BIN-ADAM PRINTS

COURSE CODE: CSC 101 

COURSE TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE 

NO. OF CREDITS: 3 CREDIT UNITS 
 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

1.1 Computer Literacy
The   vocabulary   of   computing   is   all   around   you.   Before   the   advent   of
computers,   memory   was   the  mental  ability to  recall previous experiences;
storage   was   an   area   where   you   kept   out   of   season   clothing;   and
communication was the act of exchanging opinions and information through
writing,   speaking,   or   signs.   In   today’s   world,   these   words   and   countless
others have taken on new meanings as part of the common terminology used
to describe computers and their use.
When you hear the word computer, initially you may think of those found in
the workplace – the computers used to create business letters, memos, and
other   correspondence;   calculate   payroll;   track   inventory;   or   generate
invoices. In the course of a day or week, however, you encounter many other
computers.   Your   home,   for   instance,   may   contain   a   myriad   of   electronic
devices, such as cordless telephones, VCRs, handheld video games, cameras,
and stereo systems that include small computers. 
Computers   help   you   with   your   banking   in   the   form   of   Automatic   Teller
Machines   (ATMs)   used   to   deposit   or   withdraw   funds.   When   you   buy
groceries,   a   computer   tracks   your   purchase   and   calculates   the   amount   of
money you owe; and sometimes generates coupons customized to your buying
patterns.   Even   your   car   is   equipped   with   computers   that   operate   the
electrical system, control the temperature, and run sophisticated anti­theft
devices.
Computers are valuable tools. As technology advances and computers extend
into every fact of daily living, it is essential you gain some level of computer
literacy. To be successful in today’s world, you must have a knowledge and
understanding of computers and their uses.
1.2 WHAT IS COMPUTER ?
A   computer   is   an   electronic   machine,   operating   under   the   control   of
instructions   stored   in   its   own   memory   that   can   accept   data   (input),
manipulate the data according to specified rules (process), procedure results
(output), and store the results for future use.
Data is a collection of un­organized facts, which can include words, numbers,

images,   and   sounds.   Computers   manipulate   and  process  data   to   create

information. 
Information  is   data   that   is   organized,   has   meaning,   and   is   useful.

Examples are reports, newsletters, a receipt, a picture, an invoice, or a check.
Data entered into a computer is called input. The processed results are called
output. Thus, a computer processed input to create output. A computer also
can   hold  data  and  information  for future  use in  area called  storage.  This
cycle   of   input,   process,   output,   and   storage   is   called   the  Information

Processing Cycle. 

A   person   that   communicates   with   a   computer   or   uses   the   information   it

generates is called a user. The electric, electronic, and mechanical equipment
that   makes   up   a   computer   is   called   hardware.   Software   is   the   series   of
instruction that tells the hardware how to perform tasks. Without software,
hardware is useless; hardware needs the instructions provided by software to
process data into information.
1.3 Basic Functions Of A Computer

When a computer processes data it actually performs a number of separate
functions as follows: 
• Input: The computer accepts data from outside for processing within. 

•  Storage:  The   computer   holds   data   internally   before,   during   and   after

processing. 
• Processing: The computer perform operations on the data it holds within. 

• Output: The computer produces data from within for external use. 

This is summarized in the following figure.

1.4 Data Processing Methods 

The following are the three major methods that have been widely used for
data processing over the years: 
• Manual method 
• Mechanical method  
• Computer method. 
1.4.1 Manual Method:
The manual method of data processing involves the use of chalk, wall, pen,
pencil and the like. These devices, machine or tools facilitate human efforts
in   recording,   classifying,   manipulating,   sorting   and   presenting   data   or
information.   The   manual   data   processing   operations   entail   considerable
manual   efforts.   Thus,   manual   method   is   cumbersome,   tiresome,   boring,
frustrating and time consuming. Furthermore, the processing of data by the
manual  method   is   likely  to  be affected by human  errors. When  there are
errors, then the reliability, accuracy, neatness, tidiness, and validity of the
data would be in doubt. The manual method does not allow for the processing
of large volume of data on a regular and timely basis. 
1.4.2 Mechanical Method:
The mechanical method of data processing involves the use of machines such
as   typewriter,   adding   machines   and   the   like.   These   machines   facilitate
human efforts in recording, classifying, manipulating, sorting and presenting
data   or   information.   The   mechanical   operations   are   basically   routine   in
nature. There is virtually no creative thinking. 
The mechanical operations are noisy, hazardous, error prone and untidy. The
mechanical method does not allow for the processing of large volume of data
continuously and timely. 
1.4.3 Computer Method:
The   computer   method   of   carrying   out   data   processing   has   the   following
major features: 
• Data can be steadily and continuously processed 
• The operations are practically not noisy 
• There is a store where data and instructions can be stored temporarily and
permanently. 
• Errors can be easily and neatly corrected. 
•Output   reports   are   usually   very   neat,   decent   and   can   be   produced   in
various forms such as adding graphs, diagrams, pictures etc. 
• Accuracy and reliability are highly enhanced. 
1.5  Characteristics/Features Of Computers
A   computer’s   power   is   derived   from   its   capability   of   performing   the
information processing cycle operations with speed, reliability, and accuracy;
its capacity to store huge amounts of data, instructions, and information; and
its ability to communicate with other computers.
1.5.1 Speed 
Inside the system unit, operations occur through electronic circuits. When
data, instructions, and information flow along these circuits, they travel at
close to the speed of light. This allows billions of operations to be carried out
in   a   single   second.

1.5.2 Reliability 
The   electronic   components   in   modern   computers   are   dependable   because
they have a low failure rate. The high reliability of components enables the
computer to produce consistent results. 
1.5.3 Accuracy 
Computers   can   process   large   amounts   of   data   and   generate   error­free
results, provided the data is entered correctly. If inaccurate data is entered,
the  resulting output  will  be  incorrect. This computing principle known as
Garbage­In,   Garbage­Out   (GIGO),   point   out   that   the   accuracy   of   a
computer’s output depends on the accuracy of the input.  
1.5.4 Storage 
Many computers can store enormous amounts of data and make this data
available for processing any time it is needed. Using current storage devices,
the data can be transferred quickly from storage to memory, processed, and
then stored again for future use. 
1.5.5 Communications   
Most   computers   today   have   the   capability   of   communicating   with   other
computers.   Computers   with   this   capability   can   share   any’   of   the   four
information   processing   cycle   operations   –   inputs,   process,   output,   and
storage – with another computer. For example, two computers connected by
a   communications   device   such   as   a   modem   can   share   stored   data,
instructions, and information. When two or more computers are connected
together via communications media and devices, they comprise a network.
The most widely known network is the Internet. A worldwide collection of
installations, educational institutions, and individuals.
  
1.6 Application Areas of Computers
The following are few areas where computers are use daily. 
1.6.1 Business :
A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or
versatility which made it an integrated part in all business organizations.
Computer   is   used   in   business   organizations   for:   Payroll   calculations,
Budgeting,   Sales   analysis,   Financial   forecasting,   Managing   employees
database, Maintenance of stocks, etc. 
1.6.2 Banking:
Today   banking   is   almost   totally   dependent   on   computer.   Banks   provide
following   facilities:   Online   accounting   facility,   which   includes   current
balances, deposits, overdrafts, interest charges, shares, and trustee records.
ATM machines are making it even easier for customers to deal with banks. 
1.6.3 Insurance:
Insurance   companies   are   keeping   all   records   up­to­date   with   the   help   of
computers. The insurance companies, finance houses and stock broking firms
are   widely   using   computers   for   their   concerns.   Insurance   companies   are
maintaining a database of all clients with information showing: procedure to
continue with policies, starting date of the policies, next due installment of a
policy, maturity date, interests due, survival benefits, bonus, etc. 
1.6.4 Education:
The computer has provided a lot of facilities in the education system. The
computer provides a tool in the education system known as CBE (Computer
Based Education). CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.
The   computer   education   is   rapidly   increasing   the   graph   of   number   of
computer   students.   There   are   number   of   methods   in   which   educational
institutions can use computer to educate the students. It is used to prepare a
database about performance of a student and analysis is carried out on this
basis. 
1.6.5 Marketing:

In   marketing,   uses   of   computer   include   but   not   limited   to   the   following:

Advertising   with   computers,   advertising   professionals   create   art   and
graphics, write and revise copy, and print and disseminate ads with the goal
of selling more products. At Home Shopping ­ Home shopping has been made
possible   through   use   of   computerized   catalogues   that   provide   access   to
product   information   and   permit   direct   entry   of   orders   to   be   filled   by   the
customers. 
1.6.6 Health Care:

Computers have become important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries.
The computers are being used in hospitals to keep the record of patients and
medicines.   It   is   also   used   in   scanning   and   diagnosing   different   diseases.
ECG, EEG, Ultrasounds and CT Scans etc. are also done by computerized
machines. Some major fields of health care in which computers are used are:
Diagnostic System ­ Computers are used to collect data and identify cause

of illness. 
Lab­diagnostic System ­ All tests can be done and reports are prepared by

computer. 
Patient Monitoring System ­  These are used to check patient's signs for

abnormality such as in Cardiac Arrest, ECG etc. 
Pharma   Information   System   ­  Computer   checks   Drug­Labels,   Expiry

dates, harmful drug’s side effects etc. 
Surgery: Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery. 

