INTRODUCTION

The Mauryan era saw the culmination of the Vedic era's societal structure centred on Varna and
Ashrama. At this time, the Brahmanas reclaimed their lost social status. The Mauryan
civilization is divided into seven sections by Megasthenes: scholars, fishermen, herders, artisans,
warriors, magistrates, and councillors. Since no one was able to marry from outside his section or
alter his occupation, they were perceived as ethnic groups. Let's take a closer look at them.
Brahmanas and Shramanas became the thinkers. The Shramanas is comprised of spiritualists,
priests, and adherents of different religions. The thinkers were not taxed. Farmers comprised
landlords, Shudra growers, and agricultural workers. The herders have been almost certainly
subsistence farmers, who made up a sizable portion of the Mauryan population. The artisans'
status was determined by their unique craft. Metalworkers, for example, were accorded a higher
status than artisans and carvers. Troops comprised the majority of society's population. Apart
from Kshatriyas, members of the lower castes were named as infantry soldiers, charioteers, and
attendants. Judges and legislators played a significant role in the organizational apparatus and
were chosen from either the Brahmana or Kshatriya castes. However, Megasthenes' proposed
social compositions might not be as straightforward, as Brahmanical and Buddhist scriptures
include divergent opinions on caste separation.1

Female were involved in a variety of tasks in the Mauryan Empire. They served as the king's
security detail, agents, and entertainers. Employment was done for impoverished and divorced
women higher castes women, abandoned wives, and elderly prostitutes. Additionally, we have a
few women ascetics. Kautilya kept on collecting tax from prostitutes, implying that they were
numerous throughout the Empire. According to textual evidence, the plurality of women in
patriarchal societies were expected to submit to the desires of their male family members.

Theology in ancient Greece was polytheistic, presuming the existence of many gods and
goddesses, as well as a variety of smaller divine entities of varying forms. There was an order of
deities, with Zeus, the king of the gods, exercising certain authority over the others, despite the
fact that he was not all-powerful. Religion was intimate, direct, and pervasive in the ancient
Greek world. With structured ceremonies that involved livestock sacrifices and libations,
1
Majumdar, R.C., Raychaudhuri, H.C., Datta, K. (1986). An Advanced History of India. New Delhi, Macmillan
India Ltd.
mythology that explained the history of humanity and humanised the gods, temples that ruled the
metropolitan environment, city markets, and national athletic and artistic contests, religion was
never far from an ancient Greek's view. While each person may have formed their own opinion
on the extent to which they believed in God and some may have been fully agnostic, certain
fundamentals had to be widely accepted in order for Greek government and civilization to
function: gods existed, they had the ability to control human relations, and they encouraged and
reacted to actions of piety and worship.

RESEARCH QUESTION

1. Whether religious freedom was present in Maurya Empire?

2. Whether religious development in the Mauryan period helped differents sects to live in
harmony?
3. Whether forced religion is beneficial to the states?

HYPOTHESIS

1. Religious freedom helps in protects people’s right to live, speak, and act according to
their beliefs peacefully and publicly.
2. It protects their ability to be themselves at work, in class, and at social activities
3. Religious freedom benefits both individuals and communities.
4. Restricting religious freedom may led to chaos in the society.

BOOK REVIEW

Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas Paperback – 1 January 1998 by Thapar Romila
(Author)

The Mauryan era is regarded as the first sub continent empire, requiring government capable of
adapting to an evolving political economy, correspondence capable of covering a subcontinental
region, and modern intellectual efforts to win favour from a multi-cultural populace. This book
offers a new perspective on early India's past and its links to later innovations. It covers the
Mauryas' past but focuses on Asoka's reign and events. In a lengthy Afterword, the author
explores scholarship in this field since the book's initial release.
Mookerji, Radhakumud. Chandragupta Maurya and His Times. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass,
1966. Print.

