing a user interface,
• managing programs,
• managing memory,
• coordinating tasks,
• configuring devices,
• monitoring performance,
• establishing an Internet connection,
• updating operating system software,
• providing file and disk management tools,
• controlling a network,
• administering security.
8.1.2 Language Translators:
A language translator is a software that converts source code programs
written in a particular language to object code that the computer
understands. Language translators are generally of three (3) types.
Assemblers, Interpreters and Compilers.
• Assemblers: An assembler converts an assembly language source code

program into machine language code which is also known as object code
or object program.
• Interpreters: An interpreter is a program that translates high level

language program source codes into machine language, one line at a

time and then execute. Example of an Interpreter is QBASIC, etc.
• Compilers: A compiler is a program that translates an entire high

level language program source codes into machine language code before
execution. Examples of compilers are Turbo Pascal Compiler, Borland
C++ compiler, etc.
8.1.3 Utility Programs
A utility program is a type of system software that performs a specific task
usually related to managing a computer, Its devices or its programs. An
example of a utility program is an uninstaller, which removes a program
that has been installed on a computer. Most operating systems include
several utility programs for managing disk drives, printers, and other
devices. You also can buy stand­alone utility programs to perform additional
computer management functions.
8.2 Application Software:

Application software is a set of programs designed to solve problems of a

specific nature. It could either be supplied by the computer manufacturer,
software developers or in some cases the users produce their own application
program called USER PROGRAMS. Hence, application software could be
subdivided into two classes, namely; Generalized and User­defined Software.
A. Generalized software: There are so many generalized software

packages around, virtually for every field of study but few are listed below.
Advantages of these packages include quick and cheaper implementation,
time saving, minimum time for its design, they have been tested and proven
to be correct, they are usually accompanied by full documentation and are
also very portable. These include but not limited to:
1. Text Editors (Word Processor): A Word Processor is used to create,

edit, save and print reports. It affords the opportunity to make amendments
before printing is done. During editing, a character, a word, a sentence or a
number of lines can be removed or inserted as the case may be. Another
facility possible is spell checking. A document can be printed as many times
as possible. Word processors are mainly used to produce: Letters, Mailing
lists, Label, Greeting Cards, Business Cards, Reports, Manual, Newsletter.
Examples are: WordPerfect, WordStar, Display Writer, Professional Writer,
LOTUS Manuscript, Ms­Word, LOCO Script, MM Advantage II, Notepad,
etc.
2. Spreadsheet: Is an application mainly designed for manipulation of

numerical figures and reports. Spreadsheets contain columns and rows, in

which numbers can be entered. It is possible to change numbers before
printing is done. Other features of spread sheets is the ability to use
formulas to calculate. Sum and average functions are available for use.
Ability to perform automatic recalculation and has the capacity to display
reports in graphical modes. Spreadsheet is used for Budget preparation,
Tables, Cost analysis,
Financial reports, Tax and Statistical analysis. Examples are: LOTUS 123,
Supercalc, MS Multiplan, MS­excel, VP Planner etc.
3. Integrated Packages: They are programs or packages that perform a

variety of different processing operations using data that is compatible with

whatever operation is being carried out. They perform a number of
operations like Word Processing, Data­base
Management and Spread sheeting. Examples are: Office writer, Logistic
Symphony, Framework, Enable, Ability, Smartware II, Microsoft Work V2.
4. Graphic Packages: These are packages that enable you to bring out

images, diagrams and pictures. Examples are PM, PM Plus, Graphic Writer,
Photoshop.
5. Database Packages: It is software for designing, setting up and

subsequently managing a database. (A database is an organized collection of

data that allows for modification taking care of different users view).
Examples are Dbase II, III, IV, FoxBASE, Rbase Data Perfect, Paradox III,
Revelation Advanced and MS­Access, Sybase, Oracle, Postgree, etc.
6. Statistical Packages: These are packages that can be used to solve

statistical problems, e.g. Stat graphical, SPSS (Statistical Packages for

Social Scientists).
7. Desktop Publishing: These are packages that can be used to produce

books and documents in standard form. Examples are PageMaker, Ventura,

Publishers, Paints Brush, Xerox Form Base, News Master II, Dbase
Publisher.
8. Game Packages: These are packages that contain a lot of games for

children and adults. Examples are Chess, Scrabble, Monopoly, Tune Trivia,
Star Trek 2, California Game, Soccer Game, War Game, Spy Catcher
Dracula in London, etc.
9. Communication Packages: Examples are Carbon Plus, Data talk V3.3,