1.6.7 Engineering Design:
Computers are widely used in Engineering purpose. One of major areas is
CAD   (Computer   aided   design).that   provides   creation   and   modification   of
images. Some fields are: 
Structural Engineering ­  Requires stress and strain analysis for design of

Ships, Buildings, Budgets, Airplanes etc. 
Industrial Engineering ­ Computers deal with design, implementation and

improvement of integrated systems of people, materials and equipments. 
Architectural Engineering ­ Computers help in planning towns, designing

buildings, determining a range of buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D
drawings. 
1.6.8 Military:
Computers  are largely used in defense, intelligence gathering process and
reconnaissance. Modern tanks, missile systems, and modern weapons all use
specialized   computers   for   optimum   performance.   Military   also   employs
computerized control systems.  Some military areas where a computer has
been   used   are:   Missile   Control   system,   Military   Communication,   Military
Operation and Planning, Smart Weapons, etc. 
1.6.9 Communication:

Communication means to convey a message, an idea, a picture or speech that
is received and understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is
meant for. Some main areas in this category are: E­mail, Chatting, Usenet,
FTP, Telnet, Video­conferencing, etc. 
1.6.10 Government:

Computers play an important role in government. Some major fields in this
category   are:   The   Budget   office,   Inland   Revenue   Services   department,
Income   tax   department,   Computerization   of   voters   lists   and   issuances   of
voters card by INEC, Computerization of driving licensing system by FRSC,
Computerization of e­passport by NIS, Weather forecasting, etc.
1.7 Basic Ideas And Terms

Below are some of the ideas and terminology of computer 
1. Computing System:  Computing system is made up of the computer

system,   the   user   and   the   environment   in   which   the   computer   is

operated. 
2. The   Computer   System:  The   computer   system   is   made   up   of   the

hardware and the software. 
3. Computer:  A   computer   is   a   device   that   works   under   the   control   of

stored programs , automatically accepting, storing and processing data
to produce information that is the result of the processing. 
4. Hardware: is the general term used to describe all the electronic and

mechanical elements of the computer, together with those devices used
 with the computer. 
5. Software: Computer software is the series of instructions that enable

the computer to perform a task or group of tasks. Software consist of
system software and application software packages. 
6. Computer   Users:  Computer   users   are   the   different   categories   of

personnel that operates the computer. We have expert users and casual
users.   The   expert   users   could   be   further   categorized   into   computer
engineers, computer programmers and computer operators. 
7. The Computing Environment:  The computing environment ranges

from the building that is housing the other elements of the computing
system   namely   the   computer   and   the   users,   the   furniture,   auxiliary
devices   such   as   the   voltage   stabilizer,   the   Uninterruptible   Power
Supply (UPS) System, the fans, the air conditioners etc.

8. Program: A program is a set of instructions that tells the computer

exactly   how   to   manipulate   the   input   data   and   produce   the   desired
output. 
9. Data: “ Data ” is the name given to basic facts. 

10. Information:  A   distinction   is   sometimes   made   between   data   and

information. When data is converted into a more useful or intelligible
form then it is said to be processed into information. 

11. Bit   (Binary   Digit):  The   smallest   unit   of   information   storable   in   a

computer, expressed as 0 or 1. 
12. Byte (Binary Digit Eight): A set of 8 adjacent bits, which represent a

unit   of   computer   memory   equal   to   that   needed   to   store   a   single

character. 
13. Memory: Physical device that is used to store such information as data

or program on a temporary or permanent basis for use in a computer. 
14. Random Access Memory (RAM):  is a volatile type of memory, i.e.,

data is lost if the power supply is removed. 
15. Read Only  Memory  (ROM):  is a non­volatile type of memory, i.e.,

data is not lost when the power supply is removed.
 CHAPTER 2 HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF COMPUTER

2.1 Objectives 
The   objective   of   this   unit   is   to   enable   the   student   to   know   the   processes
leading to the emergence of the modern computer. There can be no present
without the past just as the future depends on the present. By the end of this
unit,   students   should   be   able   to   appreciate   and   visualize   the   direction   of
research in computer technology in the nearby future . 
2.2 Brief History of Computer Technology 
Attempts   to   create   a   self­motivating   and   calculating   machine   that   would
emulate   many   of   the   thinking   patters   of   human   beings   have   been   a
centuries­long quest for many inventors. The eighteenth century Turk was
alleged to be a chess­playing automaton which defeated the likes of Napoleon
Bonaparte and Benjamin Franklin in chess matches; it was later revealed
that the Turk was a hoax controlled by a man inside the machine. Still, the
idea  for  creating a  human­like thinking machine remained alive and well
into the twentieth century. Konrad Zuse, a German engineer, developed the
first truly programmable computer in 1941. It used a stream of paper tape
with   holes   punched   into   it   to   perform   calculations   based   on   a   complex
algorithm. The first commercial computer was the famous UNIVAC of 1951
produced in the US, invented by John Presper Eckert and John W. Mauchly.
It used a series of vacuum tubes to perform complex calculations and filled
several rooms with its bulk; the computing power of UNIVAC is equivalent
to today's pocket calculators. 
In the 1950s most computers relied on vacuum tubes to perform electronic
calculation functions, which kept the size of computers to the equivalent of a
large room. If vacuum tubes were not allowed sufficient space to allow air to
cool them, they would blow out and shut the computer down completely until
the   burned­out   or   defective   tube   was   replaced;   a   difficult   prospect   with
20,000 or more tubes to choose from. By the close of the 1950s, the integrated
circuit chip was invented by Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce, which reduced the
size (and cost) of computers. 
Earlier in the decade, IBM had gotten into the computer market, but mainly
sold to businesses (such as banks) that had room to spare in their buildings.
The   invention   and   adoption   of   the   chip   would   allow   IBM   to   become   the
premier producer of computing machines throughout the 1960s and 1970s.
2.3 Computer Generations 
The  history  of   computer  development is often  referred in reference to the
different generations of computing devices. Each of the five generations of
computers   is   characterized   by   a   major   technological   development   that
fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly
smaller,   cheaper,   and   more   powerful   and   more   efficient   and   reliable
computing   devices.   In   this   section   you   will   learn   about   each   of   the   five
generations of computers and the technology developments that have led to
the   current   devices   that   we   use   today.   Our   journey   starts   in   1940   with
vacuum tube circuitry and goes to the present day and beyond with artificial
intelligence (AI). 
2.3.1 First Generation (1940­1956) Vacuum Tubes 
The   first   generation   computers   used   vacuum   tubes   for   circuitry   and
magnetic   drums   for   memory,   and   were   often   enormous,   taking   up   entire
rooms.   They   were   very   expensive   to   operate   and   in   addition   they   used   a
great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of
malfunctions. First generation computers relied on machine language, the
lowest­level   programming   language   understood   by   computers,   to   perform
operations, and they could only solve one problem at a time. Input was based
on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts.
The   Universal   Automatic   Computer   (UNIVAC)   and   Electronic   Numerical
Integrator Analyzor and Computer (ENIAC) computers are examples of first­
generation   computing   devices.   The   UNIVAC   was   the   first   commercial
computer delivered to a business client, the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951. 
2.3.2 Second Generation (1956­1963) Transistors 
Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of
computers. The transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread
use in computers until the late 1950s. The transistor was far superior to the
vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more
energy­efficient and more reliable than their predecessors (first­generation).
Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that subjected the
computer   to   damage,   it   was   a   vast   improvement   over   the   vacuum   tube.
Second­generation   computers   still   relied   on   punched   cards   for   input   and
printouts   for   output.   Second­generation   computers   moved   from   cryptic
binary/machine language to symbolic, or assembly languages, which allowed
programmers   to   specify   instructions   in   words.   High­level   programming
languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions of
COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that 
stored   their   instructions   in   their   memory,   which   moved   from   a   magnetic
drum   to   magnetic   core   technology.   The  first   computers  of   this   generation
were   developed   for   the   atomic   energy   industry.   Some   computers   of   this
generation were: IBM1620, IBM 7094, UNIVAC 1108, etc. 
2.3.3 Third Generation (1964­1971) Integrated Circuits 
The   development   of   the   integrated   circuit   was   the   hallmark   of   the   third
generation of computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon
chips,   called   semiconductors,   which   drastically   increased   the   speed   and
efficiency   of   computers.   Instead   of   punched   cards   and   printouts,   users
interacted with third generation computers through keyboards and monitors
and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to run
many   different   applications   at   one   time   with   a   central   program   that
monitored the memory. Computers for the first time became accessible to a
mass   audience   because   they   were   smaller   and   cheaper   than   their
predecessors.   Some   computers   of   this   generation   were:IBM­360   series,
Honeywell­6000   series,   PDP(Personal   Data   Processor),   IBM­370/168   and
others. 
2.3.4 Fourth Generation (1971­1980) Microprocessors 
The   microprocessor   brought   the   fourth   generation   of   computers,   as
thousands of integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in
the first generation filled an entire room could now _t in the palm of the
hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of
the computer from the central processing unit and memory to input/output
controls on a single chip. 
In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984
Apple   introduced   the   Macintosh.   Microprocessors   also   moved   out   of   the
realm of desktop computers and into many areas of life as more and more
everyday products began to use 
microprocessors. As these small computers became more powerful, they could
be   linked   together   to   form   networks,   which   eventually   led   to   the
development   of   the   Internet.   Fourth   generation   computers   also   saw   the
development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices. Some computers of
this generation were: STAR 1000, PDP 11, CRAY­1 (Super Computer). 
2.3.5 Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond) Artificial Intelligence 
Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still
in   development,   though   there   are   some   applications,   such   as   voice
recognition, that are being used today. The use of parallel processing and
superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality. Quantum
computation   and   molecular   and   nanotechnology   will   radically   change   the
face of computers in years to come. The goal of fifth­generation computing is
to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are capable of
learning and self­organization.
 CHAPTER 3  CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS 

 3.1 Introduction: 

Computer has passed through many stages of evolution from the days of the 
mainframe computers to the era of microcomputers. Computers have been
classified   based   on   different   criteria.   In   this   section,   we   shall   classify
computers according to signal type, purpose and size (or capacity). 
3.2 Classification According to Signal Type: 

