Table of Content
Chapter 1: Early medieval India; From
750−1000 AD……………………………………..4
"The early medieval period in India marked a
transformative era where the seeds of cultural fusion
Chapter 4: The Medieval Period (10th - 12th century)...42
were sown, paving the way for a tapestry of diverse
influences to intertwine.".............................................................. 4
Rise of Regional Kingdoms: Political Dynamics .................. 4
The Gurjara-Pratiharas............................................................. 4
The Palas of Bengal .................................................................... 5
The Rashtrakutas (c.753 and 975 CE) ............................... 8
The Tripartite Struggle ............................................................... 10
Significance of Kannauj ......................................................... 11
Various facets of these three kingdoms ......................... 11
Chapter 2: The Cholas…….......……………………15
Introduction ..................................................................................... 15
Important Rulers ........................................................................... 15
Chola’s Administration................................................................ 19
Chola’s Village Administration ........................................... 20
Chola’s Society and Economy ............................................. 20
Chola Temple Architecture: A Masterpiece of
Innovation and Grandeur ..................................................... 21
Chola Dynasty: Flourishing Art Forms and
Literature. .................................................................................... 22
Chapter 3: Kingdoms of South…………………...….24
"The medieval South Indian kingdoms, a constellation of
Chapter 5: The Islamic conquest of North India………49
cultural brilliance, etched their saga on history's canvas
through artistic opulence, maritime prowess, and resilient
dynasties.".......................................................................................... 24
The Chalukya dynasty ................................................................. 24
Introduction................................................................................ 24
Badami Chalukyas.................................................................... 24
Various Aspect of Life of Chalukya Kingdom ............... 27
Decline .......................................................................................... 31
The Pallavas ..................................................................................... 31
Important Rulers ...................................................................... 32
Administration .......................................................................... 33
Society ........................................................................................... 33
Economy....................................................................................... 34
Literature, Art and Architecture ........................................ 34
Decline .......................................................................................... 35
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Vijayanagara Empire.................................................................... 35
Sangma Dynasty ....................................................................... 36
Tuluvas Dynasty ....................................................................... 37
"Between the pages of medieval history, the Indian
subcontinent witnessed an epoch where empires
converged and diverged, leaving behind a legacy that
continues to resonate." ................................................................. 42
Northern India ................................................................................ 42
Rajput Dynasties....................................................................... 42
Chahamans/Chauhans ........................................................... 43
The Chandellas of Bundelkhand ........................................ 43
The Paramaras of Malwa ...................................................... 44
The Chalukyas of Gujarat/The Solanki Rajputs .......... 45
The Tomars ................................................................................. 45
The Gahadavalas of Kannauj ............................................... 45
Karkota Dynasty: ...................................................................... 46
Utpala Dynasty: ......................................................................... 46
Yashaskara Dynasty:............................................................... 46
Hindu Shahi Dynasty .............................................................. 47
Chedis of Tripuri....................................................................... 47
Senas of Bengal ......................................................................... 47
The Gangas/Chodagangas of Orissa ................................ 47
Chalukyas of Kalyani .............................................................. 48
"The Islamic conquest of North India marks the
crossroads where dynasties collided, leaving an indelible
imprint on the region's history and socio-religious
fabric." ................................................................................................ 49
Arab invasion .................................................................................. 49
Turk invasion .................................................................................. 49
Mahmud of Ghazni................................................................... 49
The Ghurid Dynasty and Muhammad Ghori ...................... 49
Muhammad Ghori (1173-1206 AD)................................. 49
Emergence and Propagation of Islam .................................. 50
The Age of conflict (1000–1200 CE) ..................................... 51
The Ghaznavids .............................................................................. 53
Rise of the Ghaznavid Dynasty ........................................... 53
The Ghurid Dynasty and Muhammad Ghori ...................... 54
Ghurid Dynasty ......................................................................... 54
Chapter 6: The Delhi Sultanate……………………...58
Introduction ..................................................................................... 58
Slave dynasty/Mameluk dynasty (1206-1290 AD) ........ 58
Qutub-ud-din Aibak: (1206 -1210) .................................. 59
Aram Shah: (1210 AD) ........................................................... 60
Shamsuddin Iltutmish: (1210 -1236 AD) ...................... 60
Ruknuddin Firuz Shah (1236 AD) .................................... 62
Razia Sultan (1236-1240 AD) ............................................. 62
Bahram Shah (1240–42 AD) ............................................... 63
Alauddin Masud Shah (1242–46 AD) .............................. 63
Nasiruddin Mahmud (1246–66 AD) ................................ 63
Balban (1266–1286 AD) ....................................................... 63
Khalji Dynasty (1290-1320 AD).............................................. 64
Jalauddin Khalji (1290-1296 AD) ..................................... 64
Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316 AD) ...................................... 65
Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah (1316–1320 AD) ................ 67
Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414 AD)......................................... 67
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320–25 AD)............................... 68
Mohammad Bin Tughlaq/ Jauna Khan (1325–1351
AD) .................................................................................................. 68
Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351–1388 AD) ............................. 69
Nasiruddin Muhammad (1390-1398 AD) ..................... 70
Saiyyad Dynasty (1414-51 AD) ............................................... 70
Khizr Khan (1414-1421 AD): .............................................. 70
Mubarak Shah (1421-1434 AD): ....................................... 70
Lodhi Dynasty (1451-1526 AD) .............................................. 71
Bahlul Khan Lodhi (1451-1489 AD) ................................ 71
Sikandar Lodhi (1489-1517 AD) ....................................... 71
Ibrahim Lodhi (1517-1526 AD)......................................... 71
Chapter 7: The Mughal Dynasty (16th - 18th century)...74
Introduction ..................................................................................... 74
Important Rulers ........................................................................... 74
Babur (c.1526–30 CE) ............................................................ 74
Humayun (c.1530–1556 CE) ............................................... 78
Akbar (c.1556–1605 CE)....................................................... 82
Jahangir/ Salim (c.1605–1627 CE)................................... 90
Shah Jahan (c.1628–58 CE) .................................................. 97
Aurangzeb .................................................................................102
Later Mughals ..........................................................................106
Decline of Mughal Empire........................................................112
