1

Economy ....................................................................... 32
TABLE OF CONTENT
Society .......................................................................... 33
1. PREHISTORIC TIMES ....................................................3 Tribe ............................................................................. 35
Religion......................................................................... 35
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................3
Vedic Literature ............................................................ 36
PALEOLITHIC ERA (OLD STONE AGE - HUNTERS AND FOOD
LATER VEDIC PERIOD (1000 BCE - 500 BCE) ............................ 37
GATHERERS) ...........................................................................4
Some key features of the Later Vedic period: ............... 37
Lower Paleolithic ............................................................5
Decline of Vedic Civilization.......................................... 41
Middle Paleolithic ...........................................................5
Upper Paleolithic ............................................................5 4. JAINISM AND BUDDHISM .......................................... 43
Important Paleolithic Sites in India .................................6
INTRODUCTION...................................................................... 43
End of the Paleolithic Age ...............................................7
FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR RISE OF JAINISM AND BUDDHISM ......... 43
MESOLITHIC ERA (MIDDLE STONE AGE) .......................................7
JAINISM ............................................................................. 44
Mesolithic microliths ......................................................8
Introduction.................................................................. 44
Important Mesolithic Sites in India .................................8
Factors responsible for the rise of Jainism ................... 45
NEOLITHIC ERA (NEW STONE AGE) .............................................9
Vardhamana Mahavira ................................................ 45
Important Neolithic Sites in India .................................10
Teachings of Mahavira ................................................. 46
CHALCOLITHIC AGE .................................................................12
Doctrine of Jainism ....................................................... 46
Chalcolithic era and Pre-Harappan era ........................13
Principles of Jainism ..................................................... 47
Important Chalcolithic Sites in India .............................14
Spread and Influence of Jainism ................................... 49
IRON AGE .............................................................................14
Jain Literature .............................................................. 50
PRE HISTORY IN NEWS ............................................................15
Jain architecture ........................................................... 52
Prehistoric Rock Paintings Unearthed in Telangana's
Different Sects/Schools of Jainism ................................ 53
Kasipeta ........................................................................15
BUDDHISM ........................................................................ 55
Ancient Cave Paintings in Haryana's Mangar Bani Forest
Life of Buddha .............................................................. 55
Unveil Millennia-old History .........................................15
Doctrines of Buddhism ................................................. 56
Early Settlement Challenges Revealed by Prehistoric
Reasons for the spread and popularity of Buddhism ... 58
Turkish Site ...................................................................16
Buddhist Literature ....................................................... 58
2. HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION ..........................................17 Difference and Similarities between Buddhism and
Brahmanism ................................................................. 59
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION ......................18
Decline of Buddhism ..................................................... 60
Town Planning ..............................................................18
Buddhist Council ........................................................... 62
Agriculture ....................................................................18
Different Schools of Buddhism ..................................... 62
Economy .......................................................................19
Political and Societal Organization ...............................20 5. AGE OF MAHAJANPADAS .......................................... 65
Religious Practices ........................................................21
DEVELOPMENT OF MAHAJANPADAS .......................................... 66
Script and Seals.............................................................22
Difference between Mahajanapadas and Kingdoms ... 67
Developments in Art of during Harappa Civilisation ....23
SOCIAL AND MATERIAL LIFE IN THE AGE OF THE MAHAJANAPADAS 68
DECLINE OF HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION .........................................23
Economy ....................................................................... 68
LATE HARAPPAN PHASE: TRANSITION AND TRANSFORMATION (C.
Legal and Judicial System ............................................. 69
1900 BCE – 1300 BCE) ........................................................25
Kinship and Caste ......................................................... 69
HARAPPA CIVILISATION IN NEWS RECENTLY .................................27
Patriarchy and Women's Status ................................... 70
New finds at Harappan site ..........................................27
Varna Division .............................................................. 70
UNESCO heritage site Dholavira ...................................27
Administration ............................................................. 71
Mohenjodaro’s Dancing Girl figurine tells us about the
prehistoric civilisation ...................................................28 6. POLITICAL CONFLICTS AND RISE OF MAGADHA ......... 72
3. THE VEDIC AGE (RIG VEDIC AND LATER VEDIC ) (c. FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTED RISE OF MAGADHA ......................... 72
1500–500 BCE)....................................................................29 HARYANKA DYNASTY .............................................................. 73
Bimbisara ..................................................................... 73
INTRODUCTION ......................................................................29
Ajatashatru and His Reign ............................................ 73
BACKGROUND .......................................................................29
Udayabhadra (Udayin) and His Reign .......................... 74
ARRIVAL OF ARYANS ...............................................................29
SHISHUNAGA DYNASTY (AROUND 413 BCE – 345 BCE) .............. 74
VARIOUS THORIES RELATED TO ARRIVAL OF ARYANS ......................30
Shishunaga and His Reign ............................................ 74
EARLY VEDIC /RIG VEDIC PERIOD (1500 BCE - 1000 BCE) ..........31
NANDA DYNASTY (FIRST NON-KSHATRIYA DYNASTY) (345 BCE – 321
Introduction ..................................................................31
BCE) ................................................................................... 74
Geographical Characteristics ........................................31
Mahapadma Nanda and His Reign .............................. 74
Polity .............................................................................31
Dhana Nanda and His Reign ........................................ 75
 2

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE RISE OF MAGADHA ......................76 Skandagupta .............................................................. 113
VARIOUS FACETS OF LIFE UNDER THE GUPTAS ........................... 113
7. PERSIAN AND MACEDONIAN INVASIONS ..................77
Gupta Administration: ................................................ 113
PERSIAN INVASION ............................................................77 Society and Religion ................................................... 115
Introduction ..................................................................77 Economy ..................................................................... 115
Background and Context of the Persian Invasion .........77 Art and Architecture: .................................................. 116
Motivations for Invasion ...............................................77 The Golden Age of Literary ......................................... 116
Persian Impact on India ................................................77 Scientific Advancements............................................. 117
GREEK/ALEXANDER’S INVASION (327 BC – 325 BC) ...................78 FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE DECLINE OF THE GUPTA EMPIRE . 117
Motivation for Invasion ................................................78 The Vakatakas of the Deccan ..................................... 118
8. THE MAURYA EMPIRE (C. 324–187 BCE) ....................81 11. HARSHVARDHAN PERIOD (606 AD - 647 AD) ........... 125
INTRODUCTION ......................................................................81 SOURCES OF INFORMATION ................................................... 125
SOURCES OF INFORMATION ......................................................81 HARSHAVARDHANA (600CE -647 CE) .................................... 125
Literary Sources: ...........................................................81 Administration ........................................................... 126
Other Literary Works ....................................................83 Economy ..................................................................... 126
THE MAURYAN DYNASTY .........................................................83 Society ........................................................................ 127
Chandragupta Maurya (324/321 – 297 BCE) ...............83 Religion....................................................................... 127
Bindusara (297 – 273 BCE) ...........................................83 Art and Literature: A Renaissance of Creativity ......... 128
Ashoka (268 – 232 BCE) ................................................84
12. SANGAM AGE .......................................................... 130
Brihadratha - Last King of the Mauryan Dynasty .........85
Economy during Mauryan Period .................................88 INTRODUCTION.................................................................... 130
Society ..........................................................................89 SANGAM LITERATURE ........................................................... 130
Mauryan Administration ..............................................90 VARIOUS FACETS OF LIFE DURING THE SANGAM AGE ................... 131
Art and Sculpture ..........................................................90 Administration: .......................................................... 131
DECLINE OF MAURYAN EMPIRE.................................................91 Economy: .................................................................... 132
Religion....................................................................... 132
9. POST MAURYAN AGE ................................................93
Society ........................................................................ 132
SHUNGA DYNASTY (187 BC - 78 BC) ...................................94 Polity .......................................................................... 135
Pushyamitra Sunga.......................................................94 END OF SANGAM AGE .......................................................... 136
Agnimitra ......................................................................94
Devabhuti: The Last Ruler of the Shunga Dynasty ........94
Significance of the Shunga Dynasty ..............................95
SATAVAHANA DYNASTY ...........................................................96
Simuka - Founder of the Satavahana Dynasty: ............96
Gautamiputra Satakarni...............................................97
Vashishthiputra Pulumayi (c. 130–154 CE) ...................97
Yajna Sri Satakarni (c. 165–194 CE): .............................98
SIGNIFICANCE OF SATAVAHANA RULE .........................................99
KANVA DYANSTY ..................................................................100
SOME IMPORTANT DYNASTIES ................................................100
Sakas/Scythians ..........................................................100
Kushanas ....................................................................101
INDO–GREEKS/ BACTRIAN GREEKS ..........................................105
Demetrius ...................................................................106
Menander /Milinda/Minedra (165 BCE – 145 BCE) ....106
Hermaius (Last ruler of this dynasty) ..........................107
Significance of the Indo-Greeks ..................................107
IMPACT AND CONTRIBUTION OF CONTACTS WITH CENTRAL ASIA IN
ANCIENT TIMES ...................................................................108
10. THE GUPTA PERIOD ................................................. 110
IMPORTANT RULER OF GUPTA DYNASTY....................................110
Chandragupta-I: The Founder of the Gupta Dynasty .110
Samudragupta ............................................................111
Chandragupta II (Chandragupta Vikramaditya) .........112
Kumaragupta I (c.415 – 455 CE) .................................112

1. PREHISTORIC TIMES
Introduction
 The prehistoric period refers to the time in human history
before the invention of writing systems and the recording
of historical records. It encompasses a vast span of time,
ranging from the emergence of the first anatomically
Paleolithic Age Mesolithic Age
(Middle Stone
(Old Stone
Age) Age)
 Each of these periods is characterized by specific
technological, cultural, and social developments that
provide insights into the progression of human societies
over time.
 Robert Bruce Foote, was a notable British geologist and
archaeologist who played a crucial role in the exploration
and excavation of prehistoric sites in India. His work laid
the foundation for the study of prehistoric archaeology in
India, earning him the title "father of Prehistoric
Archaeology."
 Archaeological remains from these prehistoric periods,
includes stone tools, pottery, artifacts, and, in later periods,
metal implements. These remnants provide valuable
insights into the technological advancements, cultural
practices, and ways of life of prehistoric communities,
helping us piece together the puzzle of human history
before the advent of written records.
Facts by TestBook
Do You Know - What is Proto-history?
 Proto-history refers to a period of time before written
records or historical documents were widely used,
during which societies began to develop more complex
cultures, technologies, and social structures.
 It is a phase between prehistory (before written
records) and history (recorded events). In proto-
history, we have some archaeological evidence, but the
absence of written records makes it challenging to
reconstruct a complete historical narrative.
Example of Proto-History:
 The Indus Valley Civilization, also known as the
Harappan Civilization, is an example of a proto-historic
society. It existed in the region that is now modern-day
India and Pakistan from approximately 3300 BCE to
1300 BCE.
3
modern humans to the advent of written language, which
occurred in different parts of the world at different times.
 The prehistoric period is typically divided into five
major epochs:
Neolithic Age
Chalcolithic(Co Iron Age
(New Stone
pper)
Age)
 While there are no deciphered written records from the
civilization, archaeologists have unearthed numerous
artifacts, buildings, and other remains that provide
insights into their way of life.
 Archaeological findings suggest that the Indus Valley
Civilization had advanced urban planning, a system of
writing (still undeciphered), standardized weights and
measures, and trade networks extending to distant
regions. Cities like Mohenjo-daro and Harappa had
well-designed streets, advanced drainage systems, and
brick-built houses.
 While we don't have written records to tell us about their
daily lives, the artifacts and structures provide valuable
information about their social, economic, and cultural
practices.
 Examples include pottery, seals, terracotta figurines,
and jewelry. This proto-historic civilization remains a
subject of ongoing study and research, as experts work
to unravel the mysteries of their language, governance,
and societal structures based on the available
archaeological evidence.
Facts by TestBook
About Robert Bruce Foote
 Robert Bruce Foote was a
British geologist and
archaeologist who made
significant contributions to
prehistory research,
particularly in the Indian
subcontinent. He played a
crucial role in unearthing and studying ancient
artifacts, fossils, and archaeological sites,
shedding light on the prehistoric history of
India.