There   are   basically   three   types   of   electronic   computers.   These   are   the
Analog, Digital and Hybrid computers.
3.2.1 Analog Computers
Analog computers are the form of computers that are used to process analog
data.   Analog   data   is   of   continuous   nature   and   which   is   not   discrete   or
separate. Such type of data includes temperature, pressure, speed weight,
voltage, depth etc. These quantities are continuous and having an infinite
variety of values.
It   measures   continuous   changes   in   some   physical   quantity   e.g.   The
Speedometer   of   a   car   measures   speed,   the   change   of   temperature   is
measured by a Thermometer, the weight is measured by Weights machine.
These computers are ideal in situations where data can be accepted directly
from   measuring   instrument   without  having   to  convert  it   into   numbers  or
codes.
Analog  computers  are  widely used for certain  specialized engineering and
scientific applications, for calculation and measurement of analog quantities.
They   are   frequently   used   to   control   process   such   as   those   found   in   oil
refinery where flow and temperature measurements are important. They are
used   for   example   in   paper   making   and   in   chemical   industry.   Analog
computers do not require any storage capability because they measure and
compare quantities in a single operation. Output from an analog computer is
generally in the form of readings on a series of dial (Speedometer of a car) or
a graph on strip chart.
3.2.2 Digital Computers
A   digital   computer   is   a   computer   that   stores   and   performs   a   series   of
mathematical and logical operations on data expressed as discrete signals
interpreted as numbers, usually in the form of binary notation (0 and 1).So
we can say that digital computers process information which is based on the
presence or the absence of an electrical charge or we prefer to say a binary 1
or 0.
A digital computer can be used to process numeric as well as non­numeric
data.   It   can   perform   arithmetic   operations   like   addition,   subtraction,
multiplication   and   division   and   also   logical   operations.   Most   of   the
computers   available   today   are   digital   computers.   The   most   common
examples of digital computers are accounting machines and calculators.
The results of digital computers are more accurate than the results of analog
computers. Analog computers are faster than digital. Analog computers lack
memory   whereas   digital   computers   store   information.   We   can   say   that
digital computers count and analog computers measures.
3.2.3 Hybrid Computers
A hybrid is a combination of digital and analog computers. It combines the
best   features   of   both   types   of   computers,   i­e.   It   has   the   speed   of   analog
computer   and   the   memory   and   accuracy   of   digital   computer.   Hybrid
computers are used mainly in specialized applications where both kinds of
data   need   to   be  processed.   Therefore,  they   help   the   user,  to   process  both
continuous   and   discrete   data.   For   example   a   petrol   pump   contains   a
processor   that   converts   fuel   flow   measurements   into   quantity   and   price
values. In hospital Intensive Care Unit (ICU), an analog device is used which
measures   patient's   blood   pressure   and   temperature   etc,   which   are   then
converted and displayed in the form of digits. Hybrid computers for example
are used for scientific calculations, in defense and radar systems.
3.3 Classification According to Purpose 
Depending on their flexibility in operation, computers are classified as either
special purpose or general purpose. 
3.3.1 Special Purpose Computers 
A special purpose computer is one that is designed to solve a restricted class
of problems. Such computers may even be designed and built to handle only
one job. In such machines, the steps or operations that the computer follows
may be built into the hardware. 
Most of the computers used for military purposes fall into this class. Other
example of special purpose computers include: 
• Computers designed specifically to solve navigational problems;
• Computers designed for tracking airplane or missiles 
• Computers used for process control applications in industries such as oil
refinery, chemical manufacture, steel processing and power generation 
• Computers used as robots in factories like vehicles assembly plants and
glass industries 
Attributes of Special Purpose Computers: Special purpose computer are
usually   very   efficient   for   the   tasks   for   which   they   are   specially   designed.
They are very much less complex than the General­ Purpose Computers. The
simplicity of the circuiting stems from the fact that provision is made only for
limited facilities. They are very much cheaper than the General­Purpose type
since they involve less components and are less complex. 
3.3.2 General Purpose Computers
General­Purpose computers are computers designed to handle wide range of
problems.   Theoretically,   a   general­purpose   computer   can   be   adequate   by
means of some easily alterable instructions to handle any problems that can
be solved by computation. However, in practice there are limitations imposed
by  memory   size,   speed   and   the  type   of  input/output  devices.  Examples   of
areas where the general purpose are employed include the following: 
• Cost accounting
• Sales analysis 
• Billing 
• Banking 
• Payroll 
Attributes of General Purpose Computers: 
•   General­Purpose   computers   are   more   flexible   than   special   purpose
computers; they can handle a wide spectrum of problems 
•   They   are   less   efficient   than   the   special­purpose   computers   due   to   such
problems as: Inadequate storage and Low operating speed 
• Coordination of the various tasks and subsection may take time 
• General Purpose Computers are more complex than the special purpose
ones.

3.4 Classification According to Capacity 
In the past, the capacity of computers was measured in terms of physical
size.   Today,   however,   the   physical  size  is  not   a  good  measure  of  capacity
because the modern technology has made it possible to achieve compactness.
A better measure of capacity today is the volume of work that computer can
handle. The volume of work that a given computer handles is closely tied to
the  cost  and  to  the  memory  size  of  computer. Therefore, most authorities
today accept the price of rental price as the standard for ranking computers.
Here, both memory size and cost shall be used to rank (classify) computer
into following categories :
3.4.1 Supercomputers 
A   supercomputer   is   the   fastest,   most   powerful   computer   and   the   most
expensive.   Supercomputers   are   capable   of   processing   many   trillions   of
instructions in a single second. Large­scale simulations and applications in
medicine, aerospace, automotive design, online banking, weather forecasting,
nuclear energy research, and petroleum exploration use a supercomputer.
3.4.2 Mainframes
These   are   large   general   purpose   computers   with   extensive   processing,
storage   and   input/output   capabilities.   They   are   used   in   centralized
computing environment and normally data input is achieved via terminals
wired   to   the   mainframe   computer.   Mainframe   computers   usually   need   a
specialized environment in which to operate – with dust, temperature and
humidity   carefully   controlled.   Mainframes   are   usually   owned   by   giant
corporate   organizations,   such   as   universities,   research   institutes,   giant
banks, etc.
Mainframes are usually sophisticate and large; thus they call for great detail
of   support   from   their   manufacturers   and   representatives.   Example   of
mainframes are IBM 360/370 system and NCR V­8800 system. The market
of mainframes is dominated by IBM. 

3.4.3 Minicomputers (mini):
Minicomputer is a name originally given to computers that physically went
within   a   single   equipment   cabinet,   i.e.   on   the   order   of   a   few   cubic   feet.
Compared with large computers, minicomputers were cheaper and smaller,
with   smaller   memory.   The   word   minicomputer   is   no   longer   used   very
specifically,   it   predates   the   term   microcomputer   and   a   boundary   between
these two classes of devise is unclear. Examples of minicomputers are PDP II
, VAX 750/6000 , NCR 9300 , DEC , HP 3000 , IBM system 38 and MV400. 

3.4.4 Microcomputers: 
Microcomputers are computer systems that utilize a microprocessor as their
central and arithmetic element. The personal computer (PC) is one form. The
power and price of a microcomputer is determine partly by the speed and
power of the processor and partly by the characteristics of other computers of
the system, i.e. the memory, the disk units, the display, the keyboard, the
flexibility   of   the   hardware,   and   the   operating   system   and   other   software.
Examples include IBM PC and its compatibles and Apple Macintosh.

3.4.5  Quantum Computer
A quantum computer is a machine designed to use the principles of quantum
mechanics to do things which are fundamentally impossible for any computer
which only uses classical physics.
Classical computers encode information in bits. Each bit can take the value
of   1   or   0.   These   1s   and   0s   act   as   on/off   switches   that   ultimately   drive
computer functions. Quantum computers, on the other hand, are based on
qubits, which operate according to two key principles of quantum physics:
superposition and entanglement. Superposition means that each qubit can
represent   both   a   1   and   a   0   at   the   same   time.   Entanglement   means   that
qubits in a superposition can be correlated with each other; that is, the state
of one (whether it is a 1 or a 0) can depend on the state of another. Using
these two principles, qubits can act as more sophisticated switches, enabling
quantum computers  to  function in ways that allow them to solve difficult
problems that are intractable using today’s computers.

Quantum   computer   with   500   qubits   gives   2 500  superposition   states.  Each
state is classically equivalent to a single list of 500 1's and 0's. Operate on
2500  states   simultaneously.   Equivalent   to   a   classical   computer   with
approximately 10150 processors.
 CHAPTER 4 COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER

4. Introduction 

A computer consists of a variety of hardware components that work together
with software to perform calculations, organize data, and communicate with
other computers.
These hardware components  include input devices, output, a system unit,
storage devices, and communications devices.

Computer
System

Softwares Hardwares

Application System Utility System Input Output

Storages
Softwares Softwares programs Unit Devices Devices

4.1 HARDWARE 

Computer   hardware   consists   of   the   components   that   can   be   physically

handled. The function of these components is basically divided into four main
categories: input, processing, storage and output services. 
The four units are interdependent (i.e. the function of one unit depends on
the  function   of   the  other.)   They  interact  harmoniously  to   provide   the  full
function   of   the   computer’s   hardware.   The   units   connect   to   the
microprocessors, specifically the computer’s central processing unit (CPU) –
the electronic circuitry that provides the computational ability and control of
the computer.
 Hardwares

System Input Output

Storages
Unit Devices Devices

4.2 The System Unit

The  system   unit   is   a   box­like case housing he electronic components  of  a

computer that are used to process data. System unit component include the
processor, memory module, expansion cards and ports and connectors. Many
component reside on a circuit board called the motherboard or system board.
The  motherboard   contains   different  types  of   chips,  or  small   piece  of   semi
conducting material on which or more integrated circuit (IC) are etched. One
of the more chips is the central processing unit.  
4.2.1 Central Processing Unit 
The Central Processing Unit (CPU), sometimes refers to as the processor,
interprets  and  carries   out the basics instruction that operate a computer.
That is most of the device connected to the computer communicate with the
CPU in order to carry out a task. The CPU contains the control unit and the
arithmetic/logic unit.
4.2.1.1 The Control Unit

The control unit, one component of the CPU, directs and coordinates most of
the   operations   in   the   computer.   For   every   instruction,   the   control   unit
repeats a set of four basic operations called the machine cycle: 
(1) fetching the instruction or data item from memory,
(2) decoding the instruction into commands the computer understands,
(3) executing the commands, and, if necessary,
(4) storing, or writing, the result to memory. 