Economic Factors:..................................................................112
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Political Factors: .....................................................................113
Social Factors: ..........................................................................113
Chapter 8: Rise of Marathas………………………115
Introduction ...................................................................................115
Factors responsible for the rise of Marathas .................. 115
Shivaji ...............................................................................................116
Conflict with Bijapur.............................................................116
Major Battles ............................................................................117
Confrontation with Mughals .............................................117
Transition to Chhatrapati ...................................................118
Shivaji’s Administration ......................................................119
Aftermath of Shivaji’s Rule ......................................................120
Reign of Sambhaji (1681-1689): .....................................120
Rise of Rajaram (1689-1700):..........................................121
Shahu (c.1707–1749 CE) ....................................................122
Maratha Confederacy.................................................................123
The Peshwas.............................................................................123
The Bhonsles of Nagpur ......................................................125
The Gaekwads of Baroda ....................................................126
The Holkars of Indore ..........................................................127
The Scindias of Gwalior .......................................................127
Chapter 9: Bhakti Movement and Sufism…………129
"Bhakti and Sufism, twin flames of devotion, illuminate
diverse paths to a shared destination: the eternal
embrace of the divine." ...............................................................129
Introduction ...................................................................................129
Bhakti Movement ........................................................................129
Factors Driving the Rise of the Bhakti Movement ... 129
Schools of Bhakti Movement.............................................130
Difference between Nirguna and Saguna Schools ... 130
Significance ...............................................................................131
The Bhakti Movement in North India ...........................131
The Bhakti Movement in South India ...........................132
Important Bhakti Saints ......................................................133
The Vaishnavite Movement ....................................................134
Sufism ...............................................................................................134
Introduction .............................................................................134
Key Concepts and Practices of Sufism: ......................... 134
Central Themes of Sufism...................................................135
Sufi Order ..................................................................................135
Difference between Bhakti and Sufi Movement ............ 138
Chapter 10: Decline of Mughal Empire & Rise of Regional
States…………………………….………………140
Background ....................................................................................140
Bengal ...............................................................................................140
Awadh ...............................................................................................141
Punjab ...............................................................................................141
Rajputs..............................................................................................142
Hyderabad ......................................................................................143
The State of Travancore............................................................143
Mysore ..............................................................................................144
Conclusion ......................................................................................145
Chapter 11: Cultural Renaissance and Literary
Achievements…………………………………….146
Introduction ...................................................................................146
Religious Ideas and beliefs ......................................................146
Cultural Development ...............................................................146
Indian Architecture.....................................................................147
Literature and Fine Arts ...........................................................147
Conclusion ......................................................................................148
Chapter 12: Economic and Trade Networks………...150
Introduction ...................................................................................150
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Silk Road and Indian Ocean Trade: 6th - 15th
Century.............................................................................................150
Medieval Period ...........................................................................150
Mughal Magnificence .................................................................151
European Impact on India's Trade ......................................151
Impact on India's Economy and Society............................152
Conclusion ......................................................................................152
Chapter 13: Caste System and Status of Women…….153
Introduction ...................................................................................153
Formation and Structure of the Caste System ................ 153
Evolution of Caste System in Medieval India .................. 153
Implications of Caste System .................................................154
Status of Women ..........................................................................154
Conclusion ......................................................................................155
Chapter 14: Medieval India in Brief………………..156
Introduction ...................................................................................156
Political landscape in Medieval period: .............................156
Religion in Medieval India .......................................................157
Culture in Medieval Period in India ....................................157
Trade and commerce .................................................................158
Conflicts and Foreign Invasions in Medieval Indian
History: Challenges and Responses.....................................159
 Chapter 1: Early medieval India; From 750−1000 AD
"The early medieval period in India marked a transformative era where the seeds of cultural fusion were sown, paving the
way for a tapestry of diverse influences to intertwine."
Rise of Regional Kingdoms: Political
Dynamics
The Gurjara-Pratiharas
 Origin and Rise: The Gurjara-Pratiharas were of Rajput
origin and initially ruled over the region of present-day
Rajasthan. Gurjaras were primarily pastoralists and
fighters.
o The dynasty's rise to prominence is associated
with the reign of Nagabhata I (circa 730–760
CE), who extended the Gurjara-Pratihara
influence into northern India. Because the early
monarchs of this dynasty revered the epic hero
Lakshmana, who served as the door-keeper of his
brother Rama, the Pratiharas adopted a title that
directly translates to 'door-keeper.'
 Capital and Territory: The dynasty's capital shifted over
time, with Kannauj emerging as a significant center during
their peak.
o The Gurjara-Pratiharas established a vast
empire that included parts of present-day
northern, central, and western India.
 Political Significance: The Gurjara-Pratiharas were
known for their military prowess and successful defense
against foreign invasions, particularly from Arab and
Turkic forces.
o Under Mihira Bhoja (circa 836–890 CE), the
dynasty reached its zenith, with Kannauj serving
as a major cultural and political hub.
 Cultural and Architectural Contributions: The dynasty
was a patron of art, literature, and architecture. They
supported temples, sculptures, and other artistic endeavors.
Mihira Bhoja's patronage of the arts led to the
construction of magnificent temples, including the famous
Teli-ka-Mandir in Gwalior.
o The greatest development of the
Gurjara−Pratihara style of temple building
took place at Khajuraho (a UNESCO World
Heritage Site).
 Decline and Legacy: The Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty
gradually declined due to internal conflicts, invasions, and
regional fragmentation. Their power was challenged by
emerging dynasties like the Chandelas and the Chauhans.
The decline of the Gurjara-Pratiharas paved the way for the
rise of the Chauhan dynasty in Rajasthan and the
establishment of the Chola dynasty in the south.
4
 Historical Significance: The Gurjara-Pratiharas played a
critical role in defending northern India against external
threats, preserving Indian cultural traditions and
institutions. Their military strength and administrative