 Foote's most notable contributions came in the form
of discovering and classifying prehistoric stone
tools. He identified different types of tools and
their associations with specific time periods,
helping to establish a framework for
understanding the chronological development of
human societies in India.
 Fossil Discoveries: Foote also identified and
studied prehistoric fossils, including those of
ancient animals like elephants, which provided
insights into the region's paleontological history.
 Advisory Role: Foote played a significant advisory
role in the excavation of Pallavaram (Tamil
Nadu), where he helped uncover prehistoric stone
tools and implements.
Sir Robert Eric Mortimer
 Sir Robert Eric Mortimer
Wheeler was a prominent
British archaeologist and
scholar who made significant
contributions to the field of
archaeology.
 His excavations at Mohenjo-
daro (in present-day
Pakistan) as part of the Indus Valley Civilization
exploration are particularly renowned. He helped
uncover the advanced urban planning and culture of
the ancient civilization.
 Wheeler was instrumental in popularizing the use
of the "Three-Age System" for classifying
prehistoric artifacts and cultures into the Stone
Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age. This system
provided a framework for understanding
technological advancements and cultural changes
over time.
 He served as the Director of the National
Museum of Wales, Keeper of Antiquities at the
British Museum, and Director-General of the
Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
 During World War II, Wheeler directed the
"Ancient Monuments, Fine Arts & Archives
Section" of the British Army, working to protect
cultural heritage sites during times of conflict.
4
Paleolithic Age (Old Stone Age - Hunters
and Food Gatherers)
The Paleolithic Division, also known as the Paleolithic Period
or the Old Stone Age, characterized by the use of stone tools
and a nomadic hunting-gathering lifestyle.
Distribution:
 The Paleolithic Age left its imprint across vast regions
of India, encompassing nearly every corner of the
subcontinent, with the exception of the fertile alluvial
plains along the Indus and Ganga rivers.
 This widespread distribution reveals the adaptability of
early human communities to diverse landscapes, from
rugged terrains to forested environments.
 The absence of significant Paleolithic settlements in the
Indus and Ganga plains highlights the unique
characteristics of these areas, which may have influenced
human settlement patterns and resource utilization during
that era.
Features of Paleolithic Era
 Hunter-Gatherer Lifestyle: During the Paleolithic Age,
early human societies were primarily hunter-gatherers.
They relied on hunting animals and gathering wild
plants for sustenance.
 Use of Stone Tools: Stone tools were essential for
various activities, including hunting, butchering animals,
and processing plant materials. These tools evolved over
time in terms of complexity and functionality.
 Nomadic Lifestyle: Paleolithic communities were often
nomadic, moving from one place to another in search of
food and resources. They followed the patterns of
animal migrations and seasonal plant growth.
 Simple Social Structures: Early societies had relatively
simple social structures based on kinship and
cooperation. Group survival was crucial, leading to the
sharing of resources and division of labor.
 Cave Art and Symbolism: One of the significant
cultural aspects of the Paleolithic Age is the creation of
cave art and symbolic artifacts. These artistic expressions
provide insights into their beliefs, rituals, and daily life.
 Limited Permanent Settlements: While some
temporary settlements were established, permanent
settlements and agriculture did not develop until the later
Neolithic Age.
Developments of Palaeolithic age
 Absence of Key Developments: Early societies during
the Paleolithic Age lacked knowledge of crucial practices
 5

such as agriculture, construction of permanent structures,

pottery-making, and metalworking. Middle Paleolithic
 Gradual Acquisition of Fire: Fire, a critical tool for  Time Period: Around 200,000 years ago to around
warmth, protection, and cooking, was not initially part of 40,000 years ago.
their repertoire.
 Notable Homo Species: Homo neanderthalensis
o Over time, these early humans developed the
(Neanderthals), early Homo sapiens.
ability to harness and control fire, marking a
 Characteristics:
significant advancement in their lifestyle.
o Development of more refined stone tools,
 Tools of Stone: Stone tools were indispensable for daily
including handaxes, scrapers, and points.
tasks, ranging from hunting to food processing.
o Emergence of hunting strategies, improved
o The tools used were fashioned from unpolished
stone tool technology, and evidence of more
and rough stones, showcasing the
complex social structures.
resourcefulness of these ancient communities.
o Increasing evidence of intentional burial
 Tool Varieties: The toolkit of the
practices and symbolic behavior.
Paleolithic humans included a variety
o Evidence of early human migration to
of implements designed to fulfill
various parts of the world.
specific functions. Hand axes,
cleavers, choppers, blades, burins, and
scrapers were among the tools they Upper Paleolithic
crafted.  Time Period: Around 40,000 years ago to around
 Material: Quartzite: These stone tools were 10,000 years ago.
predominantly made from a type of rock called  Notable Homo Species: Fully developed Homo
"quartzite." Quartzite's durability and hardness made sapiens (anatomically modern humans).
it suitable for fashioning tools capable of withstanding  Characteristics:
the demands of daily use. o Advanced stone tool technology, including
 "Quartzite Men" Label: Due to their heavy reliance specialized tools for different tasks (e.g.,
on quartzite for tool production, these early inhabitants blades, burins).
of the Paleolithic Age in India are sometimes referred o Elaborate cave art, portable art objects, and
to as "Quartzite men." evidence of complex symbolic thought.
o This nomenclature underscores their close o Evidence of complex social structures and
connection with their environment and the possible early forms of trade and exchange.
resources it provided. o Further development of language and
communication.
This period is further divided into three main stages: the Lower o Innovations such as sewing needles, musical
Paleolithic, the Middle Paleolithic, and the Upper instruments, and advanced hunting
Paleolithic. Each stage represents different levels of techniques.
technological and cultural development. o Increased evidence of settlement patterns and
the beginning of more permanent shelters.
 The Paleolithic
Lower Paleolithic
Division represents a
 Time Period: Approximately 2.6 million years ago to
significant period of
around 200,000 years ago.
human prehistory
 Notable Homo Species: Homo habilis, early Homo
marked by the
erectus.
gradual development
 Characteristics: of tools, culture, and
o Simple stone tools, primarily consisting of social behaviors.
cores and flakes. While these divisions
o Limited evidence of controlled use of fire. PALEOLITHIC TOOLS
provide a framework for
o Nomadic lifestyle focused on scavenging and understanding the progression of the Old Stone Age,
hunting. it's important to note that they are not rigid boundaries,
o Earliest evidence of human expansion
beyond Africa.
 6

and there was likely overlap and regional variations in Heritage Site known for its
the development of these characteristics. extensive rock shelters containing
prehistoric cave paintings and
Significance rock art.
 Laid the foundation: The Paleolithic Period laid the  The art depicts scenes of hunting,
foundation for essential human survival skills. The dancing, and daily life, providing
mastery of stone tools and fire were pivotal steps in glimpses into the cultural and
human technological advancement. Artistic social practices of early humans.
expression and early symbolic thinking provided Hunsgi and  These sites in the Deccan Plateau
insights into the cognitive development of early Isampur, have yielded a rich collection of
humans. Karnataka Acheulean tools (handaxes,
 Human Evolution: The Paleolithic Age marks a cleavers) and fossils of animals
critical period in human evolution as early humans from the Lower Paleolithic
developed cognitive skills, language, and complex period.
tools.  The tools suggest early human
 Cultural Development: The emergence of symbolic activities and hunting practices in
art and artifacts suggests the beginning of human this region.
creativity, communication, and expression. Attirampakkam,  This site has yielded evidence of
 Adaptation and Survival: The ability to adapt to Tamil Nadu early Acheulean tools, indicating
different environments and develop survival strategies the presence of Homo erectus or
laid the foundation for future cultural and early Homo sapiens.
technological advancements.  The discovery of tool-making
 Precedence for Modern Traits: Many fundamental techniques and patterns provides
aspects of human behavior, such as social cooperation, insights into the cognitive abilities
tool-making, and communal living, have roots in the of ancient humans.
Paleolithic era. Didwana,  Didwana is known for its
Rajasthan prehistoric stone tool
Facts by TestBook assemblages, primarily from the
Negrito race: Middle Paleolithic period.
 The Negrito race refers to distinct ethnic groups  The artifacts indicate the presence
with dark skin, short stature, and curly hair found in of early humans and their cultural
Southeast Asia and parts of South Asia. activities in the arid regions of
 They are one of the earliest indigenous populations Rajasthan.
of these regions and have a long history dating back Jwalapuram,  This site has provided evidence of
to the Paleolithic Age. During that time, they lived Andhra Pradesh Acheulean tools as well as
as hunter-gatherers, adapting to various evidence of the transition to the
environments. Middle Paleolithic.
 The Negrito populations have maintained unique  The site has been crucial in
cultural practices and lifestyles over time. It's understanding the technological
important to approach discussions about racial advancements and behavioral
classifications with sensitivity, as modern genetics changes of early humans.
shows the interconnectedness of human Sanganakallu,  Sanganakallu has revealed
populations. Karnataka Middle Paleolithic stone tool
assemblages, shedding light on
the technological innovations and
Important Paleolithic Sites in India subsistence strategies of early
human populations.
Kurnool Caves,  These cave sites contain Middle
Sites About Paleolithic tools and evidence of
Andhra Pradesh
Bhimbetka,  Located in the Vindhya Range, early human habitation.
Madhya Pradesh Bhimbetka is a UNESCO World

 The tools and artifacts provide
insights into the resource
utilization and activities of
ancient human groups.
Patne,  Patne is known for its Upper
Maharashtra Paleolithic rock shelters with
evidence of stone tools, shell
ornaments, and ochre pigments.
 The site offers insights into the
cultural practices and symbolic
behaviors of later Paleolithic
populations.
End of the Paleolithic Age
The Paleolithic Age transitioned into the Neolithic Age (New
Stone Age) around 10,000 years ago.
 Development of agriculture: The end of the
Paleolithic Age is often associated with the
development of agriculture and the domestication of
plants and animals.
 Towards settled communities: This transition
marked a significant shift in human societies from a
primarily hunter-gatherer lifestyle to one centered
around agriculture and settled communities.
 The Neolithic Revolution brought about changes in
social organization, technology, and the way humans
interacted with their environment.
 Surplus food production: The cultivation of crops
and the domestication of animals led to surplus food
production, which supported larger populations and
the growth of permanent settlements.
The end of the Paleolithic Age and the advent of the Neolithic
Age laid the groundwork for the transformation of human
societies and the development of civilizations.
Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age)
The Mesolithic Era, also known as the Middle Stone Age, spans
from approximately 10,000 BCE to around 4,000 BCE.
Characteristics:
 Transitional Phase: The Mesolithic marks a
transitional period between the Paleolithic and
Neolithic eras. It is characterized by gradual changes
in tool technology, subsistence strategies, and
settlement patterns.
 Tools and Technology: The Mesolithic saw the
refinement of stone tool technology, including the
development of smaller, microlithic tools. Microliths
are small stone tools crafted through precise
7
techniques to create razor-sharp edges. They were
used in composite tools and weapons. Other tools
included scrapers, blades, and points.
 Hunting and Gathering: Although hunting and
gathering remained essential, the Mesolithic period
witnessed a shift towards more diverse subsistence
strategies. People continued to hunt animals and
gather plants, but they also began to exploit aquatic
resources such as fish, shellfish, and water plants.
 Beginning of Plant Cultivation: The concluding
phase of the Mesolithic Age marked the initial stages
of plant cultivation, signaling a significant shift
towards agriculture and a sedentary lifestyle.
o This transition was a precursor to the more
profound changes that would unfold in the
subsequent Neolithic Age.
 Settlement Patterns: Semi-permanent settlements
emerged as people began to stay in one place for
longer periods. Temporary shelters made of wood,
leaves, and animal hides were common. Some sites
show evidence of hearths and pits used for cooking
and disposal of waste.
 Social Organization: With more settled living
arrangements, social structures likely became more
complex. Increased interaction among groups may
have led to the
exchange of
goods and
ideas.
 Art and
Symbolism:
The Mesolithic
period saw the
continuation of
Bhimbetka Cave Painting
artistic
expression,
although the medium shifted from the elaborate cave
paintings of the Paleolithic to smaller portable art
objects. Carvings, engravings, and ornaments made
from bone, antler, and ivory have been discovered.
 Initiation of Rock Art: The Mesolithic era introduced
the practice of rock art, an essential aspect of
prehistoric artistic expression.
o In 1867, the first rock paintings in India were
discovered at Sohagighat in the Kaimur Hills
of Uttar Pradesh.
o More than 150 Mesolithic rock art sites have
been found across India, with concentrated
findings in regions like Central India and
beyond.