Cross talk, SAGE, Chit Chat, Data Soft, etc.

B. User­defined: We could have some User­defined packages for a

particular company or organization, for accounting, payroll or some other

specialized purposes, e.g. FUD Payroll System, etc.
 CHAPTER 9 INTERNET TECHNOLOGY

9.1 The Internet

The Internet is a worldwide collection of networks that connects millions of
businesses, government agencies, educational institutions, and individuals.
Each of the networks on the Internet provides resources that add to the
abundance of goods, services, and information accessible via the Internet.

9.2 Evolution of the Internet

The Internet has its roots in a networking project started by the Pentagon’s
Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), an agency of the U.S.
Department of Defense. ARPA’s goal was to build a network that:
(1) allowed scientists at different physical locations to share information and
work together on military and scientific projects and
(2) could function even if part of the network were disabled or destroyed by a
disaster such as a nuclear attack.
That network, called ARPANET, became functional in September 1969,
linking
scientific and academic researchers across the United States.
The original ARPANET consisted of four main computers, one each located
at the University of California at Los Angeles, the University of California at
Santa Barbara, the Stanford Research Institute, and the University of Utah.
Each of these computers served as a host on the network.
A host, more commonly known today as a server, is any computer that
provides services and connections to other computers on a network. Hosts
often use high­speed communications to transfer data and messages over a
network. By 1984, ARPANET had more than 1,000 individual computers
linked as hosts. Today, millions of hosts connect to this network, which now
is known as the Internet.

9.3 Connecting to the Internet

Users can connect their computers and mobile devices to the Internet
through wired or wireless technology and then access its services free or for a
fee. With wired connections, a computer or device physically attaches via a
cable or wire to a communications device, such as a modem, that transmits
data and other items over transmission media to the Internet. For wireless
connections, many mobile computers and devices include the necessary built­
in technology so that they can transmit data and other items wirelessly.

Today, users often connect to the Internet via broadband Internet service
because of its fast data transfer speeds and its always­on connection.
Through broadband Internet service, users can download webpages quickly,
play online games, communicate in real time with others, and more.

Many public locations, such as shopping malls, coffee shops, restaurants,

schools, airports, hotels, and city parks have Wi­Fi hot spots. A hot spot is a
wireless network that provides Internet connections to mobile computers and
devices. Although most hot spots enable unrestricted or open access, some
require that users agree to terms of service, obtain a password (for example,
from the hotel’s front desk), or perform some other action in order to connect
to the Internet.

9.4 How Data Travels the Internet

Computers and devices connected to the Internet work together to transfer

data around the world using servers and clients and various wired and
wireless transmission media. On the Internet, your computer or device is a
client that can access data and services on a variety of servers. Wired
transmission media includes phone line, coaxial cable, and fiber­optic cable.
Wireless transmission media includes radio waves and satellite signals.
The inner structure of the Internet works much like a transportation system.
Just as interstate highways connect major cities and carry the bulk of the
automotive traffic across the country, several main transmission media carry
the heaviest amount of traffic, or communications activity, on the Internet.
These major carriers of network traffic are known collectively as the Internet
backbone.

9.5 IP Addresses and Domain Names

The Internet relies on an addressing system much like the postal service to
send data to a computer or device at a specific destination. An IP address,
short for Internet Protocol address, is a sequence of numbers that uniquely
identifies the location of each computer or device connected to the Internet.