innovations contributed to the stabilization of the region
during a time of political upheaval.
Important Gurjara-Pratiharas Rulers
Nagabhata I (c. 730–760 CE):
 Nagabhata I is regarded as the founder and most
prominent ruler of the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty.
 He extended the dynasty's influence from its Rajput
stronghold in Rajasthan to northern India, also
exercised control over Malwa & Gujarat.
 Nagabhata I successfully resisted the Arab invasions,
earning a reputation for his military prowess.
 He was defeated by the Rashtrakuta king, Dhruva.
Vatsaraja (c. 780–800 CE):
 He succeeded Nagabhatta I and expanded his rule to a
significant portion of North India.
 Established Kannauj in western Uttar Pradesh as his
capital.
 His expansionist policies led to conflicts with
Dharamapala, the Pala King of Bengal and Bihar, and
Dhruva, the Rashtrakuta king.
 This marked the beginning of the 'tripartite struggle,'
which endured for approximately 350 years, with its
share of successes and setbacks.
 Notably, the Pratiharas managed to maintain their
control over Kannauj throughout this prolonged period
of conflict.
Mihira Bhoja/Bhoja I (c. 836–890 CE):
 Mihira Bhoja is one of the most successful Gurjara-
Pratihara rulers.
 He was grandson of Nagabhatta II.
 His reign is considered the zenith of the dynasty's
power and influence, with his capital at Kannauj also
known as Mahodaya. An early inscription, the Barah
copper plate inscription, references a military camp
called skandhavara at Mahodaya.
 In the early years of his rule, Bhoja I faced defeats
from the Palas, Rashtrakutas, and the Kalachuris.
However, he staged a remarkable comeback with the
support of his feudatories, including the Chedis and
 Guhilas. Together, they achieved victories over the
Palas and Rashtrakutas.
 Mihira Bhoja was a patron of art, literature, and
architecture. He sponsored the construction of the
famous Teli-ka-Mandir in Gwalior, which showcases
intricate architectural design.
 He gained recognition as the powerful king Juzr in the
9th-century travel accounts of the Arab merchant
Sulaiman. Sulaiman praised Bhoja I for his military
might and wealth, as well as for maintaining security
within his empire. Another Arab traveler, Al-Masudi,
referred to him as King Baura. Arab travelers noted
that the Pratihara rulers possessed the most formidable
cavalry in India.
 Bhoja I's territorial expansion was curtailed by
Sankarvarmen of Kashmir and the Rashtrakuta rulers
Krishna II and Devapala.
 Bhoja I was a devoted follower of Vishnu and adopted
the title of 'Adivaraha.'
Mahendrapala I (c. 890–910 CE):
 Mahendrapala I succeeded Mihira Bhoja and
continued the dynasty's expansion.
 His reign witnessed the extension of Gurjara-Pratihara
control to Kannauj, a pivotal political and cultural
center.
 Took the title Maharajadhiraja of Aryavarta (Great
King of Kings of Northern India).
 Mahendrapala I's patronage of arts and culture
contributed to the growth of the dynasty's influence.
 His court was graced by the presence of Rajashekhar,
a renowned Sanskrit poet, dramatist, and critic.
Rajashekhar's literary contributions included:
o Karpuramanjari: A renowned play composed in
Sauraseni Prakrit, dedicated to pleasing his wife,
Avantisundari, acknowledging her influence on
his literary career.
o Kavya Mimansa (circa 880-920 CE): A practical
guide for poets, explaining the elements and
structure of a well-crafted poem.
o Vidhasalabhanjika
o Bhrinjika
o Balaramayana
o Prapanch Pandav
o Balabharata
o Bhusan Kosh
Mahipala I (c. 913–944 CE):
 Mahipala II was another ruler who navigated complex
political dynamics.
 His reign was marked by conflicts with the
Rashtrakutas and the Chandelas.
5
 He faced a significant defeat at the hands of
Rashtrakuta King Indra III, who inflicted severe
damage upon the city of Kannauj.
 During this period, Gujarat transitioned under the
control of the Rashtrakutas, likely due to the fact that
Al Masudi's accounts indicated that the Pratihara
empire no longer had access to the sea.
Mahendrapala II (c. 948–955 CE):
 Mahendrapala II's reign faced invasions from the
Rashtrakutas.
 Despite the military pressures, he managed to maintain
Gurjara-Pratihara authority.
Devapala (c. 975–1002 CE):
 Devapala ruled during a period of relative stability
after a phase of conflicts.
 His reign saw a revival of cultural and religious
activities, including patronage of Buddhism and
Jainism.
Rajyapala (c. 960–1018 CE)
 In approximately 963 CE, the northern regions of India
witnessed an invasion by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna
III, resulting in the defeat of the Pratihara ruler,
Rajyapala.
 During Mahmud Ghazni's raid on Kannauj, Rajyapala
chose to flee from the battlefield.
 Regrettably, Rajyapala met his demise through the
hands of Vindhyadhar Chandella, who was
responsible for his murder.
Yashpala (c.1024–1036 CE)
 Yashpala marked the culmination of the Pratihara
dynasty as its last reigning monarch.
 By the year 1090 CE, the Gadhavalas successfully
conquered Kannauj, marking the end of the Pratihara
dynasty's rule in the region.
Over time, the Pratihara dynasty, under a series of lesser-known
rulers, failed to reclaim their past prominence. Their vassals
began to assert independence, leading to the gradual
disintegration of the empire. By the 11th century CE, the
Ghaznavids ultimately obliterated them from the political
landscape. Subsequently, the Chahamanas or Chauhans
emerged in Rajputana, the Chalukyas or Solankis in Gujarat,
and the Paramaras or Pawars in Malwa, marking the succession
of rule in these regions.
The Palas of Bengal
Sashanka, the first prominent king of ancient Bengal, emerged
as a ruler in the Gauda region between 590 and 625 CE. In 637
CE, King Shashanka's death led to a complex political
uncertainty in eastern India, particularly Bengal and its
neighboring regions. This period saw a succession of invasions
and power struggles, with Yashovarmana of Kannauj,
Lalitaditya of Kashmir, and even a Chinese army attempting to
assert their dominance. Bhaskaravarman, the ruler of Assam,
emerged as a prominent figure during this period, conquesting
a substantial portion of Bengal. Harsha, another notable ruler,
fell under the sphere of influence in Bihar and Orissa.
In the 8th century CE, Gopala, a pivotal figure, laid the
foundation for the enduring Pala dynasty. The dynasty's
distinctive naming convention, with all successive monarchs
bearing names ending with 'Pala,' a term meaning "protector" in
the ancient Prakrit language. The Pala dynasty's territorial
domain encompassed the expansive regions of Bengal and
Bihar, with key urban centers including Pataliputra,
Vikrampura, Ramvati, Monghyr, Tamralipti, and Jaggadala.
Important works composed in Sanskrit around this period were
the Kathasaritasagara, which was a collection of stories, the
Rajtarangini, a vivid account of the kings of Kashmir composed
by Kalhana, and the Gita Govinda, a piece of devotional
literature composed on the theme of love between Radha and
Krishna, by Jayadeva in Bengal under the Pala kings.
Important Pala Ruler
Gopala (ruled around 750–770 CE):
 Gopala founded the Pala dynasty and was elected as the
king by notable figures to restore order from the period
of matsya-nyaya (anarchy).
 He displaced the later Guptas of Magadha and the
Khadga dynasty of eastern Bengal, establishing Pala
authority over Bengal and Bihar.
 Gopala's strong Buddhist affiliation led to his patronage
of monasteries and institutions. He is attributed with
constructing the renowned Odantapuri monastery.
 Gopala's rule marked the beginning of the Pala
dynasty's commitment to Buddhism and promotion of
cultural and religious growth.
Dharmapala (ruled around 770–810 CE):
 Dharmapala succeeded Gopala and further expanded
the Pala empire's influence through military campaigns.
 He was defeated by the Rashtrakuta king, Dhruva, who
had earlier defeated the Pratihara ruler too, but later he
conquered large parts of northern India and raised the
Pala empire to great heights.
 His reign witnessed the compilation of important
Buddhist texts at Nalanda, a leading center of Buddhist
learning.
6
(Nalanda University)
 Dharmapala was again defeated by the Pratihara king,
Nagabhatta II, near Monghyr.
 Founded the Vikramshila monastery near Bhagalpur in
Bihar.
o One of the most revered figures associated
with this institution was the Buddhist scholar
Dipankara, also known as Atisa, who gained
immense respect in Tibet for his scholarly
contributions.
 Atisa's influence extended beyond Vikramshila; he
also founded the Somapuri monastery near Paharpur,
Bihar, and is credited with endowing Nalanda
University with the generous grant of 200 villages.
 Dharmapala's patronage extended to Buddhism,
fostering a thriving intellectual and artistic
environment. His support for religious institutions
contributed to the preservation and dissemination of
Buddhist teachings.
 The renowned 8th-century Buddhist scholar
Santarakshita, who is sometimes regarded as an abbot
of Nalanda, thrived during Atisa's reign. Santarakshita's
legacy includes the establishment of the philosophical
school known as Yogacara-Svatantrika-Madhyamika, a
synthesis of Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka tradition,
Asanga's Yogacara tradition, and Dharmakirti's logical
and epistemological thought.