 Diverse Rock Art Sites: Central India hosts rich
Mesolithic rock art sites, including the famous
Bhimbetka Caves.
o Additional sites such as Kharwar, Jaora, and
Kathotia in Madhya Pradesh, Sundargarh and
Sambalpur in Odisha, and Ezhuthu Guha in
Kerala contribute to our understanding of
ancient visual culture.
o Animals prominently feature in most
Mesolithic rock art sites, providing glimpses
into the natural world and the significance of
fauna in the lives of ancient communities.
o Notably, snakes are absent in Mesolithic
Paintings, suggesting the selective
representation of creatures in the rock art.
 Pottery Presence and Absence: Pottery is notably
absent at many Mesolithic sites, but it is found at
specific locations such as Langhnaj in Gujarat and
the Kaimur region of Mirzapur in Uttar Pradesh
(UP).
o The presence of pottery at these sites
indicates localized advancements in ceramic
technology and its potential for specific
functional or cultural purposes.
 Cultural Practices: Rituals and beliefs likely
continued to be an integral part of Mesolithic societies.
Burial practices often involved placing the deceased in
shallow graves with personal items.
 Climate Changes: Climate changes and
environmental shifts influenced the availability of
resources, potentially affecting settlement patterns and
subsistence strategies.
Mesolithic microliths
During the Mesolithic Age, a notable development was the
reduction in the size of established tool types, accompanied by
the emergence of characteristic tools known as microliths.
Microliths exhibited a range of geometrical and non-
geometrical shapes. Their significance extended beyond being
standalone tools; they played a pivotal role in creating
composite tools and enhancing the functionality of
implements.
Key points about the Mesolithic microliths and their
applications:
 Size Reduction: The Mesolithic period witnessed a
shift towards crafting smaller tools compared to those
of the preceding Paleolithic era. This reduction in size
allowed for increased precision and versatility in tool
use.
8
 Materials: The microliths were commonly made from
materials like crypto-crystalline silica, chalcedony, or
chert. These materials offered the necessary hardness
and durability for crafting functional tools.
 Hafting Technology: Microliths were often hafted
onto wooden or bone handles to create composite
tools. This hafting technique improved the
effectiveness and usability of these tools for various
tasks, such as hunting and harvesting.
Significance:
 The Mesolithic Era marked a period of adaptation and
innovation in human resource utilization. The
transition from larger, general-purpose tools to
smaller, specialized ones reflects advancements in
tool-making techniques. This period also laid the
groundwork for the Neolithic agricultural revolution.
 Overall, the Mesolithic Era serves as a bridge between
the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods, showcasing the
evolving technological, subsistence, and cultural
practices of ancient human societies as they adapted to
changing environments and developed new ways of
living.
Important Mesolithic Sites in India
SItes About
Bagor,  Bagor is known for its Mesolithic
Rajasthan rock shelters containing a rich
collection of microliths and artifacts.
 The site provides evidence of
hunting, gathering, and early forms
of domestication.
Bhimbetka,  Bhimbetka, known for its Paleolithic
Madhya art, also contains Mesolithic rock
Pradesh shelters.
 These shelters yield evidence of
Mesolithic tool technology and
cultural practices.
Langhnaj,  Langhnaj is a Mesolithic site with a
Gujarat significant collection of microliths
and stone tools.
 The site provides insights into
Mesolithic subsistence patterns and
social organization.
Sarai Nahar  This site has yielded a variety of
Rai, Uttar Mesolithic artifacts, including
Pradesh microliths and bone tools.

 It offers valuable information about
Mesolithic technological
advancements and resource use.
Bagasra,  Bagasra features Mesolithic tools,
Gujarat including microliths and grinding
stones.
 The site's artifacts suggest
subsistence strategies that combined
hunting, gathering, and grinding of
plant foods.
Walgaon,  Walgaon is an important Mesolithic
Maharashtra site known for its microlithic
industry and evidence of early plant
cultivation.
 The site provides insights into the
transition to more settled lifestyles
and changing subsistence strategies.
 Adamgarh is a Mesolithic site with
Adamgarh,
evidence of microliths and bone
Madhya
Pradesh tools.
 The site contributes to our
understanding of Mesolithic
technologies and cultural practices.
 Tilwara is known for its Mesolithic
Tilwara,
artifacts, including microliths and
Madhya
pottery fragments.
Pradesh
 The site offers insights into the shift
towards pottery and changing
material culture.
Neolithic Age (New Stone Age)
The Neolithic Era, also known as the New Stone Age, spans
from around 10,000 BCE to approximately 2,000 BCE,
although these dates can vary by region. Both Mesolithic and
Neolithic Cultures belong to the Holocene era.
Characteristics:
 Agricultural Revolution: One of the most significant
developments of the Neolithic Era was the shift from
a nomadic, hunter-gatherer lifestyle to settled
agriculture. Humans began cultivating crops and
domesticating animals, leading to the emergence of
agricultural societies.
o Neolithic communities experimented with
cultivating land, mastering techniques for
sowing, nurturing, and harvesting crops like
ragi and horse gram (kulathi).
o The ability to cultivate crops provided a
reliable food source (Food Security).
9
 Agriculture and Domestication: People started
cultivating crops like wheat, barley, rice, and maize.
Domestication of animals, including cattle, sheep,
goats, and pigs, for food, labor, and materials became
common.
o This practice provided multiple benefits,
including a consistent source of meat, milk,
and other resources.
 Settled Communities: With agriculture, humans
transitioned from mobile lifestyles to settled
communities. Permanent dwellings, such as houses
and huts made of mud, wood, and stone, replaced
temporary shelters.
 Craft Specialization: The surplus of food from
agriculture allowed some individuals to specialize in
crafts such as pottery, weaving, and toolmaking.
Increased specialization led to the emergence of social
hierarchies.
 Pottery as Innovation: The advent of pottery, initially
made by hand and later with the potter's wheel, was a
pivotal advancement. Pottery not only served
functional purposes like storage and cooking but also
laid the foundation for artistic expression and trade.
 Technological Advances: Neolithic societies
developed more sophisticated tools, including
polished stone tools and ground stone implements.
Pottery became prevalent, revolutionizing food
storage, cooking, and trade.
 Regional Distinctions: The categorization of
Neolithic settlement areas based on axe types
emphasized the cultural diversity and regional
adaptations within the same era, reflecting localized
needs and preferences.
 Trade and Exchange: The development of
agriculture and surplus production facilitated trade and
exchange between communities. Trade networks
extended over longer distances, contributing to
cultural diffusion.
 Religious and Ritual Practices: The emergence of
settled life led to the construction of communal
structures and sites for religious and ritual practices.
Rituals often revolved around fertility and agricultural
cycles.
 Social Complexity: The shift to agriculture and
sedentary living contributed to the development of
more complex social structures. Hierarchies based on
wealth, specialization, and leadership emerged.
Significance:
 Agricultural Revolution: The Neolithic era
witnessed the revolutionary shift from hunting and
 10

gathering to agriculture. This transition marked the Bagor,  Bagor is not only a Mesolithic site
birth of agriculture and animal domestication, Rajasthan but also has Neolithic components.
transforming human subsistence strategies and  The site has yielded evidence of
enabling settled life. domesticated animals, plant
 Emergence of Settlements: With the advent of remains, and early farming
agriculture, communities established permanent practices.
settlements. This transition from nomadic lifestyles to Gilund,  Gilund showcases evidence of
settled living laid the groundwork for the development Rajasthan agricultural practices, pottery, and
of cities and civilizations in the future. early urban planning.
 Complex Societies: The stability offered by  The site provides insights into the
agriculture allowed societies to grow larger and more emergence of larger settlements
complex. during the Neolithic period.
o The surplus food production facilitated the Hallur,  Hallur is known for its Neolithic
emergence of specialized occupations, social Karnataka and Iron Age settlements.
hierarchies, and the division of labor.  Archaeological finds include
 Technological Advancements: Technological pottery, tools, and evidence of rice
advancements not only improved daily life but also cultivation.
paved the way for future innovations. Burzahom,  Burzahom has yielded evidence of
 Cultural Developments: This period marked the Jammu and pit dwellings, pottery, and
beginning of artistic expressions, including pottery Kashmir agriculture.
and rock art.  The site provides insights into the
 Foundation for Urbanization: The shift to settled transition to settled agricultural
communities and surplus food production laid the communities.
groundwork for urbanization. Inamgaon,  Inamgaon is a Neolithic site with
 Economic Transformation: The shift to agriculture Maharashtra evidence of agriculture, pottery,
and domestication of animals changed economic and early urban features.
systems. Communities began trading surplus goods,
 The site offers insights into the
contributing to the emergence of trade networks.
development of larger settlements
 Environmental Impact: The practice of agriculture and complex social structures.
initiated a complex relationship between humans and
Chirand, Bihar  Chirand has evidence of rice
the environment. It marked the beginning of human
cultivation, pottery, and early
influence on landscapes through activities like
settlements.
deforestation and land modification.
 It is known for its Neolithic to
Chalcolithic transition, showcasing
Important Neolithic Sites in India changing lifestyles.
Sanganakallu,  Along with a Mesolithic
Sites About Karnataka component, Sanganakallu has
Burzahom,  Burzahom is known for its pit evidence of Neolithic farming and
Jammu and dwellings, indicating a settled tool technology.
Kashmir lifestyle.  The site provides insights into the
 Evidence of early agriculture, evolution of subsistence strategies.
pottery, and tools has been found at
this site. Facts by Testbook
Mehrgarh,  While not in India, Mehrgarh is
Balochistan significant for its early Neolithic Holocene epoch
(now in evidence, including farming, The Holocene epoch is the current geological epoch, which
Pakistan) domesticated animals, and pottery. began approximately 11,700 years ago after the last major
 It provides insights into the early ice age. It represents the most recent and ongoing period in
stages of agricultural development Earth's history. The Holocene is characterized by significant
in the Indian subcontinent.
 11

climatic and environmental changes, as well as the rise of

human civilizations.

1. Stable Climate: The epoch is marked by stable and

warm climate, fostering diverse ecosystems and
human societies.
2. Agricultural Shift: Transition from hunting-
gathering to agriculture and domestication
revolutionized settlements and societal complexity.
3. Sea Level Change: Melting glaciers raised sea
levels, reshaping coasts and impacting coastal
ecosystems.
4. Biodiversity Growth: A steady climate allowed
plant and animal species to flourish, boosting
biodiversity.
5. Human Influence: Human impact intensified with
agriculture, urbanization, and industrialization.
6. Cultural Flourish: It witnessed diverse cultures,
languages, and civilizations emerging. The era also
heralded recorded history and writing systems.
7. Modern Environmental Challenges: The
environmental changes and impacts of human
activities during the Holocene have contributed to
contemporary challenges such as climate change,
loss of biodiversity, and habitat destruction.
8. Geological Marker: The Holocene is a significant
marker in the geological time scale, distinguishing
the period of time following the last ice age from
previous epochs.
Anthropocene Debate: The concept of the Anthropocene, a
proposed geological epoch characterized by significant
human influence on the planet's ecosystems and geology, is
often associated with the latter part of the Holocene.