4.2.1.2 Arithmetic/Logic Unit

The   arithmetic/logic   unit,   another   component   of   the   CPU,   performs   the

arithmetic, comparison, and logical operations. Arithmetic operations include
addition,   subtraction,   multiplication,   and   division.   Comparison   operations
involve comparing one data item to another to determine if the first item is
greater than, equal to, or less than the other item. Logical operations work
with conditions and logical operators such as AND, OR, and NOT.  
4.2.1.3 Registers 

The CPU uses temporary storage locations called registers, to hold data and
instructions. The function include storing location of where instruction was
fetched storing an instruction while it is being decoded, storing data while
the ALU processing it, and storing the results of a calculation.  

4.2.2 Memory
Memory consists of electronic components that store instructions waiting to
be executed and the data needed by those instructions. 
In   the   system   unit,   a   computer’s   memory   stores   data,   instructions,   and
information.   memory   stores   three   basic   items:   The   operating   system   and
other  system   software   that   control  the   usage   of   the  computer   equipment;
Application   programs   designed   to   carry   out   a   specific   task   such   as   word
processing;   and   The   data   being   processed   by   application   programs.   The
number   of   bytes   it   can   store   measures   memory   size   a   Kilobyte   (KB)   is
approximately one thousand bytes, and a Megabyte (MB) is approximately
one million bytes.
Although some forms of memory are permanent, most memory keeps data
and instructions temporarily, which mean its contents are erased when the
computer   is   shut   off.   Computers   and   mobile   devices   contain   two   types   of
memory:  volatile  and  nonvolatile. When the computer’s power is turned

off, volatile memory loses its contents. Nonvolatile memory, by contrast, does
not   lose   its   contents   when   power   is   removed   from   the   computer.   Thus,
volatile memory is temporary and nonvolatile memory is permanent. RAM is
the most common type of volatile memory. Examples of nonvolatile memory
include ROM, flash memory, and CMOS. The following sections discuss these
types of memory.
4.2.2.1 RAM
RAM (Random Access Memory), also called main memory,  is a memory chip

that   the   processor   can   read   from   and   write   to.   RAM   is   volatile   memory,
meaning that its contents are lost when the computer’s power is turned off. it
is the main memory of the computer system that stores the data temporarily
and allows the data to be accessed in any order . Multiple Programs can be
loaded   into   RAM   simultaneously   provided   you   have   enough   RAM   to
accommodate all the programs.  The original IBM PC could only use up to
640 KB of memory (just over half a megabyte), whereas a modern computer
can   effectively   house   as   much   RAM   as   you   can   afford   to   buy.   Commonly
modern computers are supplied with over 2 GB of RAM. 
4.2.2.2 ROM

ROM (Read­Only­Memory) is a memory chip that only can be read and used;
that is, it cannot be modified. ROM is nonvolatile memory, meaning that bits
contents are not lost when the computer’s power is turned off.
Commonly used for storing of program instructions that is not subjected to
change.   Generally   provided   by   manufacturer.   RON   clips   that   contain
permanently written data, instruction, or information are called firmware.
Another type of ROM clip, called programmable read only memory (PROM)
clip, is a blank ROM chip on which you can permanently place items. The
instructions used to program a PROM clip are called microcode. Once the
micro­code is programmed into the PROM clip, it functions like a regular
ROM clip and cannot be erases or changed.    
4.2.2.3 Memory Access Times
The   speed   at   which   the   processor   can   access   data   from   memory   directly
affects how fast the computer process data. This speed often is defined as
access time. Access time is measured in fractions of a second. For memory,
access times are measured in terms of a nanosecond, which is one billionth of
a second.   
 CHAPTER 5 INPUT DEVICES

5 Introduction:
It is common to divide external computer hardware into two groups. The first
group   deals   with   transferring   data   or   commands   from   the   user   into   the
computer. These are known as input devices. Once the user has managed to
input the commands and data required into the computer, there are several
output devices that the computer can use to pass the information (the results
of data processed with the help of commands) back to the user.
5.1 Input
Input is  any data or instruction you enter into the memory of a computer.

Once input in the memory, the CPU can access it and process the input into
output.   four   common   type   of   input   are:

Data:  Data   is   a   collection   of   unorganized   facts   that   can   include   words,

numbers, pictures, sound and video. A computer manipulates and processes
data   into   information,   which   is   useful.
Program:  A program is a series of instructions that tells a computer how to

perform   the   tasks   necessary   to   process   data   into   information.   Programs

respond   to   commands   issued   by   a   user.

Commands:  a   command   is   an   instruction   given   to   a   computer   program.

Commands can be issued by typing keywords  or pressing special keys on the
keyboard.
User   Responses:  A   user   response   is   an   instruction   you   issue   to   the

computer by replying to a questions posed by a computer program, such as
Do you want to save the changes you made ? Based on your response, the

program perform certain actions.
5.2 Input Devices: 
an   input   device   is   any   hardware   component   that   allows   you   to   data,
programs,   commands   and   user   responses   into   a   computer.   For   users   to
communicate or interact with the computer, there are many input devices
provided   for   that   purpose.   Input   devices   let   you   input   data   into   your
computer. Few important input devices which are used with a computer are:
Keyboard, Mouse, Joystick, Light pen, Track Ball, Scanner, Graphic Tablet,
Microphone,   Magnetic   Ink   Card   Reader(MICR),   Optical   Character   Reader
(OCR), Bar Code Reader, Optical Mark Reader(OMR).

5.2.1 Keyboard:
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps in
inputting data into the computer. The layout of the computer keyboard is
similar  to   the  layout   of   a   traditional typewriter, although  there  are some
additional keys on a computer keyboard provided for performing additional
functions.   Keyboards   are   of   two   sizes   84   keys   or   101/102   keys,   but   now
keyboards  with   104   keys  or  108 keys are also available for Windows and
Internet. The keys on the keyboard are as follows:                                                         
1. Typing Keys: These keys include the letter keys (A­Z) and digit keys (0­9)

which   generally   is   identical   to   that   of   typewriters.

2.   Numeric   Keypad:  It   is   used   to   enter   numeric   data   and   generally,   it

consists of a set of 17 keys that are laid out in the same configuration used
by most adding machines and calculators.                                                
3.   Function Keys:  The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard

which are arranged in a row at the top of the keyboard. Each function key
has   unique   function   it   performs   in   different   environment.
4. Control keys:  These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes

four directional arrow   keys. Control keys also include Home, End, Insert,
Delete, Page Up, Page Down, Control (Ctrl), Alternate (Alt), Escape (Esc).  5.

Special Purpose Keys:  Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys

such   as   Enter,   Shift,   Caps   Lock,   Num   Lock,   Space   bar,   Tab,   and   Print
Screen.                                                                                                            

Note that the exact placement of these keys is up to the keyboard designer,
so variations exist from keyboard to keyboard. 

5.2.2 Mouse: 
Mouse is the most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor­control
device   having   a   small   palm   size  box   with   a   round  ball   at  its   base   which
senses   the   movement   of   mouse   and   sends   corresponding   signals   to   CPU
when   the  mouse  buttons   are  pressed.  However, modern  mice  uses optical
lights.   Optical   mouse   have   replaced   the   round   ball.   Generally   it   has   two
buttons   called   left   and   right   button   and   a   wheel   is   present   between   the
buttons. Mouse can be used to control the position of cursor on screen, but it
cannot be used to enter text into the computer. The advantages of mouse are:
Easy to use, Not very expensive and Moves the cursor faster than the arrow
control keys of keyboard. The mouse can be used for clicking, right clicking,
double clicking, selection, pointing, dragging of objects such as program icons
in the computer system. 
5.2.3 Joystick: 
The   joystick   is   also   a   pointing   device   which   is   used   to   move   the   cursor
position on a monitor screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball at both its
ends, the lower and upper ends, with the lower spherical ball moving in a
socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions and has functions
similar   to   that   of   a   mouse.   It   is   mainly   used   in   Computer   Aided   Design
(CAD) and for playing computer games. 

5.2.4 Light pen:
Light pen is a pointing device which is similar to a pen. It is used to select a
displayed menu item or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a
photocell and an optical system placed in a small tube. When the tip of a
light pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen’s button is pressed,
its   photocell   sensing   element   detects   the   screen   location   and   sends   the
corresponding signal to the CPU.
 

5.2.5 Track ball: 
Track   ball   is   an   input   device   that   is   mostly   used   in   notebook   or   laptop
computer, instead of a mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted. By moving
the fingers on the ball, the pointer can be moved. Since it is not the whole
device that is moved, a track ball will require less space than a mouse. A
track ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a button and a square. 

5.2.6  Microphone: 
A microphone is an input device that enables you to speak into a computer or
mobile   device.   Many   computers   and   most   mobile   devices   contain   built­in
microphones.   You   also   can   talk   into   a   headset,   which   contains   both   a
microphone and a speaker. Many headsets can communicate wirelessly with
the computer or mobile device. 
5.2.7 Digitizer: 
Digitizer   is   an   input   device   which   converts   analog   information   to   digital
form.   Digitizer   can   convert   a   signal   from   the   television   or   camera   into   a
series of numbers that could be stored in a computer. They can be used by
the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had been pointed at.
A  digitizer   converts   graphics   and   pictorial  data  into   binary   inputs   and  is
used for doing fine works of drawing and image manipulation applications. 