The domain name system (DNS) is the method that the Internet uses to
store domain names and their corresponding IP addresses. When you enter a
domain name (i.e., google.com) in a browser, a DNS server translates the
domain name to its associated IP address so that the request can be routed
to the correct compute. A DNS server is a server on the Internet that usually
is associated with an ISP.

9.6 The World Wide Web

While the Internet was developed in the late 1960s, the World Wide Web
emerged in the early 1990s as an easier way to access online information
using a browser. Since then, it has grown phenomenally to become one of the
more widely used services on the Internet.
The World Wide Web (WWW), or web, consists of a worldwide collection of
electronic documents. Each electronic document on the web is called a
webpage, which can contain text, graphics, animation, audio, and video.
A website is a collection of related webpages and associated items, such as
documents and photos, stored on a web server. A web server is a computer
that delivers requested webpages to your computer or mobile device. The
same web server can store multiple websites.
9.7 Navigating the Web
A browser is an application that enables users with an Internet connection to
access and view webpages on a computer or mobile device. Internet­capable
mobile devices such as smartphones use a special type of browser, called a
mobile browser, which is designed for their smaller screens and limited
computing power. Many websites can detect if you are accessing their
content on a mobile device

9.8 Web Addresses

A webpage has a unique address, called a web address or URL (Uniform
Resource Locator).
For example, the web address of http://www.nps.gov identifies the U.S.
Department of the Interior National Park Service home page. A browser
retrieves a webpage using its web address.

9.9 Web Apps and Mobile Apps

A web app is an application stored on a web server that you access through a
browser. Users typically interact with web apps directly on a website,
sometimes referred to as the host. Web app hosts usually provide storage for
users’ data and information on their servers, known as cloud storage.
Many web app hosts provide free access to their software. Others offer part
of their web app free and charge for access to a more comprehensive
program. Many include advertisements in the free version and charge for an
advertisement­free version. A mobile app is an application you download
from a mobile device’s app store or other location on the Internet to a
smartphone or other mobile device. Mobile apps often take advantage of
features of the device, such as touch screens, digital cameras, microphones,
and embedded GPS receivers, to enable you to enter and capture data.
9.10 Types of Websites
The web contains several types of websites: search engines; online social
networks; informational and research; media sharing; bookmarking; news,
weather, sports, and other mass media; educational; business, governmental,
and organizational; blogs; wikis and collaboration; health and fitness;
science; entertainment; banking and finance; travel and tourism; mapping;
retail and auctions; careers and employment; e­commerce; portals; content
aggregation; and website creation and management.
Many websites fall into more than one of these types. All of these websites
can be accessed from computers or mobile devices but often are formatted
differently and may have fewer features on mobile devices.

9.10.1 Search Engines

A web search engine is software that finds websites, webpages, images,
videos, news, maps, and other information related to a specific topic. You
also can use a search engine to solve mathematical equations, define words,
and more.
Thousands of search engines are available. Some search engines, such as
Bing, Google, and Yahoo!, are helpful in locating information on the web for
which you do not know an exact web address or are not seeking a specific
website. Those that work with GPS devices or services are location based,
meaning they display results related to the device’s current geographical
position.
Search engines typically allow you to search for one or more of the following
items:
• Images: photos, diagrams, and drawings
• Videos: home videos, music videos, television programs, and movie clips
• Maps: maps of a business or address, or driving directions to a destination
• Audio: music, songs, recordings, and sounds
• Publications: news articles, journals, and books
• People or Businesses: addresses and phone numbers
• Blogs: specific opinions and ideas of others
9.10.2 Informational and Research

9.10.3 Media Sharing

A media sharing site is a website that enables members to manage and share
media such as photos, videos, and music.
9.10.4 News, Weather, Sports, and Other Mass Media

News, weather, sports, and other mass media websites contain newsworthy
material, including stories and articles relating to current events, life,
money, politics, weather.

