CHAPTER III

ORISSA DURING THE TIME

OF JAGANNATHA DASA
 CHAPTER - III

ORISSA DURING THE TIME OF

JAGANNATHA DASA

Orissa has been the meeting ground of almost all the main
currents of religious movement in India. The ancient scriptures describe her
as a confluence of religious cultures. Orissa witnessed a period of
unprecedented political glory and cultural eminence during the medieval
period, particularly in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The significant
aspect of the medieval culture of Orissa was undoubtedly the origin and
development of Oriya language and literature. The advent of Sarala Dasa
during the fifteenth century and the Panchasakha during the late fifteenth
and early sixteenth century ushered in a new age in the history of Oriya
literature.1
The Panchasakha refers to the five Bhakta Kavis (devotional
poets). They were Balarama Dasa, Jagannatha Dasa, Ananta Dasa,
Achyutananda Dasa and Yosobanta Dasa. Though bom in different parts of
the districts of Cuttack and Puri, they had all chosen Puri as their place of
activities.2 From among the Panchasakha, the foremost was Jagannatha
Dasa. By translating the original Bhagavata in Oriya language he got a
place in the hearts of the people and did much in developing a spiritual
fabric in the society of medieval Orissa.
 24

This chapter presents a brief account of the condition of

Orissa viz. political scenario, socio-cultural context, religious movement
and educational trend during the time of Jagannatha Dasa.

3.1 Political Scenario

According to Jagannatha Charitamrita Jagannatha Dasa was
bom in 1487 A.D. and died in 1547 A.D.3 This indicates that he flourished
during the reign of the Gajapati rulers Purusottama Deva (1467-1497) and
Prataprudra Deva (1497-1540)4 and their weak successors like Govind
Vidyadhara and Chakra Pratap. However, most of his crowning activities
were done during the reign of Pratapmdra Deva which coincided with Sri
Chaitanya’s visit to Orissa and the rise of Bhakti movement.
The Gajapati Empire superimposed upon the Ganga kingdom,
extended at the expense of the Rayas of Vijayanagara.5 The territorial extent
of the empire can be traced from the river Ganges in the north to Pennar in
the south including the entire Telengana coast. Though the Gajapatis mainly
based their administration on that of the Ganga pattern they introduced a
few innovation as well.6
Broadly, the Gajapati Empire was divided into three parts
comprising north, east and south for the convenience of administration. The
biggest territorial divisions in the Gajapati Empire were undoubtedly the
provinces known as Dandapat and Rajya. Grama or village was the lowest
territorial division in the hierarchy of administration.7
The king was the repository of all power- military, political
and judicial.8 However, monarchy was limited to certain extent. The rise of
powerful priestly class during Gajapati rule, the existence of customs and
traditions and the rise of powerful feudal lords was naturally a check to the
growing power of the monarchs.
QM A •
 25

Both the king and the priestly community claimed the quasi
divinity status. During this period Lord Jagannath was considered as the
head and the king of the state. Jagannath henceforth mingles not with the
universe as one can. expect but with the Orissan nation. The Mukti Mandap
(an altar in the Jagannath Temple complex) began to regulate the day to day
life of the people of the state.9 The kings of Puri popularly known as
Gajapatis of Orissa are considered as representatives of Lord Jagannath. It
is said that the Maharaja of Puri is the most respectable person among the
Hindus of India.10 The Rajas of Puri could attain such a venerated position
for their intimate association with the paramount deity through the ages.
The people of Orissa are still used to address the Raja as Chalanti Vishnu
(moving Vishnu). This process found its culmination in the Kanchi Kaveri
tradition.'‘This legend speaks about the Gajapati king Purusottam Deva,
who, in his war with Saluva Narasimha, the king of Kanchi, was helped by
Lord Jagannath and his brother Balabhadra in the guise of two horsemen.
The reign of Prataprudra Deva saw the decline of the Orissan
Empire. The kingdom of Orissa was threatened from all frontiers. The
enemy powers viz. the rulers of Golkonda, Vijayanagara and Bengal made
determined efforts, to occupy as much of Orissa as possible and thus brought
an end to the Orissan Empire. At this critical moment die causal attitude of
King Prataprudra Deva who neglected the defence of his vast empire and
turned his attention to less mundane affairs without realizing the future
consequences made the destiny of Orissa move from bad to worse.
Consequently Orissa lost most of its domains to her enemies
and the reduced Orissa was limited to Hughly and Midnapur districts of
Bengal in the north-east to the Guntur district of Madras in the south.12
Kalinga was no more an empire. Even the name Kalinga that signified
much of her ancient and medieval glory vanished. With the loss of the
 26