Devapala (ruled around 810–850 CE):
 Devapala significantly expanded the Pala territory
through military conquests, including parts of Assam.
 Extended the empire to include
Pragyoytishpur/Kamarupa (Assam), parts of
Orissa(Utkala) and modern Nepal.
 His reign continued the dynasty's emphasis on
Buddhism and saw the growth of monasteries and
cultural centers.
 A Buddhist scholar named Vajradatta, was his court
poet who authored the Lokesvarasataka.
 The Arab merchant Sulaiman, who visited India in the
mid-9th century, referred to the Pala Empire as
 "Ruhimi" or "Ruhma Dharma." He reported that the
Pala emperor was engaged in conflicts with the
Pratiharas and Rashtrakutas, boasting a larger army
than his rivals.
 Devapala's patronage of the arts and his contributions
to the architectural landscape further solidified the Pala
dynasty's cultural legacy.
Mahipala I (ruled around 850–910 CE):
 Mahipala I continued the Pala dynasty's military
expansion, achieving successes in North India.
 He maintained the Pala dynasty's tradition of Buddhist
patronage and supported religious institutions,
contributing to the growth of Buddhism.
 Mahipala I's reign marked a period of cultural
advancement, as evidenced by his support for education
and arts.
Mahendrapala (ruled around 910–930 CE):
 Mahendrapala extended Pala rule to South India and
continued the dynasty's dominance in the North.
 His reign witnessed flourishing arts and culture, with a
continued emphasis on Buddhism.
 Mahendrapala's support for learning centers and
monastic establishments helped sustain the Pala
dynasty's intellectual and spiritual influence.
Shurapala (ruled around 930–945 CE):
 Shurapala's rule was characterized by relative stability
and economic prosperity.
 He continued the Pala dynasty's patronage of
Buddhism, fostering religious institutions and
promoting cultural exchange.
 Shurapala's reign contributed to the consolidation of the
dynasty's presence in the Indian subcontinent.
Gopala II (ruled around 945–955 CE):
 Gopala II's reign faced challenges, including invasions
by the Rashtrakutas, which impacted the Pala authority.
 His commitment to Buddhism remained strong, and he
continued to support Buddhist monasteries and centers
of learning.
Vigrahapala I (ruled around 955–982 CE):
 Vigrahapala I's reign saw both conflicts and successes,
including victories against rival states.
 His patronage extended to Buddhism, with support for
monasteries and artistic endeavors.
 Vigrahapala I's reign further solidified the Pala
dynasty's legacy as promoters of Buddhism and
contributors to cultural advancement.
Mahipala I (c. 977−1027 CE):
7
 After a short lived decline, the fortunes of the Palas
were restored under Mahipala I in the late 10th
century.
 He defended Pala bastions in Bengal and Bihar against
Chola invasions, but was defeated by Rajendra Chola.
Ramapala (c. 1072−1126 CE):
 The last strong Pala ruler, who gained control of
Kamarupa and Kalinga and again revived Pala
fortunes in the 11th century.
 He was mentioned in Sandhyakar Nandi’s Ramcharita,
which describes Kaivarta peasant rebellion.
Nalanda University and Intellectual Legacy:
 The Pala rulers played a pivotal role in the growth of
Nalanda, one of the world's oldest universities.
 Nalanda attracted scholars from across the world and
facilitated the exchange of knowledge in various
disciplines, including philosophy, mathematics, and
medicine.
Art and Architecture: Synthesis of Styles:
 Pala art is known for its synthesis of indigenous styles
with foreign influences, especially from Central Asia
and Southeast Asia.
 Sculptures and images found at Nalanda and other
sites reflect the distinctive Pala style, characterized by
intricate detailing and fluid forms.
Influence Beyond Borders:
 The Pala Dynasty's cultural influence extended
beyond its territorial boundaries.
 The sculptures and bronzes produced during their
reign were highly regarded and even exported to
countries like Indonesia and Japan.
Buddhist Revival and Monastic Traditions:
 The Palas actively promoted Buddhism, leading to a
revival of the religion in the region.
 The Vikramshila and Odantapuri monasteries,
alongside Nalanda, became centers of Buddhist
scholarship and attracted students from various parts
of Asia.
Decline:
 The decline of the Pala Dynasty was gradual,
attributed to various factors, including external
invasions and internal strife.
 By the 12th century, the Sena Dynasty emerged in
Bengal, marking the transition from Pala rule.
Historical Significance:
  The Palas left an indelible mark on the history of
Bengal and the Indian subcontinent.
 Their patronage of art, learning, and Buddhism
contributed to the enrichment of India's cultural
and intellectual heritage.
Examples of architecture and sculpture:
 The Somapura Mahavihara, a Buddhist monastery
complex in present-day Bangladesh, is a remarkable
example of Pala architecture. Its grand scale and
intricate terracotta ornamentation reflect Pala artistic
achievements.
 The Pala-style bronze sculptures found in Southeast
Asia demonstrate the cross-cultural exchanges
facilitated by maritime trade routes.
 Dharmapala's inscription on a seal found at the site of
Nalanda University highlights his commitment to
Buddhist ideals and his role in its growth.
 The Vikramshila Mahavihara, another important Pala
monastery, is renowned for its contribution to Buddhist
philosophy and logic.
 The Pala Dynasty's influence is evident in various
artistic mediums, including sculptures, manuscripts,
and coinage, showcasing their commitment to cultural
expression.
In essence, the Pala Dynasty's reign stands as a testament to the
interplay between political power, cultural patronage, and
intellectual pursuits. Their contributions to Buddhism,
education, and artistic expression continue to resonate,
showcasing the enduring legacy of the Pala rulers in shaping the
cultural fabric of medieval India.
The Rashtrakutas (c.753 and 975 CE)
The Rashtrakutas, a prominent Indian dynasty that thrived
during the medieval period, left an indelible mark on the
country's history, culture, and religious diversity. Their reign,
marked by military victories, religious tolerance, and patronage
of art, showcases their significant contributions to India's socio-
political landscape. Let's delve into the comprehensive details
of the Rashtrakutas:
 Origin and Shifting Capital: The Rashtrakutas were
associated with the title "lattalura-puraveshvara,"
signifying their connection to the great city of
Ruler Reign Period Notable Contributions and Achievements
Dantidurga 735–756 CE  Feudatory of the Chalukya king, Kirtivarman II.
 Founder of the Rashtrakuta dynasty.
 helped his father-in-law, the Pallava King Nandivarmana, to regain Kanchi from
the Chalukyas.
 He also defeated the Gurjaras of Malwa, and the rulers of Kalinga, Kosala and
Srisailam.
Krishna I 756–774 CE  Consolidated Rashtrakuta power in the Deccan & gave a final blow to Pallavas.
8
Lattalura (modern-day Latur in Maharashtra). Around
625 CE, they relocated to Ellichpur near the source of
the Tapi River in present-day Madhya Pradesh,
indicating their territorial movement and expansion.
 Capital and Feudatory Status: The Rashtrakutas
established their capital at Manyakheta or Malkhed,
situated near Sholapur. They are believed to have been
feudatories of the Chalukya dynasty, highlighting their
political ties and interdependence.
 Triumphs in the Tripartite Struggle: The
Rashtrakutas achieved significant military victories
both in northern and southern India. They emerged as
dominant players in the tripartite conflict, effectively
challenging and largely defeating the Palas and
Pratiharas.
 Notable Exploits and Reputation: While their
territorial expansions didn't extend into the Gangetic
valley, the Rashtrakutas gained notoriety through their
successful campaigns. Their incursions, while not
resulting in substantial territorial acquisitions, brought
valuable loot and enhanced their reputation.
 Religious Tolerance and Support: The Rashtrakutas
were characterized by their religious tolerance,
promoting not only Shaivism and Vaishnavism but
also Jainism. They welcomed Muslim traders and even
permitted the preaching of Islam within their domains,
showcasing their inclusive approach.
 Architectural Splendor and Artistic Patronage:
The Rashtrakutas were renowned for their
architectural contributions, exemplified by the famous
rock-cut Shiva temple at Ellora. They were generous
patrons of art and literature, fostering a vibrant cultural
environment.
 Literary and Scholarly Legacy: Rashtrakuta courts
were adorned with poets, authors, and scholars who
contributed to Prakrit, apabhramsha, and Sanskrit
literature. Renowned apabhramsha poet Swayambhu
and his son were likely associated with the
Rashtrakuta court. King Amoghavarsha wrote a book
on poetics in Kannada. The famous trinity of Pampa
(who composed Vikramarjuna-vijaya, known
popularly as Pampa Bharat), Ponna, and Ranna were
the three most priced jewels of Kannada poetry.
  rock-cut Kailashnatha Temple (monolithic) at Ellora (near Aurangabad,
Maharastra) was built during his reign.
 Expanded the empire's territorial control and political reach.
Dhruva 780- 793 CE  He led successful expeditions to Kannauj, the seat of northern Indian power
where he defeated the Gurjara−Pratiharas (Nagabhatta II) and the Palas of Bengal
(Dharmapala).