9.10.5 Educational
An educational website offers exciting, challenging avenues for formal and
informalteaching and learning. The web contains thousands of tutorials from
learning how to fly airplanes to learning how to cook a meal. For a more
structured learning experience, companies provide online training to
employees, and colleges offer online classes and degrees. Instructors often
use the web to enhance classroom teaching by publishing course materials,
grades, and other pertinent class information.

9.10.6 Business, Governmental, and Organizational

A business website contains content that increases brand awareness, provides company
background or other information, and/or promotes or sells products or services. Nearly
every enterprise has a business website.

9.10.7 Blogs

A blog (short for weblog) is an informal website consisting of time­stamped

articles, or posts, in a diary or journal format, usually listed in reverse
chronological order. The term blogosphere refers to the worldwide collection
of blogs. A blog that contains video sometimes is called a video blog, or vlog.
A microblog allows users to publish short messages usually between 100 and
200 characters, for others to read. The collection of a user’s Tweets, or posts
on Twitter, for example, forms a microblog Similar to an editorial section in a
newspaper, blogs reflect the interests, opinions, and personalities of the
author, called the blogger, and sometimes website visitors. Blogs have
become an important means of worldwide communications. Businesses
create blogs to communicate with employees, customers, and vendors. They
may post announcements of new information on a corporate blog. Teachers
create blogs to collaborate with other teachers and students. Home users
create blogs to share aspects of their personal lives with family, friends, and
others.

9.10.8 Wikis and Collaboration

Whereas blogs are a tool for publishing and sharing messages, wikis enable
users to organize, edit, and share information. A wiki is a type of
collaborative website that allows users to create, add, modify, or delete the
website content via a browser. Wikis can include articles, documents, photos,
or videos.
9.10.9 Science

9.10.10 Banking and Finance

Online banking and online trading enable users to access their financial
records from anywhere in the world, as long as they have an Internet
connection. Using online banking, users can access accounts, pay bills,
transfer funds, calculate mortgage payments, and manage other financial
activities from their computer or mobile device.
9.10.11 Mapping

Several mapping website and web apps exist that enable you to display up­
to­date maps by searching for an address, postal code, phone number, or
point of interest (such as an airport, lodging, or historical site). The maps can
be displayed in a variety of views, including terrain, aerial, maps, streets,
buildings, traffic, and weather. These websites also provide directions when
a user enters a starting and destination point.

9.10.12 Retail and Auctions

You can purchase just about any product or service on the web, a process
that sometimes is called e­retail (short for electronic retail). To purchase
online, the customer visits the business’s electronic storefront, which
contains product descriptions, images, and a shopping cart .The shopping
cart allows the customer to collect purchases. When ready to complete the
sale, the customer enters personal data and the method of payment, which
should be through a secure Internet connection.

9.11 Digital Media on the Web

Most webpages include multimedia, which refers to any application that
combines text with media. Media includes graphics, animation, audio, video,
and/or virtual reality.

The web often uses infographics to present concepts, products, and news. An
infographic (short for information graphic) is a visual representation of data
or information, designed to communicate quickly, simplify complex concepts,
or present patterns or trends. Many forms of infographics exist: maps, signs,
charts, and diagrams.
9.11.1 Email

Email (short for electronic mail) is the transmission of messages and files via
a computer network. Email was one of the original services on the Internet,
enabling scientists and researchers working on government­sponsored
projects to communicate with colleagues at other locations.
You use an email program to create, send, receive, forward, store, print, and
delete email messages. Email programs are available as desktop apps, web
apps, and mobile apps. An email message can be simple text or can include
an attachment such as a document, a graphic, an audio clip, or a video clip.
9.11.2 Internet Messaging
Internet messaging services, which often occur in real­time, are
communications services that notify you when one or more of your
established contacts are online and then allows you to exchange messages or
files or join a private chatroom with them.