empire, Orissa had lost her sources of prosperity. Decline of Orissa was
coming in rapidly with the loss of military prestige and economic vitality.
One of the reasons for this decline of the Orissan Empire is
ascribed to the advent of Sri Chaitanya to Puri during the reign of
Prataprudra Deva. However, with this started a great wave of Bhakti cult
that passed over Orissa and influenced other parts of India. The famous
Vaishnava saint Sri Chaitanya came to Orissa in 1510 A.D.13 King
Prataprudra Deva came under the spell of Sri Chaitanya and was led to
march with pacifism and non-violence of the neo-Vaishnavite faith.
Ultimately, his high officials like Rai Ramananda and the subjects of the
State accepted Vaishnavism. Evidences show how the saint profoundly
influenced the personal and official conduct of the king, and became
unfortunately, one of the causes of the political and military decline of
medieval Orissa. Surrendering the responsibility of defense of Orissa to
Lord Jagannath, everybody as if became callous towards administration. As
a result the administration of the state began to collapse.
With the death of Prataprudra Deva in 1540 A.D. the Surya
dynasty came to an end. With this also ended a glorious chapter in the
history of Orissa. After Prataprudra Deva, the history of Orissa (during the
time of Jagannatha Dasa) witnessed a period of treachery, revolt and
usurpation of power, which paved the way for the Muslim conquest of the
state.
Despite the political instability during the rule of the later
Suryavamsi rulers and their successors, there was an unprecedented
illumination of art and literature in Orissan civilization. Although the
downfall of Orissa is controversially attributed to Sri Chaitanya, his
contribution in spreading the Bhakti Cult in Orissa and the resulting socio­
religious development of Orissa stands undisputed. When on the one side
 27

Orissa had to suffer politically during this period, on the other side it got
ample scope to develop culturally.

3.2 Socio-cultural Context

The social life of the Oriyas was in deplorable condition
during the time of Jagannatha Dasa. The society was caste ridden. The
Brahmanas had monopolized religion and culture. Many Brahmanas were
exempted from paying taxes.14 Apart from these; the multiple Brahmana
Sasanas established by the monarchs were centres of Brahmana cosmos.
The Brahmanas also played an influential role in the politics of the nation.
The Brahmanas associated with warfare were known as Brahma-Kstriya.1S
The significant aspect of the medieval culture of Orissa was
undoubtedly the origin and development of Oriya language and literature.
There was a movement of rejuvenation of regional language and literature
in India during this time. In the history of Oriya literature poet Sarala Dasa
happened to be the pioneer of this movement. The Panchasakha furthered
the movement.
In the sphere of language and literature, the position of
Sanskrit was predominant. The shudras and other low grade people were
considered unfit for hearing and writing of the sacred books. Again a
Brahmana who endeavored to study a language other than Sanskrit was
reckoned as a Shudra and Pamara (wicked) in the society.16
But by the 12th and 13th century, the Mohammedan incursions
and the establishment of Islamic power in India had already given a
tremendous blow to the Brahmanic culture. By the 15th and 16th century,
there were a number of mystics and saints who spearheaded the reform of
the society and satiated the men’s religious sentiments.17 They were against
the established order, against the monastic clinging, sectarian zealotry and
inter caste discrimination of the society.18 The leaders of this movement
 28