Chalcolithic Age
The Chalcolithic Age, also known as the Copper Age or
Eneolithic Age, is a transitional period in prehistory that
falls between the Neolithic (New Stone Age) and the Bronze
Age. It is characterized by the use of both stone and metal tools,
with an emphasis on the emerging use of copper. This period
witnessed important developments in technology, economy,
and social organization. It generally spans from around 4500
BCE to 3300 BCE.
Characteristics:
 Use of Copper: The term "Chalcolithic" derives from
the Greek words "chalcos," meaning copper, and
"lithos," meaning stone. Copper started being used for
tools, ornaments, and small implements alongside
stone tools. It marked a significant technological
advancement.
 Agriculture: Agriculture continued to be a central
economic activity, and farming practices were further
refined. The use of domesticated animals and more
advanced plowing techniques likely increased
agricultural productivity.
o Staple crops included wheat, rice, and bajra,
accompanied by various pulses like lentils,
black gram, green gram, and grass pea.
o While Eastern regions relied on fish and rice.
o The cultivation method leaned towards slash-
and-burn or jhum cultivation, yet neither
ploughs nor hoes have been identified at
Chalcolithic sites.
 Domestication: People undertook the domestication
of diverse animals including cows, sheep, goats, pigs,
and buffaloes, while also engaging in deer hunting.
o Consumption of beef was common, while a
Remains Found at Ahar Site Rajasthan (Chalcolithic)
notable absence of pork and unfamiliarity
with horses is observed.
o Intriguingly, domesticated animals were
primarily used for meat rather than for
12
obtaining dairy products – a practice still
followed by the Gond people of Bastar.
 Emergence of Craft Specialization: With surplus
food production, there was more time for craft
specialization beyond basic survival needs. Artisans
produced pottery, textiles, and other goods for trade
and local consumption.
o Distinct pottery types were utilized, with
black and red pottery gaining popularity.
Crafted using the potter's wheel, these pots
featured white line designs.
o Additionally, it's worth noting that only men
engaged with the potter's wheel, while
female potters abstained from its use.
 Settlement Patterns: Permanent settlements became
more common, and some settlements grew in size and
complexity. Larger settlements likely emerged as
centers of trade and social interaction.
 Trade and Exchange: The availability of metal
resources, including copper, facilitated trade and
exchange between regions. Trade networks expanded,
connecting distant communities.
 Written Expression Absent: Writing was not part of
the Chalcolithic people's repertoire, underscoring the
absence of written documentation during this era.
 Social Differentiation: The emergence of craft
specialization and trade contributed to social
differentiation within communities. Some individuals
gained prominence through control of resources or
skilled crafts.
o Social Hints: Chalcolithic societies hinted at
nascent social hierarchies, as evidenced by
rectangular houses inhabited by chiefs who
held sway over those residing in round huts.
 Veneration of Earth Goddesses: Evidenced by clay
images discovered at Chalcolithic sites, a reverence
for earth goddesses suggests a spiritual connection to
the concept of a Mother Goddess.
 Religious Symbols: The bull, symbolized by stylized
bull terracottas found in regions like Malwa and
Rajasthan, might have held religious significance for
Chalcolithic societies.
 Housing and Economy: Chalcolithic communities
primarily dwelled in thatched houses crafted from mud
bricks. Their economy centered around village-based
activities, reflecting localized self-sufficiency.
o Village Arrangement: Settlements were
characterized by small village clusters, with
closely arranged huts fostering a sense of
community.

 Early Forms of Urbanization: In some regions,
settlements displayed urban characteristics, including
planned layouts and public structures. These early
urban centers were likely centers of economic, social,
and religious activities.
 Cultural Practices: Evidence of pottery styles, art,
and burial practices suggests diverse cultural
expressions and belief systems.
o Adornment and Artistry: The era witnessed
a fondness for ornaments and decoration.
Women adorned themselves with shell and
bone ornaments and embellished their hair
with finely crafted combs.
o Skilled Craftsmanship: Chalcolithic
individuals showcased expertise in
coppersmithing, employing copper-smelting
techniques. Proficiency in stone working was
also evident, seen in the crafting of beads
from semi-precious stones.
o Textile Traditions: Skill in spinning and
weaving allowed Chalcolithic communities
to create textiles, reflecting their proficiency
in textile production.
 Culinary Practices: Chalcolithic inhabitants were
adept at cooking their food, highlighting culinary
skills integral to their daily lives.
 Regional Variations: Chalcolithic settlements
spanned various regions, each with distinct practices.
Eastern India produced rice, contrasting with western
India's focus on barley and wheat. Funerary practices
exhibited differences as well, with diverse burial
orientations and rituals.
Chalcolithic age and Pre-Harappan age
 Pre-Harappan Context: The Chalcolithic era is
prominently associated with the settlements of pre-
Harappan cultures, marking a critical phase of
transition in technological and socio-cultural aspects.
 Bronze Age Transition: Interestingly, the
Chalcolithic stage is not confined to a singular
temporal framework. In various parts of the country, it
unfolds both before the conclusion of the Bronze Age
Harappa culture and after its decline.
 Cultural Overlap: The Chalcolithic cultures exhibit
diverse degrees of contemporaneity with the
illustrious Harappan civilization. Some Chalcolithic
cultures flourish alongside the peak of the Harappan
culture, sharing space and possibly interactions.
 Pre-Harappan and Post-Harappan: It is worth
noting that while certain Chalcolithic cultures align
with pre-Harappan contexts, many can be classified as
13
post-Harappan. This suggests a continuum of cultural
evolution, possibly influenced by the legacy of the
Harappan civilization.
 Chronological Complexity: The varying timelines
and coexisting cultural phases create a complex
mosaic of human development during the Chalcolithic
era. This intricate tapestry reflects the diverse
pathways that different regions and communities
traversed.
The pre-Harappan Chalcolithic culture is illuminated by
several prominent archaeological sites, each offering a
window into the technological and cultural developments of
that era:
 Ganeshwar: Situated near the Khetri Mines in
Rajasthan, Ganeshwar stands as a testament to early
metallurgical activities. The site's artifacts reveal the
coexistence of copper and stone tools, shedding light
on the technological transition of the Chalcolithic
stage.
 Kalibangan: Located in Rajasthan, Kalibangan boasts
an array of cultural remains from the pre-Harappan
Chalcolithic culture. Its excavations have unveiled an
ancient ploughed field and evidence of early crop
cultivation, providing insights into agricultural
practices of the time.
 Banawali: Situated in Haryana, Banawali offers a
glimpse into the vibrant pre-Harappan Chalcolithic
society. The site's artifacts, including pottery and
tools, contribute to our understanding of settlement
patterns, craftsmanship, and cultural expressions
during this period.
 Kot Diji: Across the border in Sindh, Pakistan, the Kot
Diji site showcases the pre-Harappan Chalcolithic
culture's nuances. Its findings reveal insights into early
urban planning, architectural features, and
technological innovations that laid the groundwork for
subsequent civilizations.
Significance:
 Metallurgy Leap: Introduction of copper and bronze
revolutionized tools, setting the stage for advanced
civilizations.
 Settled Life: Transition from nomadic to settled living
laid groundwork for urbanization.
 Economic Diversity: Specialization in crafts, trade
networks, and economic complexity emerged.
 Cultural Expression: Artistic practices in pottery,
sculpture, and ornamentation flourished.
 Cultural Exchange: Interaction fostered sharing of
ideas, technologies, and practices.
 14

 Urbanization Foundation: Settlements,  The site provides insights into

technological advancements, and specialization laid burial practices and cultural
groundwork for future cities. expressions.
 Archaeological Insight: Excavations offer glimpses Inamgaon,  Inamgaon continues to be relevant
into early societies' daily life, organization, and Maharashtra during the Chalcolithic period,
beliefs. exhibiting urban features.
 Human Adaptability: Communities showcased  The site offers insights into the
adaptability in technological shifts and societal continued evolution of settlements
changes. and craft specialization.
 Historical Continuity: Chalcolithic Age's Naikund,  Naikund features a Chalcolithic
developments influenced Bronze Age and beyond. Maharashtra settlement with evidence of
pottery, tools, and copper artifacts.
Important Chalcolithic Sites in India  The site contributes to our
Sites About understanding of economic
Navdatoli,  Navdatoli is known for its activities and technological
Madhya Pradesh Chalcolithic settlement and advancements.
evidence of advanced craft
specialization. Iron Age
 The site provides insights into
The Iron Age is a significant period in human history marked
early metal use and trade networks.
by the widespread use of iron for tools, weapons, and various
Ahar-Banas  The Ahar-Banas Culture other purposes. It follows the Bronze Age and represents a
Culture, represents a significant critical technological advancement that had profound effects on
Rajasthan Chalcolithic culture in Rajasthan. societies, economies, and cultures. It generally spans from
 The site showcases advanced around 1200 BCE to the emergence of written records and the
pottery styles and evidence of early onset of historical documentation.
copper metallurgy.
Daimabad,  Daimabad is known for its fortified Characteristics:
Maharashtra settlement and advanced urban  Iron Metallurgy: The defining characteristic of the
planning. Iron Age is the increased use of iron for tools,
 The site features impressive weapons, and implements. Iron tools were more
pottery, terracotta figurines, and durable and widely available than those made of
evidence of copper objects. bronze.
Gilund,  While significant in the Neolithic  Technological Advancement: Iron metallurgy
Rajasthan period, Gilund also exhibits required higher temperatures than bronze or copper
Chalcolithic features. metallurgy, leading to advancements in smelting and
 The site showcases evidence of forging techniques. The use of iron tools led to
both copper and stone tools, as improvements in agriculture, construction, and other
well as a transition to more industries.
complex settlements.  Agricultural Impact: The availability of iron tools
Balathal,  Balathal is characterized by its significantly improved agricultural productivity,
Rajasthan well-planned settlement layout and contributing to population growth and urbanization.
evidence of early copper use.  Defining Societal Changes: The Iron Age saw the
 The site provides insights into rise of more complex societies, often organized into
urbanization and craft larger kingdoms, chiefdoms, and early states. The use
specialization. of iron tools influenced the expansion of agriculture,
Prabhas Patan,  Prabhas Patan is known for its trade, and political control over territories.
Gujarat Chalcolithic burial sites and  Urbanization and Trade: The growth of larger and
associated artifacts. more organized societies led to the development of
urban centers and more extensive trade networks. Iron

tools facilitated the construction of infrastructure and
enabled the growth of cities.
 Cultural Expression: The Iron Age saw the
emergence of distinctive artistic styles, including iron
tools and ornaments. Various cultures expressed their
unique identities through art, crafts, and burial
practices.
 Early States and Empires: The Iron Age witnessed
the formation of early states and empires in different
parts of the world. Iron tools played a role in
consolidating power and establishing centralized
authorities.
Significance:
 The Iron Age represents a major shift in human history
with the introduction of iron metallurgy, leading to
significant advancements in technology, agriculture,
and societal organization.
 The use of iron tools revolutionized various industries
and enabled the growth of larger settlements and more
complex societies.
 The rise of states and empires during this period laid
the groundwork for later historical developments and
the emergence of more complex political structures.
Important Iron age Sites in India:
 Some important Iron Age sites in India that provide
insights into the advancements, societal changes, and
cultural developments during this period are
Sisupalgarh (Odisha), Hallur (Karnataka),
Rupnagar (Punjab), Sanghol (Punjab), Ujjaini
(Madhya Pradesh).
Collectively, these ages provide invaluable insights into
humanity's progress, underscoring the resilience, innovation,
and societal evolution that have propelled us from our ancient
origins to the intricate societies that define our present.
Pre History in News
Prehistoric Rock Paintings Unearthed in
Telangana's Kasipeta
15
History enthusiasts in Telangana have made a significant
discovery – a mesolithic age rock art site dating back 10,000 to
30,000 years. The site, found on private land at Kasipeta in the
Yadadri Bhuvanagiri district, was revealed by members of
Kotha Telangana Charitha Brundam. Their findings were
verified through research articles and published works.
Key Details:
 Discovery and Artifacts: On a small hillock, a hood
rock shelter held red ochre paintings depicting four
bisons, two men, and a horse-like creature. Notably,
an X pattern was used for a human figure standing
behind the bisons. Microlith rock tools, a cairn cyst, a
menhir, and remnants of iron melting were also found
in the vicinity.
 Historical Significance: Expert Bandi Muralidhar
Reddy confirmed the authenticity of the paintings.
Archaeologist Dr E Shivanagi Reddy stated that this
newly-discovered site would join the list of
Telangana's rock art sites, offering insight into the
experiences of early humans as hunter-gatherers. Such
documentation persisted from the Mesolithic age
through the Neolithic and Iron ages.
This discovery provides valuable glimpses into the region's
ancient past, shedding light on the early artistic expressions and
lifestyles of its inhabitants.
Ancient Cave Paintings in Haryana's Mangar
Bani Forest Unveil Millennia-old History
Archaeologists in Haryana have made a remarkable discovery
in the Mangar Bani hill forest, estimating the prehistoric site's
age to be possibly up to 100,000 years. The site holds
significance as it contains stone age tools, cave paintings, and
rock art, hinting at a rich history that stretches back in time.
 16