This is a detailed work on the life and times of India's first recorded monarch, as well as a
portrait of India's culture in the 4th century BC. The author made extensive use of information
from Arthasastra. Additionally, the work entails the conglomeration and evaluation of data from
a variety of references, including traditional Vedic books, Buddhist and Jaina writings, and
Asoka's inscriptions. The book details Chandragupta Maurya's life and government in depth. It
has included nearly any area of government, including the monarch, ministers, and soldiers, as
well as the land structure and rural enforcement, as well as municipal administration, the origin
of legislation and administration of justice, and the army and its organization. Additionally, the
social and economic dynamics of the day have been extensively explored. The extensive contents
acts as a topic index; the other sections include an index of technical words, three appendices
that enhance the book's usefulness, and a plate of common Mauryan coins.

Cassander of Macedon: The Life and Legacy of the King Who Ruled Greece after the Death
of Alexander the Great by Charles River Editors

This book explain the life style of th king and explains how he was a Cassander Macedonian
general who fought in the Diadochi Wars, and for a while, it seemed as if he might be the
Macedonians' greatest victor. Cassander became king of Macedon, exercised full control over the
majority of southern Greece, and was courted by the other kings and generals during their wars.
Even though he was smaller than the majority of Alexander's other commanders and was not
automatically regarded as a "successor" leader, he was the son of Antipater, one of Alexander's
most famous strategists. Maybe as a result of his upbringing, Cassander was willing to
consistently demonstrate his worth on the frontline before he gained the admiration of his peers.
However, Cassander's reign came to an abrupt end owing to shifting alliances and the
continuously shifting political structures in the Hellenic nation.

Cassander of Macedon: The Life and Legacy of the King Who Ruled Greece After Alexander
the Great examines his turbulent reign and the impact he had on the world after Alexander's
death. Along with photographs of significant individuals, locations, and activities, you can gain a
new perspective on Cassander.

COMPARATIVE STUDY

RELIGION AND CULTURE

Culture and religion played a significant role in the Mauryan era. We will now examine the
religious climate and cultural evolution of India during the Mauryan era in this portion.

Religious Condition of the Mauryan Empire

Religion and culture played a significant role in the Mauryan era. There were numerous religious
groups during the Mauryan time. During the Mauryan era, Brahmanism was a significant belief.
Along with it all, Buddhism and Jainism started to play a major role in the personal beliefs
existence. Several separate religious organizations were also practised by some people, including
Ajivika, Shramanas, and Nirgrantha. The Ajivikas were devoted Mahavira Swami devotees.
They acted in the manner of the nude saints. The Shramanas were also Mahavira Swami's
disciples. They were content to subsist on fruits that fell to the field. The Nirgrantha were those
that had severed all links with the earth.

Among such sects, Buddhism rose to prominence under Asoka's patronage. Nonetheless,
Brahmanism remained dominant in the culture. The Vedas did not entirely lose their sway over
the populace. Kautilya extolled the virtues of the Vedic way of life. We include references to the
worship of many deities in the Arthasastra. Prostration in front of the idol and giving offerings of
flowers and incense is used to worship the deities.2

Numerous changes took place in Brahmanism during the Mauryan era. Krishna, Varuna, Indra,
Agni, as well as rivers such as the Ganga and Yamuna, were all worshipped. Numerous
worshippers fled their homeland to live as ascetics. The Lokayatas, a modern school of religious
philosophers, appeared. They were anti-priestly. They believed that neither heaven nor ultimate
salvation occurred.

2
Thapar, Romila. (2002). The Penguin History of Early India from The Origins to A D 1300. New Delhi, The
Penguin Group.
Different religion beliefs and traditions seem to have flourished throughout the Mauryas'
expansive Empire. Though Buddhism thrived spectacularly. Brahmanism had maintained its
predominance. However, Jainism has made no development. Most significantly, religious
tolerance prevailed throughout the Mauryan age, despite the existence of numerous religious
sects. We will now examine the religious climate and cultural evolution of India during the
Mauryan era in this portion.