adopted the language of the people. They cast down all sorts of externalities
and dogmatism of religion. There were hosts of religious leaders like
Jnanadeva, Ekanath, Namedeva, Nanak, Kabir, Raidas, Tulsidas, Surdas,
Mirabai, Shankar, Shankardev etc.
Orissa during the 15th and 16th centuries shared this common
background and trends through the Panchasakha.19 They ushered in another
phase in the history of literature known as the Age of Panchasakha.
The Panchasakha literature was very vast. The five saint poets
have left an enormous body of writings, which are so.popular that even now
they go on inspiring the people. The important works of the five saint poets
are still the family treasure in every Oriya household. A list of such works
of the Panchasakha is given below.
Balaram Dasa has written Ramayana, Bata Abakasa,
Amarakosa Gita, Bedastasara, Guptagita, Brahnanda Bhugola, Bhaba
Samudra, Mriguni Stuti, Bedha Parikrama, Kamalalochana Chautisa and
Laxmi Purana. Besides the Oriya Ramayana, he has also made an Oriya
rendering of the Srimadbhagavatgita in chhandas (verse), using the familiar
song-forms of his time.20
Besides the Oriya Bhagavata, Jagannatha Dasa has the
following main books to his credit: Artha Koili, Tulabhina, Darubrahma
Gila, Uddhava Janana, Gaja Nistarana, Stmya Bhagavata, Prema
Sudhanidhi etc. Jagannatha Dasa translated Bhagavata for the people,
especially for the common men and women who had no access to learning
and education in the brahmin dominated society.
Aachytananda Dasa seems to be the most prolific writer
among the Panchasakha. His writings include the Harivamsa, Sunya
Samhita, Gurubhakti Gita, Gopalanka Ogala, Garuda Gita, Kaivarta Gita,
Kaliyuga Gita, Tattwabodhini, Brahmasankuli and Anakara Samhita.
 29

Achyutananda wrote his Harivamsa and Kaivarta Gita to glorify the

milkmen and fishermen who had hitherto shrunk to the position of shudras.
The two major works of Yasobanta Dasa are Sibaswarodaya
and Prembhakti Brahmagita.
The Hetu Udaya Bhagavata is the only major work of Ananta
• 91
Dasa, now found in print.
Achyutananda Dasa, Jasovanta Dasa and Ananta Dasa have
also their Malikas (speculations and predictions about the happenings of the
future). During the period under review prose was very meager in the
history of Oriya literature. However, Jagannatha Dasa and Balarama Dasa
have samples of prose in few of their writings.22
The Panchasakha were openly against all caste considerations.
They had voluntarily declared themselves to be the lowest i.e. the shudras in
society. Doing this, they gave a new connotation to the very concept
1 Shudras ’ and had declared the highest form of Bhakti to be Shudrabhakti.
The Panchasakha, through their numerous writings,
accelerated the scope and dimensions of social protest. Large number of
people rallied under their banner. The movement of protest paved the path
for the emergence of the unique ‘Alekha Cult' in Orissa.
But the protest of Panchasakha was never a negative one.
Their mission was not simply to destroy everything by aggressive protest.
Whatever they did was promoted by a vision, the vision of a new society
and life, based on well- balanced promotion of spiritual goals and material
well being.24

3.3 Religious Movement

Orissa is one of the holy places where the major religions of
India have flourished at different times in ancient and early medieval period
 30