Key Points: cultivation and animal husbandry, experiencing the

 Historical Significance: The Mangar Bani hill forest complexities of communal living.
has revealed a treasure trove of prehistoric artifacts,  Unique Settlement: Catalhoyuk, spanning 32 acres,
including cave paintings and stone tools. Based on tool existed for 1,150 years as a largely egalitarian
analysis, the site's habitation spans from around community. Eventually abandoned due to
100,000 to 15,000 years ago, with evidence of later environmental degradation and a changing climate, it
habitation extending up to the 8th-9th century AD. provided insights into humanity's early struggles and
 Future Investigations: The cave paintings are yet to be adaptations.
dated, but some likely belong to the Upper Palaeolithic This study offers a glimpse into the complexities faced by early
period. Plans for further exploration include trial trench settled societies, highlighting the enduring nature of challenges
digging, comprehensive documentation, mapping of inherent to communal living and urbanization.
rock shelters, and utilization of advanced dating
techniques.
This discovery expands our understanding of Haryana's
historical heritage, underlining the necessity to safeguard such
archaeological sites from haphazard development. The Mangar
Bani forest site offers a glimpse into the lives and artistic
expressions of early inhabitants of the region.

Early Settlement Challenges Revealed by

Prehistoric Turkish Site
Modern urban issues like overcrowding, violence, infectious
diseases, and environmental degradation were encountered by
the inhabitants of early large settlements, according to a study
conducted at the prehistoric site of Catalhoyuk in south-central
Turkey. The researchers examined 742 human skeletons from
the site, which was inhabited 9,100 to 7,950 years ago,
providing insights into life during the transition from hunter-
gatherer lifestyles to farming-based communities.

Key Points:
 Proto-City Insights: Catalhoyuk, considered a
"proto-city," housed 3,500 to 8,000 people during its
peak period. The study indicates that challenges of life
in settlements included issues like food production and
distribution, sanitation, social norms, infectious
diseases, and interpersonal relationships.
 Health Challenges: Skeleton analysis showed a high
rate of infections, likely due to crowded conditions and
poor hygiene. Evidence of healed fractures on many
skulls indicated interpersonal violence, potentially
linked to the overcrowded environment.
 Historical Continuity: The study underscores that
many current behaviors and challenges have deep
historical roots in human evolution. Catalhoyuk's
inhabitants faced issues that resonate with modern
urban challenges.
 Transition to Farming: As the world shifted from
foraging to farming post-Ice Age, settlements like
Catalhoyuk emerged. People transitioned to crop
 17

broadest expanse, spanning approximately 800,000

2. HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION
Introduction
 The Harappan Civilization, also known as the
Indus Valley Civilization, was one of the world's
earliest urban cultures, flourishing in the Indus River
Valley of present-day Pakistan and northwest India. It
existed roughly from around 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE.
The civilization is named after Harappa, one of the
major cities excavated in the region.
 Beyond its geographical reach, the civilization's
hallmark lies in its masterful urban planning,
architectural finesse, and intricate trade networks that
spanned both space and time. The Harappan
Civilization beckons us to explore the remarkable
achievements and complexities that characterized an
ancient society flourishing along the Indus River's
banks.
 The Harappan Civilization covered a vast area,
with its major centers located along the Indus
River and its tributaries. The core region included
modern-day Pakistan, particularly the provinces of
Punjab and Sindh, as well as parts of western India in
the states of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana, and Punjab.
 The Harappan civilization stands as South Asia's
pioneering urban marvel, emerging in parallel with the
illustrious civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt.
Among these, the Harappan civilization claimed the
square kilometers.
Embedded within India's proto-history and belonging to
the Bronze Age, the Harappan civilization exudes its
significance through distinct phases:
 Early/Pre-Harappan Phase (c. 3200−2600 BCE):
This phase marks the civilization's inception,
unveiling the gradual formation of its unique traits.
 Mature Harappan Phase (c. 2600−1900 BCE): The
zenith of development shines through advanced urban
planning, standardized brick construction, and
intricate trade networks.
 Late Harappan Phase (c. 1900−1300 BCE): The
decline of the civilization is characterized by shifting
settlement patterns and potential environmental
influences.
Cultural Continuity: Despite variations, an undeniable
cultural thread weaves through all phases of the Harappan
civilization, signifying its intrinsic unity.
Cultural Evolution: The Early Harappan phase serves as a
vital transitional period, bridging the civilization's nascent
stages and its peak maturity.
Distinctive Traits: This phase's characteristics lay the
groundwork for the civilization's later achievements, providing
glimpses into its gradual progression and unique attributes.

Early Harappan Phase Mature Harappan Phase Late Harappan Phase

(Regionalisation Era): (Integration Era):
 This phase is a foundational proto-urban stage of  Marks the urban zenith
the Harappan civilization. of the Harappan
 It corresponds to the Hakra phase of settlements. civilization, considered
 Fortification of settlements marks this era, its main phase.
reflecting a need for security.  Associated with mature
 Specialized crafts, including stone-working, urbanism, large cities,
bead-making, and metalcrafting, demonstrate a and sophisticated
high level of expertise. features.
 Introduction of wheeled transport signifies  Generic term
technological advancement. "Harappan Culture" or
 Trade networks begin to emerge, setting the "Harappan
stage for robust commercial interactions. Civilization" primarily
 Raw materials used, apart from jade, are akin to refers to this mature
those in the mature Harappan phase. urban phase.
 Lacked the expansive cities seen in the mature  Other sites possess
Harappan phase. similar basic Harappan
 Lesser expertise in craft specialization material traits, like red
compared to the mature phase. and black pottery,
terracotta figurines,
(Localisation Era):
 Marks the post-urban phase and the
decline of cities.
 Represents the fragmentation of the
culture seen in the Integration Era.
 Late Harappan phase encompasses five
geographical zones: West Punjab
Phase, East Punjab Phase, Jhukar
Phase, Rangpur Phase, and Ganga
Yamuna Doab Phase.
 Late Harappan settlements were
smaller and more rural compared to the
mature phase.
 Transition from the mature phase
shows gradual changes in seals,
pottery, writing, and other aspects.
 More numerous Late Harappan
settlements but marked by a diverse
agricultural base.

 Notable early Harappan archaeological sites
include Padri in Gujarat, Kalibangan in
Rajasthan, Dholavira in Kutch, Harappa in West
Punjab, Balakot, Amri, Bhirrana in Haryana, Kot
Diji, and Gumla.
Characteristics of The Harappan
Civilization
Town Planning
The archaeological evidence provides insights into their urban
layout and planning of which some of the key features of
Harappan town planning are:
 Grid Layout: Harappan cities were laid out in a grid-
like pattern, with streets and lanes intersecting at right
angles. This grid layout was evident in cities like
Mohenjo-daro and Harappa.
o This geometric precision facilitated efficient
movement within the city and highlighted
their meticulous approach to urban
organization.
 Standardized Architecture: The cities displayed a
high degree of standardization in terms of building
materials, construction techniques, and architectural
styles. Houses and buildings were constructed using
standardized bricks made from local clay, which
facilitated consistent construction.
 Advanced Drainage Systems: One of the most
remarkable aspects of Harappan town planning was
their advanced drainage systems. The cities had well-
engineered, covered drainage networks that efficiently
managed wastewater and sanitation. Streets were built
with a slight slope to direct waste and rainwater into
these drainage systems.
 Public Buildings: Harappan cities contained public
buildings, suggesting a well-organized society. Some
of these buildings were likely administrative centers,
public baths, and possibly religious structures. The
Great Bath in Mohenjo-daro is a notable example of a
public water tank, likely used for ritualistic purposes.
o Centralized Administrative Buildings:
Prominent buildings, often located on
elevated platforms, suggest centralized
administrative or ceremonial functions.
These structures point to a hierarchical
society and the importance of governance.
 Bricks precision: Harappans mastered brick-making,
using burnt bricks with a uniform 1:2:4 ratio
(thickness: width: length). This precision showcased
their craftsmanship, engineering acumen, and unified
18
standardized brick size  Important sites include Jhukar,
(1:2:4 ratio), etc. Chanhudaro, Amri (Jhukar Phase), and
sites in Kutch, Saurashtra, and
mainland Gujarat (Rangpur Phase).
architectural vision, reflecting both aesthetic harmony
and structural stability.
 Residential Areas: Residential areas were organized
into blocks, with houses made of baked bricks. Houses
typically had several rooms, often organized around a
central courtyard. Some houses had their own private
wells or access to community wells for water supply.
 Citadel and Lower Towns: Many Harappan cities
had a citadel area situated on a raised platform, which
might have housed important administrative or
religious buildings. The citadel was often distinct from
the lower town, which contained residential areas and
other urban facilities.
 Walled Cities: Several Harappan cities were fortified
with defensive walls, indicating concerns about
security. These walls might have served to protect the
cities from external threats.
 Lack of Palaces: Unlike some other ancient
civilizations, the Harappan cities do not show
evidence of grand palaces or monumental structures
that were typical of ruling elites. This has led some
scholars to speculate that the civilization might have
had a relatively equal social structure.
The town planning of the Harappa Civilization remains an
enduring testament to ancient urban excellence. The meticulous
grid layout, infrastructure, zoning, and public facilities reflect
not only a society's functional needs but also an intricate
understanding of governance, aesthetics, and social
organization. This remarkable urban planning legacy of the
Harappa Civilization continues to inspire urban designers and
architects today.
Agriculture
The Harappa Civilization existed from approximately 2600
BCE to 1900 BCE in the Indus Valley region (modern-day
India and Pakistan). Agricultural practices were crucial for the
civilization's sustenance, supporting urbanization, economic
growth, and social stability.
 Crops: The Harappans cultivated a variety of crops,
including wheat, barley, millet, rice, lentils, peas,
chickpeas, sesame, and cotton. These crops were well-
suited to the region's climate and contributed to the
civilization's food supply and economy.
 Irrigation: The Indus River and its tributaries played
a crucial role in supporting agriculture through