5.2.8 Digital Camera:
  A   digital   camera   is   somewhat   similar   to   a   regular   camera.   However,   a
digital camera converts pictures to digital form so they can be used on the
computer   without   a   digitizer.   A   digital   camera   can   also   be   said   to   be   an
output device since it has processing power to display images on its screen. 
5.2.9 Optical Scanner:
A   scanner   is   a   light­sensing   input   device   that   converts   printed   text   and
images   into   a   form   the   computer   can   process.   A   popular   type   of   scanner
works in a manner similar to a copy machine, except that instead of creating
a paper copy of the document or photo, it stores the scanned document or
photo   electronically.   Scanner   captures   images   from   the   source   which   are
then converted into the digital form that can be stored on the disk. These
images can be edited before they are printed. 

5.2.10 Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR): 
MICR   (magnetic­ink   character   recognition)   devices   read   text   printed   with
magnetized ink. An MICR reader converts MICR characters into a form the
computer can process. The banking industry almost exclusively uses MICR
for   check   processing.   Each   check   in   your   checkbook   has   precoded   MICR
characters beginning at the lower­left edge. The main advantages of MICR is
that it is fast and less error prone.   
                                                                    
5.2.11 Optical Character Reader (OCR): 
OCR is an input device used to read a printed text. OCR scans text optically
character   by   character,   converts   them   into   a   machine   readable   code   and
stores the text on the system memory. 

5.2.12 Bar Code Readers:
Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in form of
light  and  dark  lines).   Bar  coded  data is  generally  used in  labeling goods,
numbering the books etc. It may be a hand held scanner or may be embedded
in a stationary scanner. Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it
into an alphanumeric value which is then fed to the computer to which bar
code reader is connected.

5.2.13 Optical Mark Reader (OMR):
OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark
made by pen or pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be
selected and marked. It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of
examinations   having   multiple   choice   questions.   It   is   used   by   examining
bodies such as JAMB and WAEC to mark multiple choice objective questions.

5.2.14 Magstripe Readers
A   magstripe   reader,   short   for   magnetic   stripe   card   reader,   reads   the
magnetic stripe on the back of credit cards, entertainment cards, bank cards,
identification cards, and other similar cards. The stripe contains information
identifying you and the card issuer. Some information stored in the stripe
may include your name, account number, the card’s expiration date, and a
country code.

5.2.15 Touch Screens 
A  touch   screen   is   a   touch­sensitive  display.  Touch   screens  are convenient
because they do not require a separate device for input. Smartphones and
tablets, and many laptops and all­in­ones offer touch screens. 
You can interact with a touch screen by touching areas of the screen with
your finger or a stylus to make selections or to begin typing. Many touch
screens also respond to gestures.
 

5.2.16  Stylus ( Computing Pen) 
A stylus is a small metal or plastic device that looks like a tiny ink pen but
uses   pressure   instead   of   ink.   Nearly   all  tablets   and  mobile   devices,   some
laptop screens, and a few desktop monitors have touch screens that support
pen   input,   in   addition   to   touch   input.   These   computers   and   devices   may
include   a   stylus.   Some   stylus   designs   include   buttons   you   can   press   to
simulate clicking a mouse.                        To capture a handwritten signature,
a user writes his or her name on a signature capture pad with a stylus that
is attached to the device. Software then transmits the signature to a central
computer,   where   the   signature   is   stored.   Retailers   use   signature   capture
pads to record purchasers’ signatures.
 CHAPTER 6 OUTPUT DEVICES

6. Output
Output is data that has been processed into a useful form called information.
That is, a computer processes input into output.  Computer generate several
types  of output,  depending on the hardware and software being used and
requirements of the user. Four common types of output are:

Text: Consist of characters that are used to create words, sentences and 

paragraphs. A character is a letter, number, punctuation mark, or any other 
symbol that requires one byte of computer storage space.                       
Graphics: are digital representation of non­text information such as 

drawings, charts, and photographs.                                                           
Audio:  Is a music, speech or any other sound.                                                   

Video: Consists of images that are played back at speeds that provide the  

appearance of full motion.

6.1 Output Devices 
An output device is any hardware component that conveys information from
a computer or mobile device to one or more people. Some common output
devices   include:   the   visual   display   unit,   printer,   plotter,   speakers   and
projectors. 

6.2 Visual Display Unit: 
A display is an output device that visually conveys text, graphics, and video
information. Displays consist of a screen and the components that produce
the   information   on   the   screen.   The   display   for   a   desktop   typically   is   a
monitor, which is a separate, physical device. Mobile computers and devices
typically  integrate  the  display in their same physical case. Some displays
have   touch   screens.   Home   users   sometimes   use   a   digital   television   or   a
Smart TV as a display. A Smart TV is an Internet­enabled high­definition
television (HDTV) from which you can use the Internet to watch video, listen
to the radio, play games, and communicate with others — all while watching
a television show. There are two kinds of viewing screens used for monitors:
Cathode­Ray   Tube   (CRT)   and   Flat­Panel   Display.
6.2.1 Cathode­Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor 
Cathode­Ray   Tube   (CRT)   Monitor   display  is   made   up   of   small   picture
elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the better the image clarity, or
resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form whole character,
such as the letter ‘e’ in the word help. A finite number of characters can be
displayed   on   a   screen   at   once. The  screen   can   be  divided  into  a series  of
character boxes ­ fixed location on the screen where a standard character can
be   placed.   Most   screens   are   capable   of   displaying   80   characters   of   data
horizontally and 25 lines vertically. There are some disadvantages of CRT
such as been of Large in Size and High power consumption 

6.2.2 Flat­Panel Display Monitor display refers to a class of video devices

that have reduced volume, weight and power requirement in comparison to
the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on your wrists. Current
uses of flat­panel displays include calculators, video games, monitors, laptop
computer display screens, graphics display. These kinds of displays are of
two types: 

• Emissive Displays  ­ The emissive displays are devices that convert
 electrical   energy   into   light.   Examples   are   plasma   panel   and   Light­
Emitting Diodes (LED). 
• Non­Emissive Displays ­ Non­Emissive Displays ­ The Non­emissive

displays use optical effects to convert sunlight or light from some other
source into graphics patterns. Example is Liquid­Crystal Device (LCD) 

6.2.3 Smart TV 
A Smart TV is an Internet­enabled high­definition television (HDTV) from
which   you   can   use   the   Internet   to   watch   video,   listen   to   the   radio,   play
games, and communicate with others — all while watching a television show.
Using a SmartTV, you can stream content from the TV to other Internet­
enabled   devices,   such   as   a   tablet   or   smartphone,   and   use   cloud   storage
services to share content.

6.3 Printers: 
A printer is an output device that produces text and graphics on a physical
medium,   such   as   paper   or   other   material.   Printed   content   sometimes   is
referred to as a hard copy or printout. Most printers today print text and
graphics in both black and white and color on a variety of paper types with
many capable of printing lab quality photos. A variety of printers support
wireless printing, where a computer or other device communicates wirelessly
with the printer. There are two types of printers: Impact Printers and Non­
Impact Printers. 

6.3.1 Impact Printers, An impact printer forms characters and graphics on

a   piece   of   paper   by   striking   a   mechanism   against     an   inked   ribbon   that

physically   contacts   the   paper.   Because   of   the   striking   activity,   impact
printers generally are noisy. Characteristics of Impact Printers are; cheap
consumables, Very noisy, Useful for bulk printing due to low cost, there is
physical contact with the paper to produce an image.
Impact printers are used in many factories and retail counters because they
can   withstand   dusty   environments,   vibration   and   extreme   temperature.
Example Dot Matrix Printer(DMP) and Line Printer
• Dot­Matrix   Printers

The Dot­Matrix printer uses print heads containing from 9 to 24 pins.
These pins produce patterns of dots on the paper to form the individual
characters. The 24 pin dot­matrix printer produces more dots than a 9
pin dot­matrix printer, which results in much better quality and clearer
characters. The general rule is: the more pins, the clearer the letters on
the   paper.   The   pins   strike   the   ribbon   individually   as   the   print
mechanism moves across the entire print line in both directions, i­e,
from left to right, then right to left, and so on. The user can produce a
color output with a dot­matrix printer (the user will change the black
ribbon  with a ribbon that has color stripes). Dot­matrix printers are
inexpensive   and   typically   print   at   speeds   of   50­700   characters   per
 second.                                                                                   
• Line   printers

In   business   where   enormous   amount   of   material   are   printed,   the

character­at­a­time printers are too slow; therefore, these users need
line­at­a­time   printers.   Line   printers,   or   line­at­a­time   printers,   use
special   mechanism   that   can   print   a   whole   line   at   once;   they   can
typically   print   the   range   of   1,200   to   6,000   lines   per   minute.   These
printers   are   often   used   with   mainframe,   minicomputers,   or   with   a
network   in   applications   such   as   manufacturing,   distribution   or
shipping.
6.3.2   Non­impact   Printers,  A   Non­impact   printer   forms   characters   and

graphics on a piece of paper without actually striking the paper. Some spray
ink,   while   others   use   heat   and   pressure   to   create   images.   Because   these
printers   do   not   strike   the   paper,   they   are   much   quieter   than   the   impact
printers. Some of the characteristics of Non­impact Printers are speed, not
noisy,   high   quality   printouts,   support   many   fonts   and   different   character
size. Example Laser Printers and  Inkjet Printers.
• Inkjet Printers
Ink­jet printers work in the same fashion as dot­matrix printers in the
form   images   or   characters   with   little   dots.   However,   the   dots   are
formed   by   tiny   droplets   of   ink.   Ink­jet   printers   form   characters   on
paper by spraying ink from tiny nozzles through an electrical field that
arranges   the   charged   ink   particles   into   characters   at   the   rate   of
approximately 250 characters per second. The ink is absorbed into the
paper and dries instantly. Various colors of ink can also be used.
•  LaserPrinter                                                                                           
A laser printer works like a photocopy machine. Laser printers produce
 images on paper by directing a laser beam at a mirror which bounces
the beam onto a drum. The drum has a special coating on it to which
toner (an ink powder) sticks. Using patterns of small dots, a laser beam
conveys information from the computer to a positively charged drum to
become   neutralized.   From   all   those   areas   of   drum   which   become
neutralized, the toner detaches. As the paper rolls by the drum, the
toner is transferred to the paper printing the letters or other graphics
on the paper. A hot roller bonds the toner to the paper.