till they were synthesized into the cult of Jagannath. The religious history of
Orissa during the Panchasakha period also revolved round Lord Jagannath.
The evolution of the Jagannath cult reached its apogee with
the advent of the Suryavansi Gajapatis. The first Gajapati ruler Kapilendra
Deva was not the legal heir of the Ganga throne. He allowed his courtiers
and priests to call him as the ruler elected by Lord Jagannath.25 Like his
father; Purusottama Deva was not the legal heir to the Gajapati throne.
Consequently, he adhered to the cult of Jagannath and the priestly
community in order to perpetuate his regality.
After his accession to the throne, Purusottama Deva donated
costly presents to Lord Jagannath.26 Moreover, to propagate the cult of
Jagannath outside Orissa, he constructed a temple of Jagannath in the
Nagulapalli of Andhra Pradesh.27
However, the 16th century was remarkable for the culmination
of the Jagannath cult. Varied notions and ideas concerning the cult found
expression through the movement of Sri Chaitanya and the Panchasakha.
The advent of Sri Chaitanya in 1510 A.D. was a landmark in
the history of Jagannath cult. His long stay at Puri marks the climax in the
growth of Vaishnavism in Orissa. His love towards Lord Jagannath was the
essence of the ecstatic union with Krishna consciousness. Sri Chaitanya
and the Vaishnavas identified Sri Krishna with Jagannath and consequently
Krishna consciousness and Jagannath consciousness were rolled into one.
The pangs of separation from the Lord like that of the Gopis and the Radha
9Q
of Brindavan was indeed the core of Chaitanya’s philosophy.
Medieval Vaishnavism in Orissa mainly rests on the cult of
Jagannath. The sanctity of Puri was exalted. It was believed to be the replica
of eternal Gokula.30 Yasovanta Dasa in his Prema Bhakit Gita describes that
Nilachal (Puri) is greater than Dwaraka, Mathura and Brindvan.31
 31

This was the time when Lord Jagannath was conceived as the
embodiment of Radha- Krishna due to the influence of neo-Vashnavism.
According to the Daru Brahma Gita of Jagannath Dasa, the image of
Jagannath was carved out of the dead body of Sri Krishna which became a
sacred log. Rai Ramananda had composed his drama Jagannatha Ballava
Nataka in order to narrate the eternal dalliance of Radha and Krishna.
According to the dramatist, Jagannath was no other than Krishna. So, the
title of the drama as Jagannatha Ballava was meant for Krishna.32 Again in
Balarama Dasa’s Vedantasara Gupta Gita and in Achyutananda Dasa’s
Sunya Samhita, Jagannath has been described as the embodiment of all
incarnations of Vishnu. By this time therefore, in Orissan Vaishnavism
Jagannath was conceived as the Avatari (the Absolute) and other
manifestations were his Avataras (incarnations).
A great wave of Bhakti cult passed over Orissa during this
period. This cult emphasised Bhakti (devotion) more than
Aiarafknowledge) and Karma (action) as a method of realizing God. By the
ideals of love and devotion as means to come nearer to God, the Bhakti cult
became a mass religion. Nama Samkirtan (chanting the name of the Lord),
initiated by Sri Chaitanya, was propagated to be the best method of
expressing love and devotion. This movement further accumulated mass
support for the Bhakti cult. The outcome of this religious movement on
account of the cult of love directly influenced the Oriya literature. Various
discourses on religious subjects were written, love episodes of Radha and
Krishna became the main theme of poetry and achievements of Sri
Chaitanya were given shape in literature.
Moreover, the Panchasakha evolved their philosophy
centering round Lord Jagannath. The Yoga system of Medieval
Vaishnavism and the theory of Pinda-Brahmanda (the relationship between
the individual microcosm and the universal microcosm), also centres round
 32

the cult of Jagannath.34 Apart from these, Guruvada was the vital point of
Sahajiya-Buddhism. It found its access into Orissan Vaishnavism during the
time of the Panchasakha. Orissan Vaishnavism which centres round
Jagannath cult conceives Subhadra in the Triad as Guru (teacher) and
Balabhadra as sisya (pupil).35
The preceding discussion indicates that the evolution of the
Jagannatha cult got out of the clutches of durbars by the movement of Sri
Chaitanya and culminated in the Bhakti cult which touched the wider circles
of the hearts of common people. In this movement the Panchasakha and
especially Jagannatha Dasa through his Bhagavata played a vital role.