irrigation. The Harappans developed an advanahinced
system of canal networks, embankments, and
reservoirs to manage water resources for agricultural
purposes. This allowed them to practice both
floodplain and terrace farming.
 Terraced Farming: In some areas with uneven
terrain, the Harappans practiced terraced farming,
where they created flat platforms on slopes to prevent
soil erosion and maximize agricultural productivity.
 Crop Rotation: Evidence suggests that the Harappans
practiced crop rotation, a sustainable agricultural
practice that involves planting different crops in
different fields during different growing seasons. This
helps maintain soil fertility and prevent nutrient
depletion.
 Domesticated Animals: Domesticated animals, such
as cattle, water buffalo, sheep, and goats, played a vital
role in Harappan agriculture. They were used for
plowing fields, providing dairy products, and
transportation.
 Storage Facilities: The Harappans built granaries to
store surplus crops, ensuring a stable food supply
throughout the year. These granaries were raised on
platforms, which helped protect the stored grains from
moisture and pests.
 Environmental Awareness: The civilization's
agricultural practices displayed an understanding of
sustainable resource management. Efficient water
management and soil conservation methods
contributed to long-term agricultural viability.
 Agricultural Tools: Archaeological findings indicate
the use of various agricultural tools, including plows,
sickles, and threshing sledges. These tools were made
from materials like wood, stone, and bone.
 Trade: Surplus production allowed for trade and
economic growth. Agricultural surplus could be stored
and traded within and beyond the civilization's
boundaries.
o Urbanization and Agricultural Role:
Agricultural surplus was crucial for the
growth of urban centers like Mohenjo-daro
and Harappa. These cities featured advanced
infrastructure, drainage systems, and town
planning. Agricultural productivity
supported the burgeoning urban population's
food requirements.
 Religious and Cultural Significance: Agriculture
held cultural and religious importance in Harappan
society. Some artifacts and depictions suggest that
certain agricultural rituals and practices were part of
their belief system.
19
Agriculture was not only a means of sustenance for the Harappa
Civilization but also a driving force behind its urbanization,
economic progress, and societal stability. The advanced
agricultural practices and systems employed by the civilization
showcased their remarkable understanding of resource
management and sustainable growth.
Economy
 Agriculture and Surplus Production: The Harappa
Civilization's economy was largely agrarian.
Archaeological evidence suggests cultivation of wheat,
barley, millets, lentils, peas, and cotton. Advanced
irrigation systems, including well-planned canal networks,
facilitated agricultural productivity. Surplus agricultural
production was stored in granaries, ensuring stability and
supporting trade.
 Granaries and Storage: Prominent granaries with raised
platforms were discovered at sites like Harappa and
Mohenjo-daro. These structures point to organized storage
of surplus grain, possibly for trade and emergency use.
 Urban Centers: The Harappan Civilization was home
to well-planned, organized urban centers that served as
hubs for economic activities. These cities had
advanced infrastructure, including drainage systems,
granaries, and public buildings, indicating a complex
society with diverse economic functions.
o Urban centers like Mohenjo-daro and
Harappa featured well-structured layouts
with separate residential, commercial, and
public areas.
o Evidence of specialized crafts like pottery,
bead-making, metalwork, and shell carving
suggests economic specialization.
 Trade and Commerce: The Harappans engaged in
extensive trade networks, both within their region and
with distant areas. Archaeological findings suggest
trade connections with regions as far as Mesopotamia
(modern-day Iraq), Afghanistan, Iran, and the Persian
Gulf. Valuable resources like precious stones, metals,
and timber were exchanged.
o Archaeological excavations at Lothal, a
major port city, reveal evidence of
dockyards and wharves.
o The use of standardized weights and
measures (cubical stone weights) suggests a
well-regulated trade system.
 Craft Industries: The civilization had a wide range of
craft industries, including pottery, metalworking, bead
making, jewelry production, and textile
manufacturing. These crafts likely supported the
economy by producing goods for local consumption
and trade.

o Intricately carved seals with animal motifs,
often inscribed with Indus script, indicate
administrative and possibly trade-related use.
 Seals and Trade: The distinctive seals made from
materials like steatite and ivory were used for
administrative purposes and might have played a role
in trade and economic activities. These seals often
depicted animals, human figures, and inscriptions,
possibly indicating ownership or provenance of goods.
 Cattle and Trade Currency: Cattle might have
played a dual role as a form of wealth and trade
currency. Terracotta models of cattle found at
Harappan sites suggest their economic and cultural
significance.
 Standardized Weights and Measures: The presence
of standardized weights and measures suggests a well-
organized trade system. These standard units of
measurement facilitated trade and commerce by
ensuring fair transactions.
o Archaeological discoveries reveal
standardized measures and weights used for
trade.
o Seals, often made of steatite, carried
engravings depicting animals and sometimes
inscriptions.
o These seals might have served as marks of
ownership or trade documentation.
 Maritime Trade: The presence of dockyards and the
access to the Arabian Sea suggest that the Harappans
might have engaged in maritime trade. Coastal sites
like Lothal provide evidence of a dockyard and
warehouses that facilitated trade by sea.
 Urban Craft Specialization: The cities' layout and
artifacts suggest a level of craft specialization. Some
individuals likely focused on specific crafts, creating a
diversified economy within the urban centers.
 Domestic and Foreign Exchange: Archaeological
evidence, including finds of Mesopotamian artifacts in
Harappan cities and vice versa, suggests a system of
exchange between different regions. This exchange
might have included raw materials, finished goods,
and possibly even labor.
The Harappa Civilization's economy flourished due to a blend
of productive agriculture, advanced trade networks, and skilled
craftsmanship. The evidence of standardized measures, seals,
granaries, and urban planning reflects a well-structured and
regulated economic system. The civilization's economic
prowess left a lasting impact on the understanding of ancient
economies and continues to be a source of study and inspiration.
20
Political and Societal Organization
The Harappan society, a well-established urban civilization,
exhibited distinct social strata and artistic expertise. The society
mainly consisted of middle-class individuals, with excavations
highlighting three distinct social groups: rulers, affluent
merchants, and laborers occupying the lower urban areas.
Although the nature of inheritance remains debated among
historians, several key characteristics define the Harappan
society.
 Urban Centers and Administration: The presence of
well-planned urban centers with advanced infrastructure
suggests a degree of centralized administration. Cities
like Mohenjo-daro and Harappa had organized layouts,
public buildings, and drainage systems that indicate central
planning.
 Possible Social Hierarchy: The presence of larger and
more elaborate structures, such as citadels, might indicate
the existence of a ruling elite or administrative class.
Citadels could have housed administrative, religious, or
other important functions.
 Gender Roles: Artifacts and depictions on seals suggest
that women might have had active roles in various aspects
of society, including trade and craft industries. Some seals
show women participating in activities traditionally
associated with men.
 Equality and Urban Planning: The absence of
monumental palaces or grand structures suggests a
relatively equitable distribution of resources. Urban
planning focused on functionality rather than
grandeur.
 Hierarchical Levels:
o The society is believed to have been stratified with
different social levels. Hierarchies were possibly
determined by factors such as occupation, wealth, and
social status.
 Elite Class: The upper echelons of society might
have included rulers, priests, and prominent
traders. These individuals likely enjoyed
privileges such as access to better housing and
luxury items.
 Middle Class: The middle class likely consisted
of artisans, craftsmen, merchants, and
professionals. They contributed to the economic
and cultural vitality of the civilization.
 Laboring Class: The laboring class
encompassed agricultural workers, laborers, and
individuals engaged in essential services. These
individuals played a crucial role in sustaining the
urban centers and agricultural activities.
 Housing and Settlements: Housing varied according
to social status. Higher-status individuals might have
occupied larger houses with amenities, while lower-
status individuals lived in more modest dwellings.

 Social Mobility: While hierarchies were present,
social mobility might have existed to some extent.
Economic opportunities, occupational changes, and
other factors could have allowed individuals to move
within the societal structure.
 Urban Hierarchy and Social Segmentation: The
urban landscape of Harappan cities revealed a
structured society, with clear divisions among social
classes. The elite class, perhaps rulers or nobles,
occupied prominent positions in the city's layout.
Wealthy merchants formed another influential
segment, while laborers inhabited the city's lower
sections.
 Pottery Expertise and Artistry: The Harappans
demonstrated mastery in pottery, particularly the use
of the potter's wheel.
o Their artistic pursuits leaned more towards
pottery than stone craftsmanship. The prevalent
style was red black pottery – red ware pottery
adorned with intricate black designs, often
depicting trees and circles.
o These versatile pots served various purposes,
from storing grain and water to brewing
fermented alcoholic beverages in perforated
vessels.
 Terracotta and Figurines: Terracotta artifacts were
abundant at Harappan sites, encompassing figurines of
animals like bulls, buffaloes, dogs, monkeys, as well
as toy carts and human figures.
o Notably, a significant number of female figurines
were discovered compared to male counterparts,
providing insights into societal roles and
symbolism.
 Bead-making and Exquisite Jewelry: Harappans
showcased remarkable skill in bead-making, with
excavated jewelry showcasing intricate craftsmanship.
Among the finds were necklaces, bracelets, pendants,
earrings, and brooches made from materials such as
gold, silver, and semi-precious stones. The site of
Allahdino, near Karachi, yielded an array of necklaces
crafted from precious metals and gems, revealing the
society's affinity for ornate adornments.
 Clothing, Diet, and Food Habits: The people of
Harappan civilization typically dressed in garments
made from cotton and wool, reflecting their
resourcefulness and textile proficiency. Their diet
encompassed non-vegetarian fare, with fish being a
common choice. Dairy products like milk and curd
were also a part of their culinary preferences.
 Regional Dietary Variations: Different regions
within the Harappan civilization exhibited distinct
dietary practices. Societies in Sindh and Punjab
21
predominantly consumed wheat and barley, while
those in Rangpur and Surkotda favored rice and
millets, indicating the adaptability and diversity of
their agrarian practices.
The Harappa Civilization's societal structure was organized
hierarchically, with clear divisions between different social
classes. Urban planning, economic activities, and cultural
practices were influenced by this structure. Despite hierarchies,
the civilization's achievements in urban planning,
craftsmanship, and trade highlight the collective contributions
of individuals from various societal levels to the development
and sustenance of this remarkable ancient civilization.
Religious Practices
The Harappa Civilization, existing from around 2600 BCE to
1900 BCE, displayed a rich tapestry of religious practices that
reflected the spiritual and cultural dimensions of its society.
Although the Indus script remains undeciphered, archaeological
findings provide insights into the civilization's beliefs and
rituals.
 Artifacts and Symbols: Terracotta figurines of
animals and humans, including mother goddess
figures, suggest a potential focus on fertility and
worship of feminine deities. Animal motifs and
depictions on seals, such as the "unicorn" and "bull,"
might have held symbolic and religious significance.
 Ritualistic Structures: Some buildings with features
like platforms, baths, and staircases are believed to
have had ritualistic purposes. However, their exact
functions are still debated.
 Water Management and Purification: The
advanced drainage systems, public baths, and water
reservoirs in some cities indicate the possible
importance of water in their religious or ritual
practices. Water might have been used for purification
and ritual cleansing.
 Seals and Symbols: The seals found in Harappan sites
often feature engravings of animals, humans, and
various symbols. These seals might have had ritual,
administrative, or trade-related uses. Some seals show
figures in postures that suggest religious rituals or
ceremonies.
 Possible Deities: The "Pashupati Seal," featuring a
figure seated in a yogic posture surrounded by
animals, has been interpreted by some as a depiction
of a deity, possibly a proto-Shiva or a deity associated
with animals and fertility.
o This seal has been associated with a
prototype of the deity Shiva and suggests a
connection to early forms of Hinduism.