6.3.3 Plotters:
Plotters   are  sophisticated  printers  used  to  produce high­quality  drawings,
such as blueprints, maps, and circuit diagrams. These printers are used in
specialized   fields   such   as   engineering   and   drafting   and   usually   are   very
costly.

6.3.4  3­D Printers
A   3­D   printer   uses   a   process   called   additive   manufacturing   to   create   an
object by adding material to a three­dimensional object, one horizontal layer
at a time. 3­D printers can print solid objects, such as clothing, prosthetics,
eyewear, implants, toys, parts, prototypes, and more. A 3­D printer can print
solid  objects,   such   as   clothing, prosthetics, eyewear, implants, toys,  parts,
prototypes,   and   more.   3­D   printers   use   a  plastic   substance   that   prints   in
layers to create a 3­D (three­ dimensional) model.

6.4 Speakers:
Speakers provide audio output. Speakers change the electrical signals from
sound files and convert them into sound waves that we can hear. Once a
sound file is recorded, speakers can be used to listen to the music or other
sound. 
6.5 Projectors:
A projector is a device that is connected to a computer or a video device for
projecting an image from the computer or video device onto the big white
screen. A projector consists of an optic system, a light source and displays,
which contain the original images. Projects were initially used for showing
films but now they are used on a large scale for displaying presentations in
various situations.
6.5 Interactive Whiteboards 
An interactive whiteboard is a touch­sensitive device, resembling a dry­erase
board that displays the image on a connected computer screen, usually via a
projector.   A   presenter   controls   the   program   by   clicking   a   remote   control,
touching   the   whiteboard,   drawing   on   or   erasing   the   whiteboard   with   a
special digital pen and eraser, or writing on a special tablet. Notes written on
the   interactive   whiteboard   can   be   saved   directly   on   the   computer   and/or
printed.
 CHAPTER 7  STORAGE

7. Storage
Storage,   also   called   secondary   storage,   auxiliary   storage   or   mass   storage,
holds   items   such   as   data,   instructions,   and   information   for   future   use.
Storage is non­volatile, which means that items in storage are retained even
when the power is removed from the computer. For example, computers can
store hundreds or millions of student names and addresses permanently. 
A   computer   keeps   data,   instructions,   and   information   on   storage   media.
Storage media are physical materials on which items are kept. Examples of
local   storage   media   include   hard   disks,   solid­state   drives,   USB   (universal
serial bus) flash drives, memory cards, and optical discs. 

A storage device records (writes) and/or retrieves (reads) items to and from
storage media. Storage devices often also function as a source of input and
output because they transfer items from storage to memory and vice versa.
Drives   and   readers/writers,   which   are   types   of   storage   devices,   accept   a
specific kind of storage media. For example, a DVD drive (storage device)
accepts a DVD (storage media).

7.1 Hard Disk
A hard disk is a storage device that contains one or more inflexible, circular
platters   that   use   magnetic   particles   to   store   data,   instructions,   and
information.   The   entire   device   is   enclosed   in   an   airtight,   sealed   case   to
protect it from contamination. Laptops and desktops often contain at least
one hard disk that is mounted inside the computer’s case. 
7.2 Solid­State Drives 
A solid­state drive (SSD) is a storage device that typically uses flash memory
to   store   data,   instructions,   and   information.   Flash   memory   contains   no
moving parts, making it more durable and shock resistant than other types
of media. For this reason, some manufacturers are using SSDs instead of
hard disks in their laptops, tablets, and desktops.

7.3 Optical Disc
An   optical   disc   is   a   type   of   storage   media   that   consists   of   a   flat,   round,
portable metal disc made of metal, plastic, and lacquer that is written and
read by a laser. CDs (Compact Discs) and DVDs (Digital Versatile Discs) are
two types of optical discs.

7.4 Tapes
One of the first storage media used with mainframe computers was magnetic
tapes, a magnetically coated ribbon of plastic capable of storing large amount
of data and information at a low cost. Tape storage requires sequential 
access, which refers to reading or writing data consecutively. Like a music 
tape, you must forward or rewind the tape to  a specific point to access a 
specific piece of data.

7.5 Cloud Storage
Instead of storing data, instructions, and information locally on a hard drive
or other media, some users opt for cloud storage. Cloud storage is an Internet
service that provides remote storage to computer users. 

Types   of   services   offered   by   cloud   storage   providers   vary.   Some   provide

storage for specific types of media, such as photos, whereas others store any
content and provide backup services. A backup is a duplicate of content on a
storage medium that you can use in case the original is lost, damaged, or
destroyed.

7.6 USB Flash Drive
A USB flash drive is a portable flash memory storage device that you plug in 
a USB port, which is a special, easily accessible opening on a computer or 
mobile device. 

USB flash drives are convenient for mobile users because they are small and 

lightweight enough to be transported on a keychain or in a pocket.
 CHAPTER 8 COMPUTER SOFTWARE

8. Introduction

Software, also called a computer program or simply a program, is a series of
instructions that tells the hardware of a computer what to do. For example,
some instructions direct the computer to allow you to input data from the
keyboard and store it in memory. Other instructions cause data stored in
memory to be used  in  calculations such as adding a series of numbers to
obtain a total. Some instructions compare two values stored in memory and
direct the computer to perform alternative operations based on the results of
the comparison; and some instructions direct the computer to print a report,
display information on the monitor, draw a color graph on the monitor, or
store information on a disk. 
Before a computer can perform, or execute, a program, the instructions in the
program   must   be   placed,   or   loaded,   into   the   memory   of   the   computer.
Usually, they are loaded into memory from storage. For example, a program
might be loaded from the hard disk of a computer into memory for execution. 
When you purchase a program, such as one that contains legal documents,
you will receive one or more CD­ROMs, or a single DVD­ROM on which the
software is stored. To use this software, you often must install the software
on the computer’s hard disk.
Sometimes, a program can be loaded in memory directly from a CD­ROM or
DVD­ROM   so   you   do   not   have   to   install   it   on   a   hard   disk   first.   When
computer. It usually has some software already installed on its disk. Thus,
you can use the computer as soon as you receive it.
Software   is   the   key   to   productive   use   of   computers.   With   the   correct
software, a computer can become a valuable tool. Software can be categorized
into   three   types:   System   Software,   Application   Software   and   Utility
Program. The following sections describe these categories of software.

Softwares

System Application Utility

Softwares Softwares programs

8.1 System Software
System software, which consists of programs that control the operations of
the computer and its devices, serves as the interface between a user and the
computer’s hardware. It is also a collection of programs designed to operate,
control and extend the processing capabilities of the computer itself. It also
facilitates   the   optimal   use   of   the   hardware   systems.   System   software   are
generally   prepared   by   computer   manufacturers   and   software   developers.
These software comprise of programs written in low level languages which
interact with the hardware at a very basic level. System software serves as
the   interface   between   hardware   and   the   end   users.   Three   main   types   of
system   software   are   the   Operating   System,   Language   Translators   and
Utility Programs. .
8.1.1 Operating System
The   operating   system   contains   instructions   that   coordinate   all   of   the
activities   of   hardware   devices.   The   operating   system   also   contains
instructions that allow you to run application software. Microsoft Windows is
the   name   of   a   popular   operating   system   that   is   used   on   many   of   today’s
computers.
When you start a computer, the operating system is loaded, or copied, into
memory from the computer’s hard disk. It remains in the memory  while the
computer is running and allows you to communicate with the computer and
other software.
To   use   applications,   such   as   a   browser   or   word   processing   program   on   a
desktop   or   laptop,   your   computer   must   be   running   an   operating   system.
Similarly,  a mobile device must be running an operating system to run a
mobile app, such as a navigation or payment app. Desktop operating systems
include Mac OS, Windows, Linux, and Chrome OS. Mobile operating systems
include Android, iOS, and Windows Phone. The operating system, therefore,
serves   as   the   interface   between   the   user,   the   applications   and   other
programs, and the computer’s or mobile device’s hardware.
The functions of an OS are: 
• starting and shutting down computers 
• providing a user interface, 
• managing programs, 
• managing memory, 
• coordinating tasks, 
• configuring devices, 
• monitoring performance, 
• establishing an Internet connection,
• updating operating system software, 
• providing file and disk management tools,
•  controlling a network, 
• administering security.
8.1.2 Language Translators:
A   language   translator   is   a   software   that   converts   source   code   programs
written   in   a   particular   language   to   object   code   that   the   computer
understands.   Language   translators   are   generally   of   three   (3)   types.
Assemblers, Interpreters and Compilers. 
• Assemblers: An assembler converts an assembly language source code

program into machine language code which is also known as object code
or object program. 
• Interpreters:  An interpreter is a program that translates high level

language program source codes into machine language, one line at a
time and then execute. Example of an Interpreter is QBASIC, etc. 
• Compilers:  A   compiler   is   a   program   that   translates   an   entire   high

level language program source codes into machine language code before
execution. Examples of compilers are Turbo Pascal Compiler, Borland
C++ compiler, etc.
8.1.3 Utility Programs
A utility program is a type of system software that performs a specific task
usually   related   to   managing   a   computer,   Its   devices   or   its   programs.   An
example   of   a   utility   program   is an  uninstaller,  which  removes  a program
that   has   been   installed   on   a   computer.   Most   operating   systems   include
several   utility   programs   for   managing   disk   drives,   printers,   and   other
devices. You also can buy stand­alone utility programs to perform additional
computer management functions.    
8.2 Application Software: 