 He also brought the Eastern Chalukyas and Gangas of Talakad under his control.
Govinda III 793–814 CE  Led successful military campaigns against the Pala king Dharmapala and fought
against Gurjara-Pratihara ruler Nagabhatta II.
 Sanjan inscription of his reign mentions, “the horses of Govinda III drank from
the icy waters of the Himalayan streams and his war elephants tasted the sacred
waters of the Ganges.”
 Strengthened Rashtrakuta dominance through strategic victories.
Amoghavarsha I 814–878 CE  Built a new capital city, that of Manyakheta (modern Malkhed).
 Patronized arts, literature, and culture, also wrote the Kavirajamarga – the earliest
Kannada work on poetics and the Prashnottara Ratnamalika in Sanskrit.
 achieved victory over the invading Eastern Chalukyas at Vingavalli, earning the
title Viranarayana.
 In contrast to his father, he prioritized maintaining amicable connections with
neighboring powers, including the Gangas, Eastern Chalukyas, and Pallavas, and
solidified these relationships through marital alliances.
 Supported scholars, leading to a cultural golden age and because of his peace-
loving nature, he is often called “Ashoka of the South”.
Indra III 914–929 CE  Expanded Rashtrakuta territories by defeating Pratihara Mahipala I and sacked
Kannauj in 915 CE.
 Grandson of Amoghavarsha, Demonstrated effective political and military
strategies.
Krishna III 939–967 CE  Successfully resisted Chola expansion into the Deccan.
 He was engaged in a struggle against the Paramaras of Malwa and the eastern
Chalukyas of Vengi.
 Around the year 949 CE, he achieved victory over Chola king Parantaka I and
incorporated the northern portion of the Chola empire into his domain.
Subsequently, he proceeded to Rameshwaram, where he erected a triumphal
pillar and constructed a temple.
Khottiga 939–956 CE  Continued the dynasty's tradition of cultural and literary patronage.
Amoghavarsha  Fostered an environment of intellectual and artistic growth.
Karka II 968–973 CE  Faced conflicts with the Chalukyas and other regional powers.
 Demonstrated the dynasty's resilience and determination.
Indra IV 962–982 CE  Sustained Rashtrakuta resistance against Chola influence.
 Maintained the dynasty's independence and influence.
Krishna IV 975–982 CE  Grappled with internal conflicts and external invasions.
 Navigated challenging circumstances with varying degrees of success.
Tailapa II 997–1000 CE  Challenged Rashtrakuta rule and established the Western Chalukya dynasty.
 Contributed to a shift in regional power dynamics.