 Burial Practices: Burial practices can offer insights
into religious beliefs. The presence of grave goods like
pottery and ornaments in some burials indicates a
possible belief in an afterlife or reverence for
ancestors.
 Sacrificial Pits: Archaeological excavations have
revealed pits containing the remains of animals,
suggesting the possibility of sacrificial rituals.
However, the exact nature of these rituals is
speculative.
 Figurines and Amulets: Terracotta figurines and
amulets depict deities or individuals in yogic poses,
hinting at spiritual practices.
o Some figurines resemble deities like the
Mother Goddess, emphasizing fertility and
nurturing.
 Spiritual Landscapes: The urban planning, with a clear
distinction between citadel and lower town, might
represent a cosmic or spiritual landscape.
o The citadel, possibly associated with rulers or
temples, could have held spiritual
significance.
Religious practices in the Harappa Civilization were deeply
intertwined with the spiritual and cultural fabric of society.
While the undeciphered script hinders a complete
understanding, the presence of intricate seals, symbolic
artifacts, ritualistic structures, and potential proto-deities
indicates a rich tapestry of mysticism, rituals, and beliefs that
influenced the civilization's daily life and worldview.
Script and Seals
 Harappan Script: The Harappan script is an ancient
writing system used by the Harappan Civilization. It
appears on seals, pottery, and other objects. The script
consists of a series of characters, usually in the form of
short, linear signs. These signs are engraved or stamped
onto surfaces.
o The script's true nature—whether it represents a
full-fledged language, syllabic signs, or other
forms of communication—is still a subject of
scholarly debate.
o The Harappa Civilization's script is known as the
Indus script.
o It is one of the world's earliest writing systems,
found primarily on seals, tablets, and pottery.
o Linguistic Complexity: The script contains
around 400 distinct signs, indicating a certain
level of complexity. Despite its widespread use,
the script's linguistic and semantic content
remains a puzzle.
o Undeciphered Script: The Indus script's
meaning and language remain a mystery. Scholars
22
have proposed various theories, suggesting it
could be a logo-syllabic script with connections to
Dravidian or other languages. The absence of
bilingual inscriptions or a Rosetta Stone-like key
hampers decipherment.
 Seals: The seals of the Harappan Civilization are perhaps
its most iconic artifacts. These seals are typically made of
materials like steatite (also known as soapstone), though
terracotta and other materials were also used. Seals are
characterized by their intricate engravings, featuring a wide
range of subjects including animals, humans, mythical
creatures, and symbols.
o Many seals also feature an inscription in the
Harappan script, often consisting of a series of
characters. The seals vary in size, shape, and
design. Some were used for practical purposes,
while others may have had symbolic or ritualistic
significance.
 Seals as Identity Markers: Some seals carried
inscriptions that are assumed to be personal names, titles,
or designations.
o These inscriptions suggest the seals might have
been used as identity markers or ownership
indicators.
 Proto-Shiva Seal: The "Pashupati Seal" from
Mohenjo-daro is one of the most famous seals. It
features a seated figure surrounded by animals and has
been associated with a prototype of the deity Shiva.
This seal offers insights into potential religious and
cultural beliefs.
 Trade and Seals: Seals were used for sealing
packages and goods, suggesting their role in trade and
commerce. The use of standardized weights and
measures and the presence of seals highlight a
regulated trade system. The depiction of animals and
commodities on seals suggests their connection to
trade activities.
The script and seals of the Harappa Civilization offer tantalizing
glimpses into a complex and organized society. While the Indus
script's meaning eludes us, its presence on seals, combined with
their engravings, hints at a system of communication, trade, and
perhaps even spirituality that defined the civilization's identity
and interactions.
Facts by testbook
Pashupati Seal
 Discovery and Significance: Discovered in
Mohenjo-daro, the seal is made of steatite and dates
back to around 2500 BCE. The seal's intricate
carving and symbolism have led scholars to

associate it with early conceptions of the deity
Shiva.
 Shiva Connection: The seal's portrayal bears
similarities to later iconography of the Hindu deity
Shiva.
 The headdresses and posture are reminiscent of
Shiva's characteristics as the Lord of Animals
("Pashupati").
 Cultural and Religious Implications: The presence
of the Proto-Shiva Seal points to a sophisticated
religious and cultural environment. It hints at a
complex understanding of divinity and the
integration of nature and spirituality.
 Cultural Continuity: The Proto-Shiva Seal's
connection to later Hindu traditions showcases the
continuity of certain religious elements through the
ages
Developments in Art of during Harappa
Civilisation
Artistic Mediums: The civilization's art was primarily
expressed through various mediums, including pottery,
sculpture, seals, and jewelry. Materials such as clay, stone,
terracotta, metal, and precious stones were used to create
intricate artifacts.
 Stone Sculptures
o A bearded man statue: A bearded man statue was
discovered in Mohenjo-Daro, featuring a shawl
with a trefoil design, a shawl covering the right arm
and left shoulder, extended eyes, a well-formed
nose, a short beard, whiskers, and a short
moustache. The statues hint at Greek style, with a
right-hand armlet and necklace holes.
o Male Torso: Red sandstone was used to create a
head, arms, neck, and shoulders with socket
openings. The legs have been broken, and the
shoulders are browned. The piece is expertly cut
and polished.
 Bronze Casting
o Bronze casting involves creating figures made of
wax and clay, then heating the clay to melt the wax.
The molten metal is then poured into a hollow clay
mould, and the clay coating is removed. Bronze
casting includes both human and animal
representations, such as the buffalo and goat.
o This technique was popular in Indus valley culture,
as seen in the copper dog and bird of Lothal and the
bronze bull figure from Kalibangan. Metal casting
persisted until the late Harappan, Chalcolithic, and
23
other peoples followed the Indus valley civilization.
Example: Dancing Girl.
 Terracotta
o Terracotta statues in Gujarat and Kalibangan are
lifelike, featuring bearded males with coiled hairs
and a clay mask of a horned god. Terracotta was
also used to create toys like carts, whistles, rattles,
birds, animals, gamesmen, and discs. Mother
Goddess figurines are the most important clay
figures in these regions.
 Pottery: Harappan pottery is characterized by distinct
shapes and decorative motifs. Intricate designs, often
geometric or floral, adorned pottery vessels. The use
of a potter's wheel suggests advanced pottery-making
techniques.
 Jewelry and Ornaments: Harappan jewelry
comprised necklaces, bangles, and earrings made from
materials like gold, silver, and semi-precious stones.
The intricacy of jewelry designs underscores the
civilization's skill in metalworking and craftsmanship.
 Lack of Monumental Art: The Harappan
Civilization lacks large-scale monumental art or grand
architecture, unlike some other ancient civilizations.
The focus was more on intricate details and domestic
art forms.
 Artistic Legacy: Harappan art provides a visual
window into their daily life, beliefs, and cultural
practices. Despite the civilization's decline, their
artistic legacy continues to influence modern
perceptions of ancient art and aesthetics.
The art of the Harappa Civilization showcases their creativity,
symbolism, and cultural nuances. From seals to figurines and
pottery, their artifacts speak volumes about their way of life,
spiritual beliefs, and the profound connection they felt with the
world around them. These artistic expressions remain a
testament to their ingenuity and a link to the distant past.
Decline of Harappan Civilization
The decline of the Harappan Civilization, also known as the
Indus Valley Civilization, is a topic that has intrigued historians
and archaeologists for many years. While there isn't a single
definitive explanation, several factors are believed to have
contributed to its decline:
 Environmental Factors: Changes in the
environment, including shifts in the course of major
rivers like the Indus and the Ghaggar-Hakra, could
have had a significant impact on the availability of
water for agriculture. If these rivers changed their
courses or experienced reduced water flow, it would

have disrupted the agricultural system that was crucial
for sustaining the civilization.
 Climate Change: There is evidence to suggest that the
region experienced shifts in climate patterns during the
period when the civilization began to decline. This
might have led to changing weather patterns, including
decreased rainfall, which could have impacted
agriculture and water resources.
 Natural Disasters: The Indus Valley was susceptible
to natural disasters such as floods and earthquakes.
These events could have caused widespread damage to
the infrastructure and cities of the civilization, making
recovery difficult.
 Social and Political Factors: Internal social and
political factors might have played a role in the
decline. Disruptions in the established social order,
conflicts among ruling elites, and a breakdown in
centralized authority could have weakened the overall
stability of the civilization.
 Migration and Invasion: There is some evidence to
suggest that groups from the northwest, possibly
pastoral nomads or Indo-Aryans, could have migrated
into the region. This migration might have brought
cultural and technological changes that contributed to
the decline of the existing urban centers.
 Economic Factors: The civilization's economy was
heavily dependent on trade networks, and if these
networks weakened or collapsed due to external
factors, it could have had a detrimental impact on the
economy and overall stability of the civilization.
The Harappan Civilization's decline is likely due to a
combination of interconnected factors, as there is no unified
written record. Archaeological evidence, such as urban center
abandonment and material culture changes, supports the idea of
a gradual decline over several centuries.
Significance Of Harappan Civilization At Present
The Harappan Civilization holds several relevant lessons and
insights for the present times despite its ancient origins. Here
are some ways in which the civilization's legacy remains
significant:
1. Urban Planning and Infrastructure: The
Harappan cities were remarkably well-planned,
with advanced drainage systems and organized
layouts. In today's urbanization challenges, lessons
from their urban planning could inform sustainable
city development, efficient infrastructure
management, and waste disposal systems.
2. Trade and Connectivity: The civilization's
extensive trade networks reveal the importance of
economic interactions between regions. In the
24
modern globalized world, understanding these
networks can inform international trade relations
and the benefits of fostering economic connectivity.
3. Technological Advancements: The Harappans
employed sophisticated technologies for their time,
evident in their architecture, metallurgy, and
craftsmanship. This emphasizes the significance of
technological innovation in driving societal
progress, a lesson applicable in today's rapidly
advancing technological landscape.
4. Environmental Awareness: The civilization's
potential decline due to environmental factors
offers a lesson on the interplay between human
activity and the environment. This has relevance for
contemporary discussions about sustainability,
climate change, and the need to balance
development with ecological preservation.
5. Cultural Diversity and Exchange: The Harappan
Civilization's trade connections suggest a culturally
diverse society. Recognizing and respecting
cultural diversity remains important in modern
multicultural societies, promoting tolerance and
understanding.
6. Writing and Communication: While the
Harappan script remains undeciphered, its
existence highlights the power of written language
and communication systems in preserving
knowledge and facilitating social organization.
This underscores the continued importance of
effective communication in today's interconnected
world.
7. Historical Context and Identity: Studying the
Harappan Civilization contributes to a deeper
understanding of the historical roots of the Indian
subcontinent. This knowledge fosters a sense of
cultural identity and provides context for modern
Indian society.
8. Archaeological Conservation and Tourism: The
preservation of Harappan sites and artifacts
showcases the importance of archaeological
conservation and responsible tourism. These
practices can inspire sustainable approaches to
preserving cultural heritage sites worldwide.
9. In essence, the Harappan Civilization's relevance
lies in its ability to offer insights into fundamental
aspects of human civilization that transcend time.
By learning from their achievements, challenges,
and practices, we can address contemporary issues
more effectively and make informed decisions for a
more sustainable, interconnected, and culturally
aware world.
 25

Various Harappan Sites Details about it

SITE LOCATION EXCAVATOR ABOUT
Harappa State: Pakistan (Punjab) Dayaram Sahini The site features a grid-like street layout, residential and
River: Ravi (1921) commercial areas, and evidence of craftsmanship and trade.
Mohenjo-Daro State: Pakistan (Sindh) R. D. Banerji (1922), Mohenjo-daro, meaning "Mound of the Dead," is one of the
River: Indus E. Makay, Kashinath most iconic Harappan sites.
Dixit, Sir John It was a major urban center with well-planned streets,
Marshall advanced drainage systems, and impressive structures like
the Great Bath and the Great Granary.
Lothal State: Gujarat S.R. Rao (1957) Lothal was a prominent port city with evidence of
(Ahmedabad District, at dockyards, indicating maritime trade connections.
the head of the Gulf of The site provides insights into the civilization's trade
Cambay) networks and technological advancements.
River: Bhogava and
Sabarmati river
confluence
Kalibangan State: Rajasthan Amlanand Ghosh Kalibangan is known for its unique fire altars and evidence
"Black Bangles" (Ganganagar) (1953), Dr. B. B. of ploughed fields, providing insights into agricultural
River: Ghaggar Lal, B. K. Thapar practices.
(1961) It also reveals the presence of a fortified citadel.
Chanhu-Daro State: : Pakistan N. G. Mazumdar It has provided evidence of factories producing seals, and
(Sindh), near Mohenjo- (1931) and E. Makay toys, suggesting that it was a village with a large number of
Daro craftsmen and an industrial town.
River: Indus
Banawali (Hisar) State: Haryana R. S. Bist (1973-74) Banawali is known for its well-preserved structures and
River: Rangoi evidence of urban life.
Amri State: Sindh (Pakistan) Ghurey (1835), The ancient mounds of 8 hectares on the west bank of Indus
River: Sindh Fazal Ahmed (1955) River have been extensively excavated.
Ropar State: Punjab(India) Y. D. Sharma (1955- It showcases the eastern extent of the Harappan
River: Sutlej 56) Civilization's territory.
Surkotada State: Gujarat (Bhuj) J. P. Joshi (1964) Surkotada is notable for its unique circular mudbrick
fortification and evidence of domestication of animals like
camels.
Dholavira State: Gujarat J. P. Joshi (1990-91) The archaeological remains of the city of Dholavira include
River: J. P. Joshi (1990- fortifications, gateways, water reservoirs, ceremonial
91) ground, residential units, workshop areas, and cemetery
complex,
Rakhigarhi State: Haryana Amarendra Nath Rakhigarhi is one of the largest and most significant
Harappan sites.
Ongoing excavations have revealed a complex urban
settlement with residential and industrial areas.