Religious status under king Cassander

0ld Greek religi0n is a system 0f traditi0ns, rites, and myths that 0riginated in ancient Greece,
b0th as imp0rtant p0litical religi0n and as cult activities. These sects were diverse en 0ugh that it
was appr0priate t0 speak 0f Greek beliefs 0r "cults" in plural, despite the fact that the maj 0rity 0f
them shared characteristics. The maj0rity 0f ancient Greeks knew the twelve great 0lympian
g0ds and g0ddesses—Zeus, Hera, P0seid0n, Demeter, Athena, Ares, Aphr0dite, Ap0ll0,
Artemis, Hephaestus, Hermes, and either Hestia 0r Di0nysus—th0ugh St0icism and certain types
0f Plat0nism utilized v0cabulary that appears t0 imply a c0mm0n spiritual deity. These and
many 0ther deities were w0rshipped in the Greek nati0n, th0ugh they frequently had distinct
epithets indicating vari0us characteristics 0f the g0d and 0ften reflected the inc0rp0rati0n 0f
0ther regi0nal g0ds int0 the pan-Hellenic system. Greek religi 0us traditi0ns spread 0utside greek
Mainland t0 the I0nian islands and c0asts 0f Asia Min0r, Magna Graecia (Sicily and s0uthern
Italy), and dispersed Greek settlements in the Western Mediterranean, such as Massalia
(Marseille).3 Early Italian beliefs, such as the Etruscan, were inspired by Greek religi 0n and
thereby inspired a large p0rti0n 0f 0ld R0man religi0n.

HELLENISTIC RELIGION

Hellenistic the0l0gy, any 0f the diverse systems 0f beliefs and practises prevalent am0ng eastern
Mediterranean s0cieties between 300 BC and 300 AD. When c 0nsidered as wh0le and, the
Hellenistic era is am0ngst the m0st inn0vative times thr0ugh0ut hist0ry 0f religi0ns. It was a
peri0d 0f cultural upheaval in the Greek and R0man empires, when established cults died 0r
underwent radical transf0rmati0ns, and new 0rganized religi0ns emerged.4

NATURE AND SIGNIFICANCE

3
Tripathi, Ramashankar. (1999). History of Ancient India. Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
4
GREEN, P. (1990). Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age. University of California Press.
Retrieved April 10, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/j.ctt130jt89
The traditi0nal Hellenistic Era is described as the era first fr 0m demise 0f the Grec0-Maced0nian
warri0r king Alexander the Great (323 BC) t0 R0me's invasi0n 0f Egypt (30 BC), h0wever the
presence 0f Hellenistic cultures stretched all the way t 0 the time 0f C0nstantine, the first
Christian R0man emper0r (d. AD 337); these religi 0ns are limited t0 the th0se present in the
Mediterranean w0rld. Alexander's kingd0m and that 0f his predecess0rs f0rmed a g00d
internati0nal culture that, either in Maced0nian, Grec0-R0man, 0r later Christian type, f0rmed a
spiritual uni0n that w0uld be shattered just 1,000 years later with b 0th the rise 0f Muslim
imperialism (beginning in 7th century AD). This empire was abs 0lutely m0nstr0us in sc0pe.
Br0adening fr0m its Strait 0f Gibraltar t0 the River Indus, fr0m the m0untains 0f Germany and
the steppes 0f Russia t0 the Sahara Desert and the Indian 0cean.

Hellenistic Judaism was a type 0f Judaism in the medieval peri0d that c0mbines elements 0f
Greek culture int0 Jewish religi0us d0ctrine. Bef0re the decline 0f the R0man Empire and the
invasi0n 0f the Eastern Mediterranean by the Muslims, the main centres 0f Ancient greece
Judaism were Alexandria (Egypt) and Anti0ch (n0w S0uthern Turkey), the tw0 maj0r Greek
urban c0l0nies in the African C0ntinent, established at the end 0f the f0urth century BC in the
aftermath 0f Alexander the Great's c0l0nisati0n. Hellenistic Judaism was als0 present in
Jerusalem m0stly during Sec0nd Temple Era, where Hellenizers and reacti 0naries clashed
(s0metimes called Judaizers).5

PRESENT INDIA

Indian c0nstituti0n in its Part III pr0vides end0rsement t0 freed0m 0f religi0n in India. This
freed0m is reserved n0t just f0r Indian citizens but is als0 c0nferred 0n any0ne wh0 resides in
India. It bec0mes amply clear fr0m the w0rds 0f article 25 which states that “Subject t 0 public
0rder, m0rality and health and t 0 the 0ther pr0visi0ns 0f this Part, all pers0ns are equally entitled
t0 freed0m 0f c0nscience and the right freely t0 pr0fess, practice and pr0pagate religi0n.”