9.11.3 Chat Rooms

A chat is a real­time typed conversation that takes place on a computer or

mobile device with many other online users. A chat room is a website or
application that permits users to chat with others who are online at the same
time. A server echoes the user’s message to everyone in the chat room.
Anyone in the chat room can participate in the conversation, which usually is
specific to a particular topic. Businesses sometimes use chat rooms to
communicate with customers.
As you type on your keyboard, others connected to the same chat room server
also see what you have typed. Some chat rooms support voice chats and video
chats, in which people hear or see each other as they chat.
CHAPTER 10 CONCEPTS AND PROPERTIES OF ALGORITHM AND
FLOWCHART
10.1 Origin Of The Word “Algorithm”
The word algorithm comes from the name of the 9th century Persian Muslim
mathematician Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Musa Al­Khwarizmi. The
word algorism originally referred only to the rules of performing arithmetic
using Hindu­Arabic numerals but evolved via European Latin translation of
Al­Khwarizmi's name into algorithm by the 18th century. The use of the
word evolved to include all definite procedures for solving problems or
performing tasks.

10.2 Definition of an Algorithms

An algorithm is an ordered set of unambiguous, executable steps that defines
a terminating process. An algorithm is a step­by­step procedure that will
always produce a correct solution. A mathematical formula is a good example
of a problem­solving algorithm. While an algorithm guarantees an accurate
answer, it is not always the best approach to problem solving. This strategy
is not practical for many situations because it can be so time­consuming. For
example, if you were trying to figure out all of the possible number
combinations to a lock using an algorithm, it would take a very long time.
A representation of an algorithm is called a program. For the convenience of
humans, computer programs are usually printed on paper or displayed on
computer screens. For the convenience of machines, programs are encoded in
a manner compatible with the technology of the machine. The process of
developing a program, encoding it in machine­compatible form, and inserting
it into a machine is called programming.Programs, and the algorithms
they represent, are collectively referred to as software, in contrast to the
machinery itself, which is known as hardware.

10.3 Properties of Algorithm:­

 It is written in simple English.
 Each step of an algorithm is unique and should be self explanatory.
 An algorithm must have at least one input.
 An algorithm must have at least one output.
 An algorithm has finite number of steps.
 It should provide the correct solutions
 Should have an end point
Examples 1: Write an algorithm to determine a student’s final grade and
indicate whether it is passing or failing. The final grade is calculated as the
average of four marks.
Solution 1:
Algorithm
 Step 1: Input M1,M2,M3,M4
 Step 2: GRADE  (M1+M2+M3+M4)/4
 Step 3: if (GRADE < 50) then
Print “FAIL”
else
Print “PASS”
Endif

Example 2: Write an algorithm and draw a flowchart to convert the length in

feet to centimeter.

Solution 2:

Algorithm
 Step 1: Input Lft
 Step 2: Lcm  Lft x 30
 Step 3: Print Lcm

Example 3: Write an algorithm and draw a flowchart to calculate the area of a rectangle.

Solution 3:
Algorithm
 Step 1: Input W,L
 Step 2: A L x W
 Step 3: Print A
10.4 Program Flow Chart
Program Flow Chart is a graphical representation of the program logic in
solving a problem. It uses the standard symbols in designing the input,
process and output of a program. Program flowcharts show the sequence of
instructions in a single program or subroutine. Different symbols are used to
draw each type of flowchart. Steps are described in boxes of various kinds,
and their order indicated by connecting them with arrows. Flowcharts are
used in analyzing, designing, documenting or managing a process or program.
10.5 Symbols used in Program Flow Chart
The table below shows the symbols used in drawing the Program Flow Chart:
1) A program requires the user to enter two numbers num1and num2. The
program then calculates the answer by dividing num1by num2, and displays
the result before it terminates. The diagram below shows the design of the
program using the flowchart.

Start

Get num 1

Get num 2

Answer =
num1 /num2

Display
Result

Stop
2) Draw a flowchart for a program that convert the length in feet to
centimeter.

Start

Input Lft

Lcm= L
ft
x 30

Print Lcm

Stop

3) Draw a flowchart for a program to calculate the area of a rectangle.

Start

Input L, W

A= Lx W

Print A

Stop