Cultural Patronage and Artistic Legacy:
 The Rashtrakutas were ardent patrons of art,
architecture, and learning, contributing significantly to
the Deccan's cultural vibrancy.
 The Kailasanatha Temple at Ellora, a monumental
rock-cut masterpiece, exemplifies Rashtrakuta
architectural prowess.
Rock-Cut Architecture: Ellora and Beyond:
 The Kailasanatha Temple, dedicated to Lord Shiva,
showcases the Rashtrakutas' innovation in rock-cut
architecture.
 Intricately carved from a single rock, the temple
complex features detailed sculptures, pillars, and
galleries.

9
Trade and Economic Prosperity:
 The Rashtrakutas' dominion over significant trade
routes contributed to economic prosperity.
 Trade links with regions such as Gujarat, the Arabian
Peninsula, and South India enriched their coffers.
Literary Contributions:
 Rashtrakuta rulers supported scholars and poets,
fostering literary activities in Sanskrit and Kannada.
 Amoghavarsha I (814−878 AD), a notable Rashtrakuta
king, was a patron of literature and wrote the famous
Kannada work "Kavirajamarga".
Diplomacy and Military Exploits:
 The Rashtrakutas skillfully balanced diplomacy and
military prowess to expand their dominion.
 They engaged in conflicts with neighboring kingdoms,
including the Pallavas, Chalukyas, and Pandyas.
Decline and Legacy:
 The Rashtrakuta Dynasty's decline began in the late
10th century due to internal struggles and external
invasions.
 By the 10th century, the Chalukya-Chola alliance led
to the decline of Rashtrakuta power.
Architectural Legacy Beyond Ellora:
 Apart from Ellora, the Rashtrakutas left their
architectural imprint in other regions, such as
Elephanta Caves near Mumbai.
Architecture and sculpture:
 The Kailasanatha Temple at Ellora, carved in a
monolithic rock, remains a marvel of architectural and
artistic
achievement.
 The Elephanta
Caves, an island
complex near
Mumbai,
showcase distinct
Rashtrakuta
influence through
their sculptures
and reliefs.
 The literary work "Kavirajamarga" by King
Amoghavarsha I provides valuable insights into
Kannada literature and culture during the Rashtrakuta
era.
10
 The Rashtrakutas' role in shaping regional trade
networks is evident from the artifacts and inscriptions
discovered in various parts of India.
 The Rashtrakutas' strategic alliances and military
campaigns highlight their political acumen and efforts
to maintain regional dominance.
The Rashtrakuta Dynasty's legacy is etched in the intricate
carvings of their rock-cut temples and the cultural vibrancy they
fostered. Their patronage of art, architecture, and literature,
coupled with their contributions to the Deccan's cultural milieu,
continues to be celebrated as a significant chapter in the history
of medieval India.
The Tripartite Struggle
Introduction
 The Tripartite Struggle, also known as the Tripartite
Struggle for Kannauj, was a series of battles and conflicts
that took place in northern India during the 8th and 9th
centuries. It was a struggle for control over the important
city of Kannauj and the surrounding regions.
 The conflict involved three major powers of the time: the
Gurjara-Pratiharas, the Rashtrakutas, and the Pala
Empire.
 The main phases of the Tripartite Struggle are as
follows:
o Gurjara-Pratihara Phase: The Gurjara-
Pratiharas, a powerful Rajput dynasty, initially
controlled Kannauj and its surrounding areas.
They were based in the region of present-day
Rajasthan. During this phase, they faced
challenges from the Rashtrakutas, who were
based in the Deccan region.
o Rashtrakuta Phase: The Rashtrakutas, a
powerful dynasty from the Deccan plateau, led by
King Dhruva (also known as Dhruva
Dharavarsha), succeeded in capturing Kannauj
from the Gurjara-Pratiharas. This marked a
significant shift in power dynamics in northern
India.
 o Pala Phase: The Pala Empire, based in the eastern
part of the Indian subcontinent (present-day
Bangladesh and parts of West Bengal and Bihar),
also entered the conflict. The Pala ruler
Dharmapala allied with the Gurjara-Pratiharas
and together they attacked the Rashtrakutas. This
alliance managed to defeat the Rashtrakutas and
recapture Kannauj.
 The Tripartite Struggle had far-reaching consequences for
the political landscape of northern India. While the conflict
was primarily about control over Kannauj, it also
highlighted the complex interactions and power struggles
between different regions and dynasties across the
subcontinent. The struggle contributed to the
fragmentation of central authority, making way for more
localized and regional powers.
Significance of Kannauj
 Strategic Location: Kannauj, an ancient city in India, held
considerable strategic importance due to its unique
geographical and historical attributes. Positioned on the
right bank of the Ganges River, the city was situated atop
a cliff, enhancing its defensive capabilities. This natural
vantage point not only offered a commanding view of the
surrounding terrain but also facilitated the control of key
communication routes and trade arteries that traversed the
region.
 Commerce and Communication Hub: The region around
Kannauj served as a crucial thoroughfare for commerce
and communication during the historical period. Its
strategic location made it a bustling crossroads where trade
routes intersected, enabling the exchange of goods, ideas,
and cultures. This pivotal role in facilitating trade
contributed to Kannauj's economic significance and
11
reinforced its position as a key center of activity in ancient
India.
 Former Seat of Harshavardhana's Empire: Kannauj
held even greater significance as the former seat of the
empire ruled by Harshavardhana, a prominent Indian
emperor. The city's historical association with
Harshavardhana's imperial rule added to its prestige and
importance. The legacy of being a political center under
Harshavardhana's administration bestowed upon Kannauj
a reputation of power and authority.
 Political Power and Control over North India: The
possession of Kannauj conferred immense political
advantages, as whoever controlled the city could assert
dominion over a substantial portion of North India. Its
strategic position along crucial trade routes and its
historical connection to a powerful empire made it a
coveted prize for rulers and dynasties seeking to expand
their influence. Control over Kannauj was not merely a
local affair; it symbolized the potential to command
authority over a vast territory and wield significant political
clout in the broader context of ancient India.
Various facets of these three kingdoms
Status of Monarch
 The Magnificent Darbar and Military Presence: The
king, acting as both administrator and commander-in-chief,
presided over a grand Darbar, a symbol of his power and
prestige. The courtyard of this Darbar served as a stage for
infantry and cavalry squadrons, illustrating the king's
control over military forces. The strategic placement of
these squadrons showcased the monarch's readiness to
defend and assert his dominion.
 Parading Captured War Elephants and Horses: A
dramatic display before the king included captured war
elephants and horses. These exhibitions demonstrated the
king's military prowess and his conquests, reinforcing his
authority as the supreme leader of the land.
 Royal Chamberlains and Diplomatic Relations:
Accompanied by royal chamberlains, the king oversaw the
arrival and departure of vassal chiefs, feudatories,
ambassadors, and high officials. This administrative
apparatus ensured efficient communication and diplomatic
relations, reflecting the king's role as the central figure in a
network of political alliances.
 Role in Justice and Legal Affairs: The king's authority
extended to matters of justice, making him the ultimate
arbiter of legal disputes. His role as the custodian of justice
highlighted his responsibility to maintain order and ensure
the fair application of the law.
 Cultural Center of the Court: Beyond political and legal formidable cavalry, and the Rashtrakutas for their fortified
matters, the royal court was a vibrant center of cultural life. forts and specialized troops under independent
It served as a hub for artistic expression, intellectual commanders.
discourse, and cultural exchange, emphasizing the king's  Vassal Relationships and Autonomous Rule: Vassals,
multifaceted influence on his realm. known as samantas, exercised autonomous rule over
 Succession and Dynastic Rule: The hereditary nature of specific regions. These vassals owed their loyalty to the
the king's position established a dynastic rule, where the king and upheld obligations such as fixed tribute payments,
eldest son typically succeeded the father. While the troop contributions, and active participation in joint
succession rules were not always rigid, they maintained a military endeavors. Warfare between kings and their
semblance of continuity in leadership. vassals was a recurring aspect of this dynamic relationship.
 Designating a Yuvaraj: In some instances, the eldest son  Vassal Responsibilities in Times of Need: In times of
or another favored heir was designated as the Yuvaraj, or foreign threats or attacks, vassals were obliged to fight
successor. The Yuvaraj would remain in the capital and alongside the king, further strengthening the unity of the
assist with administrative tasks, preparing for the eventual kingdom. This collaborative approach to defense
assumption of the throne. highlighted the mutual dependence between the ruling
 Participation of Royal Women: The court saw the power and its subordinate vassals.
occasional presence of the king's female relatives, who  Naval Strength and Kingdom Distinctions: The Palas
participated in court affairs. Contrary to certain Arab and Rashtrakutas both maintained naval forces, but specific
accounts, these women did not cover their faces, reflecting details about their navies remain limited. While the Palas
the cultural nuances of the time. possessed an influential fleet, the extent of naval activities
 Grand Titles and Self-Proclamation: Monarchs of this for both kingdoms is shrouded in historical obscurity.
era adopted grand titles such as Maharajadiraj param-
bhattaraka and declared themselves chakravartins, Administrative divisions of Empire
signifying the greatest of all Indian emperors. These titles Pala Empire:
were emblematic of their power, influence, and divine
Administrative Responsibilities Notable
connection, reinforcing their elevated status in the eyes of
Division & Leadership Features/Assistance
their subjects.
Bhukti - Provinces - Land revenue
Administration managed by collection and law
officials known as enforcement.
 Appointment of Princes and Princesses in Government:
Uparikas.
The majority of princes were appointed as provincial
Mandal - Subdivisions of - Local
governors, a practice that underscored their involvement in
Bhukti led by administration and
governance. In rare instances, even princesses assumed
Mandalikas. governance.
government roles, such as Chandrobalabbe, a Rashtrakuta
Vishaya - Districts or - Revenue collection,
princess who administered the Raichur doab, showcasing a
Visayas under law and order.
notable exception to traditional gender roles.
Vishayapatis.
 Ministerial Advisers and their Roles: Kings were guided
Patti - Group of - Village-level
by ministers, often selected from prominent families, with
villages governed administration.
positions that exhibited a degree of hereditary continuity.
by Patti-
Within the administration, distinct roles were evident,
vishayikas.
including foreign minister, revenue minister, treasurer,
senapati (commander-in-chief), chief justice, and purohita
Rashtrakuta Empire:
(priest). Notably, except for the purohita, ministers were
Administrative Responsibilities Notable
expected to actively engage in military campaigns when
Division & Leadership Features/Assistance
required.
 Military Might and Organizational Structure: All three
Rashtra - Provinces - Overall provincial
prominent kingdoms—Palas, Pratiharas, and
governed by administration.
Rashtrakutas—maintained substantial and well-structured
Rashtrapatis or
infantry and cavalry forces, alongside a significant number
governors.
of war elephants. The Palas were renowned for their
impressive elephant corps, the Pratiharas for their