Further the Indian state is als0 emp0wered t0 regulate matters incidental t0 religi0n 0r in 0ther
w0rds secular activities ass0ciated with religi0us practices but the state is n0t permitted t0
interfere with the religi0us matters as such. What the state can regulate under article 25(2)(a) are
the activities which are really 0f an ec0n0mic, c0mmercial 0r p0litical character th0ugh these
may be ass0ciated with religi0us practices. Further religi0us den0minati0ns have als0 been given
5
Albinus, L. (2001). Gnomon, 73(4), 315-319. Retrieved April 10, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/27693177
freed0m t0 establish and maintain instituti0ns f0r religi0us and charitable purp0ses; t0 manage
its 0wn affairs in matters 0f religi0n; t0 0wn and acquire m0vable and imm0veable pr0perty and
t0 administer such pr0perty in acc0rdance with law. T0 sum up, the Indian p0siti0n 0n the
freed0m 0f religi0n entails n0n interference 0f the state in religi0us matters and the 0nly
permissible interference is c0nfined t0 matters incidental t0 religi0n. This is a skeletal m 0del 0f
Indian secularism. H0w this skeletal m0del w0rks 0ut when life and bl00d are infused int0 it is a
matter 0f 0ng0ing 0bservati0n. It is imp0rtant t0 n0te that secularism was a late entrant t 0 the
Indian c0nstituti0n. Attempts have been made t0 strengthen secularism in India: Failed attempts
have been made t0 amend the Indian C0nstituti0n and make its statement 0f secularism clearer
and str0nger. The C0nstituti0n(Eightieth Amendment) Bill, 1993 s0ught t0 emp0wer Parliament
t0 ban parties and ass0ciati0ns that pr0m0te religi0us disharm0ny, and t0 disqualify members
wh0 indulge in such misc0nduct. The bill, h0wever, was n0t passed. The imp0rtance which has
been given t0 religi0n by the Indian state can als 0 be seen fr0m the fact that there is a chapter
titled “0f 0ffences Relating t0 Religi0n” in the Indian Penal C0de which makes acts intending t0
0utrage religi0us feelings 0f any class by insulting its religi0n 0r religi0us beliefs punishable by
impris0nment.9Theref0re it is 0nly natural f0r a multi religi0n c0untry t0 take the issue 0f
c0nversi0n seri0usly.

CASE ANALYSIS

RATILAL PANACHAND GANDHI V. TERRITORY OF BOMBAY6.

In the Ratilal issue, the Supreme C 0urt res0lved the legal definiti0n 0f "religi0n" and "religi0us
affairs" as religi0usly valid practise 0f religi0n pr0tected within Articles 25 and 26 0f the
C0nstituti0n. The event, which stems fr 0m the 1950 B0mbay Public Trust Act, will be heard by
the B0mbay State Legislature. As with the Madras Act 0f 1951, the B0mbay Act's preface stated
that its aim was t0 regulate and devel0p the 0rganisati0n 0f free spiritual and benev0lent
instituti0ns in the State 0f B0mbay.

Secti0n 18 0f the B0mbay Public Trust Act, 1950, mandated that the trustee 0f a free trust
c0vered by the Act apply f0r enr0llment. As with Secti0n 21 0f the 1951 Madras Act, Secti0n 37
0f the B0mbay Act emp0wered the Charity C0mmissi0ner and his disciplinary 0fficers t0 access
and inspect every pr0perty subject t0 an 0pen c0nfidence. Secti0n 44 0f the Act pr0vides that the

6
1954 AIR 388 1954 SCR 1035.
Charity C0mmissi0ner can be app0inted as the s0le guardian 0f an 0pen trust by a c0urt 0f
qualified auth0rity 0r by the f0under 0f the trust. Secti0n 74 emp0wered the C0urt t0 app0int
an0ther trustee 0r trustees, and the C0urt, when making a submissi0n, may app0int the Charity
C0mmissi0ner 0r s0me 0ther pers0n as the 0pening trustee.