3.4 Educational Trend

The monarchs of Orissa were great patrons of education and
literature as well. With the patronage of Orissan monarchs the Vedic
brahmins were encouraged and very often the Vedic learning and Sanskrit
literature was promoted. The Brahmanas belonging to Bhatta- Gotra were
hailed for their profound knowledge in Veda, Vedanga, Alankara,
Asthdhyayi etc.36 The Ananta Varman plate refers to the grant of Agrahara
(tax free villages donated by the king) by Prataprudra Deva to 128
7*7
Brahmanas well versed in different branches of knowledge.
In the medieval Orissa, the rise of Kayastha section posed a
challenge to the brahmanieal monopoly of teaching. Some of the Kayasthas
were well versed in the Shastras. Undoubtedly, they even secured state
patronage for their teaching of the science of politics.38 The development of
heterodox trends further diminished the brahmanieal monopoly of Vedic
teaching. Learned people belonging to varna other than the brahmins
ascended to the order of Vedic teachers.39 The rise of the Suryavamsi
Gajapatis and influence of Vaishnavism kindled the literary genius of the
people and stimulated the growth of the vernacular literature. Orissa State
 33

Museum plate of Anangabhima III registers the gift of pieces of land to a

matha, each for Veda, Purana and Vyakarana. It testifies the existence of
educational institution and the care of the monarch in fostering these
studies.
In addition to these, education was also imparted in the house
of the teacher, the residence of the rich and the village chatasali (village-
schools at the initiative of the villagers). Besides, pilgrim centres and
akhadas40 were selected as centres of learning.41 The latter term denotes the
military school of the warrior class in medieval Orissa.
The teacher had a honourable position in the society. The
relationship between the student and the teacher was cordial. The teacher
was held in much esteem by his pupils.42 Guru Dakshina (gift to teacher)
and liberal donation of land by the head of the state were the main sources
of income for the teacher.
There was no fixed age limit for the beginning of instruction
of a child.43Yet a tender age was the standard norm.44 Jagannatha Dasa was
admitted to a village chatasali at the age of five. There was a close affinity
between society and education. After studentship, a student became an
earning member of the society.45 Education was community oriented and as
such it was mostly vocational.
Many brahmins, being well versed in Sanskrit were employed
in the temples. They were the masters of knowledge and they presided over
rites and rituals. One of the distinguished facts about the brahmins of
medieval Orissa was their association with militarism. This shows that
military training was imparted in educational institutions. Moreover, the
general curriculum for the learner included Vedas, Vedangas, Amarkosa,
the epics of Ramayana and Mahabharata and other scriptures in Sanskrit.
The shudras and other low grade people were considered unfit
for reading and writing of the sacred books. Women education was
 34

confined to the Ksatriya grade. The queen and the princes had the right to
receive education.46 The growth of the Devadasi system might have
extended the scope of education to the women recruits of the order. But
they had hardly any knowledge in branches of learning other then dance,
song and music. Sources concerning the education of women belonging to
other varnas and social status are, however scanty.
 35

CHAPTER NOTE

1. M.N. Das, Sidelights on the History and Culture of Orissa, (Cuttack:

Vidyapuri, 1977), p.678

2. Ibid.

3. D. Das, Jagannath Chitramrita, (Puri: Bada Oriya Math, 1963), p.6

4. M.N. Das, Op.cit. p.102

5. H.K. Mahatab, History of Orissa,Vol.I (Cuttack: Prajatantra Press,

1959), p.316

6. K.C. Panigrahi, History of Orissa, (Cuttack: Kitab Mahat, 1976), p.255

7. P.Mukherjee, The History of Medieval Vaishnavism in Orissa, (New

Delhi: Asian Educational Services: 1981), p.127.

8. R. Subramanyam, The SuryavamsiGajapatis of Orissa,(Bombay:

Bharatiya Vidya Bhawan, 1975) p.127.

9. B.B. Jena, Orissa: People, Culture and Polity, (1980), p.197-198, as

quoted by Lenka (1982) in Gajapati kings of Orissa, Ph.D. Thesis
(unpublished) Sambalpur University, Sambalpur.

10. A.E.H. Kulke, The Cult of Jagannath and the Regional Traditional of
Orissa, (1978), p.139. as quoted by Lenka (1982),Loc. lit.