12
 Bhukti - Managed by - Revenue collection, Empire's decline due to the rise of Islam on overland
officials known as law enforcement. foreign trade.
Uparikas.  Scarcity of Gold Coins: India's wealth in gold and silver
Visaya - Districts headed - Local governance, tied to foreign trade. Scarcity of gold coins in northern
by Visayapatis. revenue collection. India due to decreased foreign trade.
Mahanagara - Large cities - Urban  Surprising South-Southeast Trade Growth: Contrary to
under administration. northern decline, trade between South India and Southeast
Mahanayakas. Asian countries increased during this period, chief port
Pattana - Smaller towns - Town-level being Tamralipti.
governed by administration.  Dharma-Shastras Reflecting Decline: Dharma-Shastras
Pattanika. of the time reflected the decline in trade.
 Prohibitions on travel beyond areas where munja grass did
Pratihara (Gurjara-Pratihara) Empire: not grow or black gazelle did not roam (outside India).
Administrative Responsibilities Notable Travel across salt seas considered polluting.
Division & Leadership Features/Assistance  Recovery with rise of Arab Empire: Emergence of the
vast Arab empire in West Asia and North Africa from the
Rashtra - Provinces led - Provincial
10th century. Gradual recovery of international trade and
by Rashtrapatis. administration.
commerce.
Bhukti - Managed by - Revenue collection,
 Importance of Malwa and Gujarat: Malwa and Gujarat
Bhuktikas. law enforcement.
became crucial trading hubs due to Arab monarchs'
Mandala - Districts under - Local governance demand for Indian fabrics, incense, and spices.
the governance and administration.
of Rise of feudal system
Mandaleshvara.
Feudal System During the Pala Empire
Vishaya - Subdivisions of - Revenue collection,
 Hereditary Revenue Officers: Similar to other regions,
Mandala law and order.
the Pala Empire also saw the rise of hereditary revenue
overseen by
officers. These officials were granted rent-free lands as
Vishayapatis.
compensation for their services.
Pattika - Group of - Village-level
 Impact on Village Communities: The power and
villages administration.
influence of these hereditary officials weakened village
governed by
communities. Village autonomy decreased as local power
Pattika.
shifted to these officials.
 Feudal Control and Central Authority: The increasing
Religious Policy
power of these officials reduced the central authority's
 Religious Tolerance and Patronage: Majority of kings control over various territories. Feudal chiefs gained
were tolerant in their beliefs and actions. Generously significant influence and sometimes acted independently.
patronized Hinduism, Buddhism, or Jainism. Some kings
were devout followers of Shiva or Vishnu. Feudal System During the Rashtrakuta Empire
 Inclusivity and Diversity: Rashtrakuta kings welcomed  Influence of Hereditary Officials: Similar to other
Muslims and allowed them to spread their faith. kingdoms, the Rashtrakuta Empire witnessed the rise of
 Social Hierarchy and Chaturvarna System: Kings upheld hereditary revenue officers. These officials, known as nad-
the social hierarchy, maintaining the Chaturvarna system. gavundas or desagramakutas, held considerable power
 Separation of Politics and Religion: The state was within their assigned regions.
essentially secular, keeping politics and religion separate.  Decentralization of Authority: The authority of these
Kings were not dominated by religious discourses. officials led to decentralization of power and weakened the
direct control of the central ruler.
Trade and Commerce  Feudal Lords and Regional Autonomy: Feudal lords,
including local governors, gained substantial autonomy
 Stagnation and Decline: Period between c.750 and 1000
within their territories. The central ruler's influence waned
CE marked by stagnation or decline in trade and commerce
as these feudal lords became more powerful.
in northern India. Decline attributed to fall of the Roman
Empire, a significant trade partner. Impact of the Sassanid