the heart of the Harappan Civilization, is a defining

Late Harappan Phase: Transition and feature of the Late Harappan Phase.
o Factors contributing to this decline include
Transformation (c. 1900 BCE – 1300 BCE) environmental changes such as the drying up
The Late Harappan Phase marks a critical juncture in the
of the Ghaggar-Hakra River system, shifts in
evolution of the Indus Valley Civilization, characterized by
trade routes, and possibly socio-political
significant shifts in urbanization, trade, culture, and societal
upheavals.
structure. This period, from around 1900 BCE to 1300 BCE,
 Settlement Patterns and Ruralization: As urban
witnessed the fading of the once-thriving urban centers and the
centers lost their prominence, people shifted to smaller
emergence of new patterns of settlement and cultural practices.
settlements and rural areas. Evidence from
archaeological sites like Kalibangan and Lothal
 Urban Decline and Shift: The decline of major urban
suggests that people moved to more localized and
centers like Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, which were

sustainable settlements, indicating a shift towards
ruralization.
 Economic Changes: The economy of the Late
Harappan Phase underwent significant
transformations. Long-distance trade networks that
had flourished during the Harappan heyday weakened.
o Localized economies with an emphasis on
agriculture and subsistence activities became
more prevalent as people adapted to changing
circumstances.
 Cultural Continuity and Transformation: Elements
of Harappan culture endured, although with notable
changes.
o Pottery, for instance, transitioned from the
standardized designs of the earlier phase to
more varied and regional styles, showcasing
influences from different cultural
interactions.
 Regionalism and Cultural Diversity: The decline of
central urban authority led to the emergence of
regional cultures with distinct identities. Pottery
styles, art forms, and architectural features began to
exhibit regional variations, reflecting the
decentralization of cultural expression.
 Possible Causes of Decline: Environmental factors
played a significant role in the decline of urban
centers.
o Shifting river courses, changes in monsoon
patterns, and a decrease in agricultural
productivity likely contributed. The reduced
agricultural surplus might have led to a
decline in trade, which, coupled with
environmental challenges, affected urban
sustainability.
 Aryan Migration Theory: The Late Harappan Phase
has been linked to the possible migration of Indo-
Aryan groups into the region. This migration
hypothesis suggests that the influx of these groups
brought new cultural practices and marked the end of
the urban civilization's dominance.
 Archaeological Evidence: Archaeological
excavations provide valuable insights into the changes
during this phase. Sites like Lothal reveal evidence of
changing pottery styles, house structures, and artifacts,
indicating shifts in cultural practices.
 Continued Significance: While the urban centers
declined, the cultural legacy of the Harappan
Civilization continued to influence later societies in
the Indian subcontinent. Elements like script elements,
artistic motifs, and cultural practices persisted in
various forms.
26
 End of an Era: The Late Harappan Phase signifies the
gradual dissolution of the unified urban civilization.
The transformation marked the end of an era
characterized by grand urban centers and organized
trade networks.
The Late Harappan Phase presents a multifaceted picture of
transition and adaptation. As urban centers waned and regional
cultures emerged, the civilization faced new challenges and
opportunities. This phase underscores the intricate interplay of
environmental changes, economic shifts, cultural dynamics,
and possibly migrations in shaping the course of history. While
the decline of the urban civilization is a notable aspect, the Late
Harappan Phase also reveals the resilience and adaptability of
ancient societies in the face of change.
Lesser-known facts about the Harappa Civilization:
 Ancient Toilets and Sewage Systems: Harappan
cities had advanced sanitation systems with indoor
toilets connected to an underground sewage
network. The Great Bath in Mohenjo-daro, often
associated with ritualistic bathing, had a complex
drainage system.
 Lack of Weaponry: Archaeological excavations
have revealed a surprising scarcity of defensive
structures or weaponry. This has led to speculations
about the nature of their society and the possible
absence of significant conflicts.
 Possible Earliest Use of Buttons: The Harappans
might have used buttons as fasteners for clothing.
Tiny button-like artifacts made from shell, metal, or
terracotta have been found.
 Indigenous Urban Planning: The urban planning
of Harappan cities was indigenous and not derived
from any known external source. The grid-like
street patterns and advanced drainage systems were
unique to their civilization.
 Cultural Continuity in Pakistan: While the major
cities of the civilization declined, some smaller
settlements in present-day Pakistan continued to
thrive. These settlements demonstrate a continuity
of culture and adaptation.
 Diverse Burial Practices: Harappan burial
practices varied across different regions and time
periods. Some bodies were buried in graveyards,
while others were interred within homes, indicating
diverse beliefs or rituals.
 Harappan Art Influence on Later Cultures:
Elements of Harappan art, such as animal motifs
and intricate designs, influenced later Indian art and
culture. Some motifs seen in Harappan pottery can
be traced in later Indian artistic traditions.
 27

 Maritime Connections: Evidence suggests that the Aadichanallur were the other four sites mentioned in the
Harappans engaged in maritime trade, with port speech (Tamil Nadu).
cities like Lothal serving as important trade hubs.
Dockyards, wharves, and an artificial dock were UNESCO heritage site Dholavira
found in Lothal, showcasing their maritime The archaeological site of Dholavira, an ancient Harappan city,
capabilities. has been granted the prestigious UNESCO World Heritage Site
designation. This recognition marks a significant achievement
Harappa Civilisation in news recently for Dholavira, which is located in the Kutch district of Gujarat,
India.
New finds at Harappan site  Unique Status: Dholavira becomes the first site of the
The latest round of excavations at the 5,000-year-old
ancient Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) in India to
Harappan site of Rakhigarhi in Haryana's Hisar has revealed
receive the UNESCO World Heritage Site tag. It joins
the structure of some houses, lanes and a drainage system
the esteemed list as the 40th heritage site from India
 Skeletal Remains: Skeletons of two women were
and the 4th from Gujarat.
discovered at Mound No. 7, alongside pots and
 Distinctive Features: Dholavira ranks as the fifth-
artifacts, suggesting funerary rituals. DNA tests on
largest metropolis of the IVC, following Mohen-jo-
these remains could reveal information about ancient
Daro, Ganweriwala, Harappa (in Pakistan), and
people's ancestry and diet.
Rakhigarhi (in India). The city's layout includes a
 Signs of Settlement: Excavations at Mound No. 3
fortified citadel, a middle town, and a lower town with
unveiled what seems to be an "aristocratic settlement".
walls constructed from sandstone or limestone, a
Similar three-tiered habitation patterns observed in
departure from the mud-brick walls found in other
other Harappan sites raise questions about their basis
Harappan sites.
– whether communal or occupational.
 Innovative Architecture: The site boasts several
 Artifacts: Significant finds include steatite seals,
distinctive features, including cascading water
terracotta bangles, and impressions of the Harappan
reservoirs, unique gate designs, and a multi-purpose
script. Recovered objects date to the mature-
ground used for festivities and trading. Funerary
Harappan period, spanning from 2600 BC to 1900
architecture with tumulus structures resembling
BC.
Buddhist Stupas indicates a unique cultural practice.
 Jewelry Unit:
 Trade and Decline: Dholavira was a commercial and
Discovery of steatite
manufacturing hub for around 1,500 years before its
beads, semi-precious
eventual decline in 1500 BC. The discovery of copper
stones, shells, and
smelters suggests advanced metallurgy, and evidence
objects made of agate
points to trade connections with Mesopotamia. The
and carnelian.
city's decline aligned with the collapse of
Possible remains of a
Mesopotamia, impacting its economy and trade
5,000-year-old
networks.
jewelry-making unit
 Environmental Changes: Around 2000 BC,
hint at trade and craftsmanship within the civilization.
Dholavira faced severe aridity due to climate change
o Unearthed pieces of copper and gold jewelry
and drying up of rivers like the Saraswati. This led to
and the absence of stones like lapis lazuli
migration towards the Ganges valley and other
locally suggest extensive trade networks.
regions, impacting the city's population and economic
These excavations at Rakhigarhi shed light
vitality.
on aspects of daily life, trade, and culture
 Preservation and Significance: The UNESCO listing
within the Harappan Civilization,
recognizes Dholavira as an exceptionally well-
contributing to a deeper understanding of this
preserved urban settlement from the 3rd to mid-2nd
ancient society.
millennium BCE.
 Despite its recent excavation, Dholavira has remained
In her 2020 Budget speech, proposing to facilitate cultural
free from encroachments, contributing to its pristine
development, Finance Minister named Rakhigarhi as one
status.
of five ancient sites that the Indian government will
The Archaeological Survey of India has developed a museum
develop as iconic archaeological attractions. Hastinapur
at the site, offering visitors a glimpse into the ancient
(UP), Dholavira (Gujarat), Shivsagar (Assam), and
 28

civilization's marvels. Dholavira's inclusion as a UNESCO (c) Rakhigarhi

World Heritage Site is a testament to its historical importance (d) Ropar
and the insights it offers into the rich tapestry of the ancient
Indus Valley Civilization. Which one of the following is not a Harappan site? (2019)
(a) Chanhudaro
Mohenjodaro’s Dancing Girl figurine tells us (b) Kot Diji
about the prehistoric civilisation (c) Sohgaura
On International Museum Day, Prime Minister Narendra Modi (d) Desalpur
inaugurated the International Museum Expo and introduced the
Expo's mascot – a modern interpretation of the famed Dancing Which of the following characterises/ characterises the
Girl of Mohenjodaro. people of the Indus Civilization? (2013)
 Dancing Girl's Discovery: The Indus Civilization 1. They possessed great palaces and temples.
(3300-1300 BC) was revealed in the 1920s, and the 2. They worshipped both male and female deities.
Dancing Girl was discovered in 1926 by archaeologist 3. They employed horse-drawn chariots in warfare.
Ernest McKay at Mohenjodaro. The small bronze Select the correct statement/statements using the codes given
figurine with its unique pose and metallurgical below
intricacy captivates visitors at India's National (a) 1 and 2 only
Museum. (b) 2 only
 Pose Interpretation: Scholars debated whether the (c) 1, 2 and 3
Dancing Girl was a dancer or a figure carrying an (d) None of the statements given above is correct
offering. Recent interpretations challenge the dancer
label, suggesting it might depict a woman with an Regarding the Indus valley civilization, consider the
offering, yet the original purpose remains uncertain. following statements: (2011)
 Artistic Mastery: The Dancing Girl showcases the 1. It was predominantly a secular civilization and the
Indus Civilization's advanced knowledge of metal religious element, though present, did not dominate the
blending and intricate lost-wax casting techniques. Its scene.
existence signifies the sophistication of Harappan 2. During this period, cotton was used for manufacturing
artistry, reflecting a society's high level of textiles in India.
advancement. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
Interesting to know
(c) Both 1 and 2
Lost wax casting technique
(d) Neither 1 and 2
 The lost wax casting technique, also known as
investment casting, is a remarkable method used to
create intricate and detailed metal sculptures,
artifacts, and jewelry. This technique, believed to
have been utilized in the crafting of the famed
Dancing Girl of Mohenjodaro.
 Wax Casting: Molten wax is poured into the mold,
filling the negative impression. Once the wax
solidifies, it forms an exact replica of the original
model.

PREVIOUS YEAR PRELIMS QUESTIONS

Which one of the following ancient towns is well-known
for its elaborate system of water harvesting and
management by building a series of dams and
channelizing water into connected reservoirs? (2021)
(a) Dholavira
(b) Kalibangan