Application  software is  a  set of programs designed to solve problems of a

specific nature. It could either be supplied by the computer manufacturer,
software developers or in some cases the users produce their own application
program   called   USER   PROGRAMS.   Hence,   application   software   could   be
subdivided into two classes, namely; Generalized and User­defined Software.
A.   Generalized   software:  There   are   so   many   generalized   software

packages around, virtually for every field of study but few are listed below.
Advantages   of   these   packages  include  quick  and  cheaper   implementation,
time saving, minimum time for its design, they have been tested and proven
to be correct, they are usually accompanied by full documentation and are
also very portable. These include but not limited to: 
1. Text Editors (Word Processor):  A Word Processor is used to create,

edit, save and print reports. It affords the opportunity to make amendments
before printing is done. During editing, a character, a word, a sentence or a
number  of   lines   can   be  removed or inserted as the case may be. Another
facility possible is spell checking. A document can be printed as many times
as possible. Word processors are mainly used to produce: Letters, Mailing
lists, Label, Greeting Cards, Business Cards, Reports, Manual, Newsletter.
Examples are: WordPerfect, WordStar, Display Writer, Professional Writer,
LOTUS   Manuscript,   Ms­Word,  LOCO   Script,   MM   Advantage  II,   Notepad,
etc. 
2.   Spreadsheet:  Is   an   application   mainly   designed   for   manipulation   of

numerical figures and reports. Spreadsheets contain columns and rows, in
which   numbers   can   be   entered.   It   is   possible   to   change   numbers   before
printing   is   done.   Other   features   of   spread   sheets   is   the   ability   to   use
formulas   to   calculate.   Sum   and   average   functions   are   available   for   use.
Ability to perform automatic recalculation and has the capacity to display
reports   in   graphical   modes.   Spreadsheet   is   used   for   Budget   preparation,
Tables, Cost analysis, 
Financial reports, Tax and Statistical analysis. Examples are: LOTUS 123,
Supercalc, MS Multiplan, MS­excel, VP Planner etc. 
3. Integrated Packages:  They are programs or packages that perform a

variety of different processing operations using data that is compatible with
whatever   operation   is   being   carried   out.   They   perform   a   number   of
operations like Word Processing, Data­base 
Management   and   Spread   sheeting.   Examples   are:   Office   writer,   Logistic
Symphony, Framework, Enable, Ability, Smartware II, Microsoft Work V2. 
4.   Graphic   Packages:  These   are   packages   that   enable   you   to   bring   out

images, diagrams and pictures. Examples are PM, PM Plus, Graphic Writer,
Photoshop. 
5.   Database   Packages:  It   is   software   for   designing,   setting   up   and

subsequently managing a database. (A database is an organized collection of
data   that   allows   for   modification   taking   care   of   different   users   view).
Examples are Dbase II, III, IV, FoxBASE, Rbase Data Perfect, Paradox III,
Revelation Advanced and MS­Access, Sybase, Oracle, Postgree, etc. 
6.   Statistical   Packages:  These   are   packages   that   can   be   used   to   solve

statistical   problems,   e.g.   Stat   graphical,   SPSS   (Statistical   Packages   for

Social Scientists). 
7. Desktop Publishing:  These are packages that can be used to produce

books and documents in standard form. Examples are PageMaker, Ventura,
Publishers,   Paints   Brush,   Xerox   Form   Base,   News   Master   II,   Dbase
Publisher. 
8.   Game   Packages:  These   are   packages   that   contain   a   lot   of   games   for

children and adults. Examples are Chess, Scrabble, Monopoly, Tune Trivia,
Star   Trek   2,   California   Game,   Soccer   Game,   War   Game,   Spy   Catcher
Dracula in London, etc. 
9. Communication Packages: Examples are Carbon Plus, Data talk V3.3,

Cross talk, SAGE, Chit Chat, Data Soft, etc.

B.   User­defined:  We   could   have   some   User­defined   packages   for   a

particular   company   or   organization,   for   accounting,   payroll   or   some   other

specialized purposes, e.g. FUD Payroll System, etc.
 CHAPTER 9 INTERNET TECHNOLOGY

9.1 The Internet
The Internet is a worldwide collection of networks that connects millions of
businesses, government agencies, educational institutions, and individuals.
Each   of   the   networks   on   the   Internet   provides   resources   that   add   to   the
abundance of goods, services, and information accessible via the Internet.

9.2 Evolution of the Internet
The Internet has its roots in a networking project started by the Pentagon’s
Advanced   Research   Projects   Agency   (ARPA),   an   agency   of   the   U.S.
Department of Defense. ARPA’s goal was to build a network that:
(1) allowed scientists at different physical locations to share information and
work together on military and scientific projects and 
(2) could function even if part of the network were disabled or destroyed by a
disaster such as a nuclear attack.
That   network,   called   ARPANET,   became   functional   in   September   1969,
linking
scientific and academic researchers across the United States.
The original ARPANET consisted of four main computers, one each located
at the University of California at Los Angeles, the University of California at
Santa Barbara, the Stanford Research Institute, and the University of Utah.
Each of these computers served as a host on the network.
A   host,   more   commonly   known   today   as   a   server,   is   any   computer   that
provides services and connections to other computers on a network. Hosts
often use high­speed communications to transfer data and messages over a
network.   By   1984,   ARPANET   had   more   than   1,000   individual   computers
linked as hosts. Today, millions of hosts connect to this network, which now
is known as the Internet.

9.3 Connecting to the Internet
Users   can   connect   their   computers   and   mobile   devices   to   the   Internet
through wired or wireless technology and then access its services free or for a
fee. With wired connections, a computer or device physically attaches via a
cable or wire to a communications device, such as a modem, that transmits
data and other items over transmission media to the Internet. For wireless
connections, many mobile computers and devices include the necessary built­
in technology so that they can transmit data and other items wirelessly.

Today,  users  often  connect  to the Internet via broadband Internet service

because   of   its   fast   data   transfer   speeds   and   its   always­on   connection.
Through broadband Internet service, users can download webpages quickly,
play online games, communicate in real time with others, and more.

Many   public   locations,   such   as   shopping   malls,   coffee   shops,   restaurants,

schools, airports, hotels, and city parks have Wi­Fi hot spots. A hot spot is a
wireless network that provides Internet connections to mobile computers and
devices. Although most hot spots enable unrestricted or open access, some
require that users agree to terms of service, obtain a password (for example,
from the hotel’s front desk), or perform some other action in order to connect
to the Internet.

9.4 How Data Travels the Internet

Computers and devices connected to the Internet work together to transfer
data   around   the   world   using   servers   and   clients   and   various   wired   and
wireless transmission media. On the Internet, your computer or device is a
client   that   can   access   data   and   services   on   a   variety   of   servers.   Wired
transmission media includes phone line, coaxial cable, and fiber­optic cable.
Wireless transmission media includes radio waves and satellite signals.
The inner structure of the Internet works much like a transportation system.
Just as interstate highways connect major cities and carry the bulk of the
automotive traffic across the country, several main transmission media carry
the heaviest amount of traffic, or communications activity, on the Internet.
These major carriers of network traffic are known collectively as the Internet
backbone.

9.5 IP Addresses and Domain Names
The Internet relies on an addressing system much like the postal service to
send data to a computer or device at a specific destination. An IP address,
short for Internet Protocol address, is a sequence of numbers that uniquely
identifies the location of each computer or device connected to the Internet.

The   domain   name   system   (DNS)   is   the   method   that   the   Internet   uses   to
store domain names and their corresponding IP addresses. When you enter a
domain name  (i.e.,  google.com) in a browser, a DNS server translates the
domain name to its associated IP address so that the request can be routed
to the correct compute. A DNS server is a server on the Internet that usually
is associated with an ISP.

9.6 The World Wide Web
While the Internet was developed in the late 1960s, the World Wide Web
emerged in the early 1990s as an easier way to access online information
using a browser. Since then, it has grown phenomenally to become one of the
more widely used services on the Internet.
The World Wide Web (WWW), or web, consists of a worldwide collection of
electronic   documents.   Each   electronic   document   on   the   web   is   called   a
webpage, which can contain text, graphics, animation, audio, and video.
A website is a collection of related webpages and associated items, such as
documents and photos, stored on a web server. A web server is a computer
that   delivers   requested   webpages   to  your   computer   or   mobile   device.   The
same web server can store multiple websites.
9.7 Navigating the Web
A browser is an application that enables users with an Internet connection to
access and view webpages on a computer or mobile device. Internet­capable
mobile devices such as smartphones use a special type of browser, called a
mobile   browser,   which   is   designed   for   their   smaller   screens   and   limited
computing   power.   Many   websites   can   detect   if   you   are   accessing   their
content on a mobile device

9.8 Web Addresses
A  webpage  has   a   unique  address, called  a web address or URL  (Uniform
Resource Locator).
For   example,   the   web   address   of   http://www.nps.gov   identifies   the   U.S.
Department   of   the   Interior   National   Park   Service   home   page.   A   browser
retrieves a webpage using its web address.

9.9 Web Apps and Mobile Apps
A web app is an application stored on a web server that you access through a
browser.   Users   typically   interact   with   web   apps   directly   on   a   website,
sometimes referred to as the host. Web app hosts usually provide storage for
users’ data and information on their servers, known as cloud storage.
Many web app hosts provide free access to their software. Others offer part
of   their   web   app   free   and   charge   for   access   to   a   more   comprehensive
program. Many include advertisements in the free version and charge for an
advertisement­free   version.   A   mobile   app   is   an   application   you   download
from   a   mobile   device’s   app   store   or   other   location   on   the   Internet   to   a
smartphone   or   other   mobile   device.   Mobile   apps   often   take   advantage   of
features of the device, such as touch screens, digital cameras, microphones,
and embedded GPS receivers, to enable you to enter and capture data.
9.10 Types of Websites
The   web   contains   several   types   of   websites:   search   engines;   online   social
networks;  informational and research; media sharing; bookmarking; news,
weather, sports, and other mass media; educational; business, governmental,
and   organizational;   blogs;   wikis   and   collaboration;   health   and   fitness;
science; entertainment; banking and finance; travel and tourism; mapping;
retail and auctions; careers and employment; e­commerce; portals; content
aggregation; and website creation and management.
Many websites fall into more than one of these types. All of these websites
can be accessed from computers or mobile devices but often are formatted
differently and may have fewer features on mobile devices.