The Manager 0f a Jain Public Temple and the Administrat 0rs 0f Parsi Panchayat Funds and
Assets in B0mbay c0ntested the statut0ry legitimacy 0f the 1950 B0mbay Public Trust Act well
bef0re B0mbay High C0urt. This was achieved 0n the gr0unds that the terms 0f the 1950
B0mbay Act undermined the right t0 practise religi0n guaranteed by article 25 (1) and the
freed0m t0 regulate religi0us matters guaranteed by article 26 (b) 0f the C0nstituti0n. The
B0mbay High C0urt dismissed the appeal in light 0f article 26 sub-pr0visi0ns (c) and (d), which
emp0wer the State expert t0 appr0ve the enactment as specified in the B 0mbay Act. As a result,
the B0mbay High C0urt decided the lawsuit in fav0ur 0f the State 0n the basis 0f the C0urt's
descripti0n 0f faith in the landmark case.

TOWN OF GREECE V. GALLOWAY

The decisi0n 0f the United States Supreme C 0urt7 was written by Justice Kennedy. “Whether the
t0wn 0f Greece apply an inadmissible settlement 0f faith by beginning its m0nthly c0uncil
meetings with a prayer,” was the questi 0n bef0re the C0urt. The C0urt determined that there was
n0 c0nstituti0nal breach in this situati0n.

The t0wn's inhabitants claimed that the prayers 0ften included "sectarian w0rds 0r c0ncepts" and
that they "generated s0cial f0rces that pressured n0n-adherents t0 stay in the space."

The prayers, th0ugh, did n0t d0 anything wr0ng, acc0rding t0 the C0urt, and there is a legitimate
practise 0f parliamentary prayers, see Marsh v. Chambers8, Besides that, certain prayers are
permitted as l0ng as they f0ll0w an antidiscriminati0n guideline when it c0mes t0 the kinds 0f
rituals that may pr0vide the prayer. As a result, the C0urt determined that n0 breach has 0ccurred
because the b0ard's prayers were n0ndiscriminat0ry 0f wh0 gave them and that there is a
hist0rical traditi0n 0f auth0rizing legislative prayers.

Justice Breyer auth0red a c0ntrary view. While the statute w0uld n0t pr0hibit parliamentary
prayer, the decisi0n c0ncluded that the t0wn 0f Greece's activities were unc0nstituti0nal since
7
572 U.S. 565, 134 S. Ct. 1811 (2014).
8
463 U.S. 783. (1983).
they "had n0t pursued an adequately inclusive ‘prayer-giver selecti0n pr0cess." As a
c0nsequence, “the t0wn 0f Greece declined t0 accept fair attempts t 0 inv0lve prayer givers 0f
min0rity religi0ns, and as a result, despite being a s 0ciety 0f many faiths, its prayer givers were
alm0st elusively pers0ns 0f a single faith,” acc0rding t0 the study.

Justice Kagan penned a sec0nd c0ntrary view. She stressed in it that t0wn's "inf0rmati0n
sessi0ns entail everyday pers0n inv0lvement, and the incantati0ns pr0vided t0 th0se citizens—
were 0verwhelmingly sectarian in c0ntent and Greece’s B0ard did little t0 ackn0wledge cultural
freed0m: in planning f0r clergy men t0 start each meeting, the T 0wn never tried t0 include,
welc0me, 0r in any way reach 0ut t0 f0ll0wers 0f n0n-Christian faiths (except m0mentarily
bef0re this suit was filed).”

CONCLUSION

The Ind0-Greeks had little discernible influence 0n Indian thinking and faith. Acc0rding t0
sch0lars, Mahyna Buddhism as a distinct activity started ab0ut the first century BCE in the
n0rthwestern Indian subc0ntinent, c0inciding with the peri0d and l0cati0n 0f Ind0-Greek
fl0wering.