11. Kanchi Kaveri tradition is a popular legend in Orissa which not only
speaks of the war of Lord Jagannath in the guise of horseman but also
the marriage of Padmavati, the daughter of Saluva Narasimha with
Purosottama Deva when the latter was sweeping the chariot of Lord
Jagannath.

12. R.D. Banarjee, History of Orissa, vol.I (1930), p.322. as quoted by

Lenka (1982), Loc.lit.

13. H.K. Mahatab, Op. cit. p. 325.

14. King Purusottama Deva, after his accession exempted the Brahmins of
Daksinagada from paying chaukidari taxes. (Journal of Asiatic Society
ofBengal: Vol LXII, 1893), p.88.

15. H.C. Das. Cultural Development in Orissa (1985), p.49 as quoted by

Pati (1986) Orissa during the time of Suryavansi Kings, unpublished
Ph.D Thesis, Utkal University.
 36

16. "Astadasa Puranani Ramasya Charitanicha

Bhasyam Manava Srutwa Raurava Narakan VrajetaP
Quoted by D.C. Sen, Bengali Language and Literature, (1911), p.7.
Further, poet Jagannath Dasa, a Brahmin by birth but for composing the
Bhagavata in Oriya, had reckoned himself as pamara:
“Muhi pamara durachara
Bhonatha mote kripakaraP
Oriya Bhagavata (Bhubaneswar: Orissa Sahitya Academey, Volume-V,
canto-XVIII.

17. C.R. Das, Balaram Das, Makers of Indian Literature (Delhi: Sahitya
Akademi, 1981), p.ll.

18. Ibid.

19. Ibid. p.16.

20. C.R. Das, A Glimlpse into Oriya Literature, (Bhubaneswar: Orissa,

Sahitya Academy, 1982), p.77.

21. Ibid, p 78.

22. Ibid.

23. Ibid. p. 88

24. C.R. Das, (1981),Op. cit. P. 99

25. A.Eschman and others, (Ed.) The Formation of the Jaganath Triad, (The
cult of Jagannath and the Regional Tradition of Orissa, 1979), p.204.

26. Orissa oriental Textseries, Abhinav Gitagovinda Mahakavyam, (1977),

Chapter-1.

27. A.Eschman and others (Ed.) Op. cit. p. 220.

28. H.K. Mahatab, Op, cit. p. 337.

29. N.Nanda, Purusottama Lila and Sri Chaitanya in Jagannath

consciousness,(Cuttack:Grantha Mandira,1991) p. 56.

30. Ibid.

31. P. Mukherjee, The History of the Gajapati Kings of Orissa. (1981), p.

173. as quoted by Lenka (1982) Op. cit.
 37

32. Prem Bhakti Gita, Chapter-V as quoted by S. Nayak (1979) in Sadhaka

O Sahityika Jagannatha Dasa, unpublished Ph.D.Thesis, (Utkal
University)

33. D. Das, Op. cit. sarga-XII.

K.C. Sahoo, Literature and Social Life in Medieval Orissa (Cuttack,
Kitab Mahal, 1981) pp.1-2

34. P. Mukherjee, (1981), Op.cit.p 173

35. N.Nanda, op. cit. p. 56.

36. Gupta Gita, Chapter- VIII as quoted by S. Nayak (1979) op. cit.

37. Indian Historical Journal, Vol. XVI. (1980 p. 382.

38. Ananta Varma Plate.

39. Epigraphica Indica, vol. XXIX, part -VI (1952), p. 186.

40. Akhada- Centre of military training and practice

41. Epigraphical Indica (1952), op. cit. pp. 321-322

42. D. Ratha, Sarala Mahabharatare Samajik Jivan.

(Cuttack: Friend’s Publisher, 1974) p.179

43. “Sarala Sahitya Samiksa” (1983) Sarala Sahitya publication p. 128

44. D. Ratha, Op. cit. p. 144.

45. Sarala Sahitya publication, Op. cit. p. 229.

46. D.C. Sen. Op cit. P. 7.