9.10.1 Search Engines
A   web   search   engine   is   software   that   finds   websites,   webpages,   images,
videos,  news, maps,  and other information related to a specific topic. You
also can use a search engine to solve mathematical equations, define words,
and more.
Thousands   of   search   engines   are  available.  Some  search   engines,  such   as
Bing, Google, and Yahoo!, are helpful in locating information on the web for
which you do not know an exact web address or are not seeking a specific
website. Those that work with GPS devices or services are location based,
meaning   they   display   results   related   to   the   device’s   current   geographical
position.
Search engines typically allow you to search for one or more of the following
items:
• Images: photos, diagrams, and drawings
• Videos: home videos, music videos, television programs, and movie clips
• Maps: maps of a business or address, or driving directions to a destination
• Audio: music, songs, recordings, and sounds
• Publications: news articles, journals, and books
• People or Businesses: addresses and phone numbers
• Blogs: specific opinions and ideas of others
9.10.2 Informational and Research

9.10.3 Media Sharing

A media sharing site is a website that enables members to manage and share
media such as photos, videos, and music.
9.10.4 News, Weather, Sports, and Other Mass Media

News, weather, sports, and other mass media websites contain newsworthy
material,   including   stories   and   articles   relating   to   current   events,   life,
money, politics, weather.

9.10.5 Educational
An educational website offers exciting, challenging avenues for formal and
informalteaching and learning. The web contains thousands of tutorials from
learning how to fly airplanes to learning how to cook a meal. For a more
structured   learning   experience,   companies   provide   online   training   to
employees,  and colleges  offer  online classes and degrees. Instructors often
use the web to enhance classroom teaching by publishing course materials,
grades, and other pertinent class information.

9.10.6 Business, Governmental, and Organizational

A business website contains content that increases brand awareness, provides company
background or other information, and/or promotes or sells products or services. Nearly
every enterprise has a business website.

9.10.7 Blogs

A blog (short for weblog) is an informal website consisting of time­stamped
articles,   or   posts,   in   a   diary   or   journal   format,   usually   listed   in   reverse
chronological order. The term blogosphere refers to the worldwide collection
of blogs. A blog that contains video sometimes is called a video blog, or vlog.
A microblog allows users to publish short messages usually between 100 and
200 characters, for others to read. The collection of a user’s Tweets, or posts
on Twitter, for example, forms a microblog Similar to an editorial section in a
newspaper,   blogs   reflect   the   interests,   opinions,   and   personalities   of   the
author,   called   the   blogger,   and   sometimes   website   visitors.   Blogs   have
become   an   important   means   of   worldwide   communications.   Businesses
create blogs to communicate with employees, customers, and vendors. They
may post announcements of new information on a corporate blog. Teachers
create   blogs   to   collaborate   with   other   teachers   and   students.   Home   users
create blogs to share aspects of their personal lives with family, friends, and
others.

9.10.8 Wikis and Collaboration

Whereas blogs are a tool for publishing and sharing messages, wikis enable
users   to   organize,   edit,   and   share   information.   A   wiki   is   a   type   of
collaborative website that allows users to create, add, modify, or delete the
website content via a browser. Wikis can include articles, documents, photos,
or videos.
9.10.9 Science

9.10.10 Banking and Finance

Online   banking   and   online   trading   enable   users   to   access   their   financial
records   from   anywhere   in   the   world,   as   long   as   they   have   an   Internet
connection.   Using   online   banking,   users   can   access   accounts,   pay   bills,
transfer   funds,   calculate   mortgage   payments,   and   manage   other   financial
activities from their computer or mobile device.
9.10.11 Mapping

Several mapping website and web apps exist that enable you to display up­
to­date   maps   by   searching   for   an   address,   postal   code,   phone   number,   or
point of interest (such as an airport, lodging, or historical site). The maps can
be displayed in a variety of views, including terrain, aerial, maps, streets,
buildings, traffic, and weather. These websites also provide directions when
a user enters a starting and destination point.

9.10.12 Retail and Auctions

You can purchase just about any product or service on the web, a process
that   sometimes   is   called   e­retail   (short   for   electronic   retail).   To   purchase
online,   the   customer   visits   the   business’s   electronic   storefront,   which
contains   product   descriptions,   images,  and   a shopping  cart   .The  shopping
cart allows the customer to collect purchases. When ready to complete the
sale, the customer enters personal data and the method of payment, which
should be through a secure Internet connection.

9.11 Digital Media on the Web
Most   webpages   include   multimedia,   which   refers   to   any   application   that
combines text with media. Media includes graphics, animation, audio, video,
and/or virtual reality.

The web often uses infographics to present concepts, products, and news. An
infographic (short for information graphic) is a visual representation of data
or information, designed to communicate quickly, simplify complex concepts,
or present patterns or trends. Many forms of infographics exist: maps, signs,
charts, and diagrams.
9.11.1 Email

Email (short for electronic mail) is the transmission of messages and files via
a computer network. Email was one of the original services on the Internet,
enabling   scientists   and   researchers   working   on   government­sponsored
projects to communicate with colleagues at other locations.
You use an email program to create, send, receive, forward, store, print, and
delete email messages. Email programs are available as desktop apps, web
apps, and mobile apps. An email message can be simple text or can include
an attachment such as a document, a graphic, an audio clip, or a video clip.
9.11.2 Internet Messaging
Internet   messaging   services,  which   often   occur   in   real­time,   are
communications   services   that   notify   you   when   one   or   more   of   your
established contacts are online and then allows you to exchange messages or
files or join a private chatroom with them.

9.11.3 Chat Rooms

A chat is a real­time typed conversation that takes place on a computer or
mobile  device  with   many  other online  users.  A chat room  is  a website  or
application that permits users to chat with others who are online at the same
time.   A   server   echoes   the   user’s   message   to   everyone   in   the   chat   room.
Anyone in the chat room can participate in the conversation, which usually is
specific   to   a   particular   topic.     Businesses   sometimes   use   chat   rooms   to
communicate with customers.
As you type on your keyboard, others connected to the same chat room server
also see what you have typed. Some chat rooms support voice chats and video
chats, in which people hear or see each other as they chat.
CHAPTER 10  CONCEPTS AND PROPERTIES OF ALGORITHM AND
FLOWCHART
10.1 Origin Of The Word “Algorithm”
The word algorithm comes from the name of the 9th century Persian Muslim
mathematician   Abu   Abdullah   Muhammad   ibn   Musa   Al­Khwarizmi.   The
word algorism originally referred only to the rules of performing arithmetic
using Hindu­Arabic numerals but evolved via European Latin translation of
Al­Khwarizmi's   name   into   algorithm   by  the   18th   century.   The   use   of   the
word   evolved   to   include   all   definite  procedures   for   solving   problems   or
performing tasks.

10.2 Definition of an Algorithms
An algorithm is an ordered set of unambiguous, executable steps that defines
a  terminating  process.   An   algorithm   is   a  step­by­step   procedure  that   will
always produce a correct solution. A mathematical formula is a good example
of a problem­solving algorithm. While an algorithm guarantees an accurate
answer, it is not always the best approach to problem solving. This strategy
is not practical for many situations because it can be so time­consuming. For
example,   if   you   were   trying   to  figure   out   all   of   the   possible   number
combinations to a lock using an algorithm, it would take a very long time.
A representation of an algorithm is called a program. For the convenience of
humans, computer programs are usually printed on paper or displayed on
computer screens. For the convenience of machines, programs are encoded in
a   manner   compatible   with   the   technology   of   the  machine.   The   process   of
developing a program, encoding it in machine­compatible form, and inserting
it into a machine is called programming.Programs, and the algorithms
they   represent,   are   collectively   referred  to   as   software,   in   contrast   to   the
machinery itself, which is known as hardware.

10.3 Properties of Algorithm:­
 It is written in simple English.
 Each step of an algorithm is unique and should be self explanatory.
 An algorithm must have at least one input.
 An algorithm must have at least one output.
 An algorithm has finite number of steps.
 It should provide the correct solutions
 Should have an end point
Examples 1: Write an algorithm to determine a student’s final grade and
indicate whether it is passing or failing. The final grade is calculated as the
average of four marks.
Solution 1:
Algorithm
 Step 1: Input M1,M2,M3,M4
 Step 2: GRADE  (M1+M2+M3+M4)/4
 Step 3: if (GRADE < 50) then
Print “FAIL”
else
Print “PASS”
Endif

Example 2: Write an algorithm and draw a flowchart to convert the length in

feet to centimeter.

Solution 2:

Algorithm
 Step 1: Input Lft
 Step 2: Lcm  Lft x 30
 Step 3: Print Lcm

Example 3: Write an algorithm and draw a flowchart to calculate the area of a rectangle.

Solution 3:
Algorithm
 Step 1: Input W,L
 Step 2: A L x W
 Step 3: Print A
10.4 Program Flow Chart
Program Flow Chart is a graphical representation of the program logic in
solving a problem. It uses the standard symbols in designing the input,
process and output of a program. Program flowcharts show the sequence of
instructions in a single program or subroutine. Different symbols are used to
draw each type of flowchart. Steps are described in boxes of various kinds,
and their order indicated by connecting them with arrows. Flowcharts are
used in analyzing, designing, documenting or managing a process or program.
10.5 Symbols used in Program Flow Chart
The table below shows the symbols used in drawing the Program Flow Chart:
1) A program requires the user to enter two numbers num1and num2. The
program then calculates the answer by dividing num1by num2, and displays
the result before it terminates. The diagram below shows the design of the
program using the flowchart.

Start

Get num 1

Get num 2

Answer =
num1 /num2

Display
Result

Stop
2) Draw a flowchart for a program that convert the length in feet to
centimeter.

Start

Input Lft

Lcm= L
ft
x 30

Print Lcm

Stop

3) Draw a flowchart for a program to calculate the area of a rectangle.

Start

Input L, W

A= Lx W

Print A

Stop