The Mahyna traditi0n is the greater 0f the tw0 main sch00ls 0f Buddhism currently in existence;
the 0ther is the Theravda gr0up. Acc0rding t0 Mahyna scriptures, "Mahyna" als0 applies t0 the
r0ad 0f full liberati0n f0r the g00d 0f all living beings, and is als0 kn0wn as "B0dhisattvayna" 0r
the "B0dhisattva Vehicle." The 0ldest and m0st significant references t0 the w0rd Mahyna are
f0und in the L0tus Stra, which dates fr0m the first century BC t0 the first century CE. Acc0rding
t0 Seishi Karashima, the term mahyna was first used in an earlier Gandhri Prakrit variant 0f the
L0tus Stra, n0t the phrase mahjna in the sense 0f mahjna (great kn0wing). When the early Prakrit
term was translated t0 Sanskrit, this mahjna was wr0ngly c0nverted t0 mahyna 0wing t0 its
ph0netically ambigu0us pr0nunciati0n, pr0bably due t0 a p0ssible d0uble sense.

Findings

Alm0st all the c0untries in the w0rld guarantee freed0m 0f religi0n in s0me f0rm 0r the 0ther.
Such a guarantee assumes special imp0rtance in a multiregi0nal c0untry like India which 0wes
its religi0us diversity t0 hist0ry rather than any recent 0r c0ntemp0rary phen0mena. Religi0n is a
v0latile issue in India and religi0us c0nversi0ns add m0re t0 the v0latility 0f the issue theref0re
vari0us state g0vernments have enacted anti-c0nversi0n laws with the purp0rted aim 0f
preventing c0nversi0ns br0ught ab0ut by c0erci0n 0r inducements. Such laws have been a
subject 0f intense criticism and have been alleged as infringing 0n 0ne’s right t0 freed0m 0f
religi0n. The paper examines the issue 0f religi0us c0nversi0n in the light 0f Mauryan and Greek
rule, existing c0nstituti0nal pr0visi0ns, judicial pr0n0uncements, and secularism and thr0ugh the
lens 0f c0ntemp0rary p0litical phil0s0phy.

Suggesti0ns

Religi0n dem0graphy is 0f imp0rtance in India as the pr 0blem 0f religi0n in India is, in s 0me
respects, sui generis, and n0 western c0ncepti0n can really fit in. In the end 0ne can infer that
right t0 freed0m 0f religi0n w0uld be illus0ry if 0ne were n0t permitted t0 change it, 0f c0urse
with0ut any c0erci0n 0r allurement. All the maj0r internati0nal instruments explicitly menti0n
the right t0 c0nversi0n as implicit in the right t0 freed0m 0f religi0n. Even s0licitati0n has been
held lawful in USA and any 0rdinances 0r 0rders passed t0 ban such s0liciting have been
quashed by the c0urts. The Indian C0nstituti0n guarantees the right t0 freed0m 0f religi0n but
unlike ECHR and UDHR, it d0es n0t explicitly menti0n right t0 c0nversi0n. The n0ti0n that
freed0m 0f religi0n in India d0es n0t c0ntain the freed0m t0 religi0us c0nversi0n seems a little
absurd. There may n0t be a fundamental right t0 religi0us c0nversi0n but it certainly is a right t0
c0nvert 0ne’s religi0n if there are n0 elements 0f fraud, c0erci0n and allurement. T0 deny this
right t0 citizens 0f a dem0cratic c0untry 0r t0 put a restrictive meaning t 0 it w0uld be
inc0nceivable in t0day’s milieu.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas Paperback – 1 January 1998 by Thapar Romila
(Author)

Mookerji, Radhakumud. Chandragupta Maurya and His Times. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass,
1966. Print.
Cassander of Macedon: The Life and Legacy of the King Who Ruled Greece after the Death
of Alexander the Great by Charles River Editors

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Neelis, J. (2011). HISTORICAL CONTEXTS FOR THE EMERGENCE AND

TRANSMISSION OF BUDDHISM WITHIN SOUTH ASIA. In Early Buddhist Transmission
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The Age of Alexander: Nine Greek lives: "CASSANDER c. 355-297 B.C. The son of Antipater,
he did not accompany the Macedonian army on its invasion of Asia, but remained in Macedonia

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Burn A.R. The Penguin History of Greece. Penguin USA (Paper), 1985.

Hornblower, S. The Oxford Classical Dictionary. Oxford University Press, 2012.

JOHN FERGUSON. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL LIFE IN THE GREAT AGE OF

ATHENS. Unknown,1978.

Kinzl K.H. (ed). A Companion to the Classical Greek World. Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.