13
Feudal System During the Pratihara (Gurjara-Pratihara)
Empire
 Hereditary Revenue Officials: The Pratiharas, like their
contemporaries, had hereditary revenue officials who
received grants of land in return for their services.
 Impact on Village Communities: The rise of these
officials led to the weakening of village communities, as
local power shifted to these hereditary officers.
 Decentralized Authority: The expansion of hereditary
officials contributed to the decentralization of authority.
Feudal chiefs, such as Deshmukhas and Deshpandes,
gained substantial power within their regions.
Q. With reference to Indian history, which of the following
is/are the essential element/ elements of the feudal system?
(2015)
1. A very strong centralized political authority and a very
weak provincial or local political authority
2. The emergence of an administrative structure based on
control and possession of the land
3. Creation of lord-vassal relationship between the feudal
lord and his overlord
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

Conclusion
During the early medieval period in India (750-1000 AD), the
subcontinent saw the rise of regional kingdoms, the coexistence
of multiple religions, cultural flourishing in art and literature,
vibrant trade, and challenges from external invasions. This era
laid the groundwork for the diverse and dynamic society that
would continue to evolve in subsequent centuries.

UPSC CSE Prelims PYQs:

Q. Consider the following pairs:

(2022)
1. Nannuka - Chandela
2. Jayashakti - Paramara
3. Nagabhata II - Gurjara-Pratihara
4. Bhoja - Rashtrakuta
How many pairs given above are correctly matched?
(a) Only one pair (b) Only two pairs
(c) Only three pairs (d) All four pairs

Q. Which of the following phrases defines the nature of the

‘Hundi' generally referred to in the sources of the post-
Harsha period?
(2020)
(a) An advisory issued by the king to his subordinates
(b) A diary to be maintained for daily accounts
(c) A bill of exchange
(d) An order from the feudal lord to his subordinates

Q. With reference to the economic history of medieval India,

the term 'Araghatta' refers to: (2016)
(a) bonded labour
(b) land grant made to military officers
(c) waterwheel used in the irrigation of land
(d) wasteland converted to cultivated land

14
 Chapter 2: The Cholas
"The Chola dynasty's reign epitomized a harmonious blend of military might and cultural refinement, creating a legacy
that continues to inspire awe and admiration."

Introduction Important Rulers

The Chola dynasty was one of the most prominent and Rulers Description
influential dynasties in the history of South India. Renowned in  Vijayalaya Chola is credited with
Indian history for their effective local self-governance, the founding the Chola Empire in
Cholas established a formidable empire in southern India South India.
around 850−1200 CE, also known as the 'Imperial Cholas of  He was initially a feudatory
Tanjore,' and the earlier Cholas referenced in Sangam literature Vijayalaya Chola (vassal) of the Pallava dynasty.
remains somewhat enigmatic. The Cholas ascended to power  He established his authority in the
by toppling the dominion of the Pallavas in South India. Under region around Eraiyur.
their rule, this empire extended its influence over a substantial  He captured Tanjore and further
portion of the Indian peninsula, particularly in the Tamil- expanded his kingdom along the
speaking regions, during various periods of its existence. lower Kaveri River.
 Notably, the Cholas bolstered their supremacy by  By overthrowing the Pallava
cultivating a formidable navy, a strategic asset that authority and consolidating his
facilitated the expansion of maritime trade in the Indian rule, he laid the foundation for the
Ocean and enabled them to conquer territories such as Sri Chola dynasty's rise to power.
Lanka and the Maldives Islands. Furthermore, they  His achievements set the stage for
achieved victories over the rulers of distant regions like the subsequent growth and
Malaya, Java, and Sumatra. The Chola dynasty traces its expansion of the Chola Empire.
origins to Vijayalaya, who emerged as its founder during
 Aditya I succeeded Vijayalaya
the 9th century CE, marking the inception of their
Chola and continued the expansion
remarkable historical journey.
and consolidation of the Chola
 The Chola dynasty is known for its remarkable
kingdom.
achievements in governance, administration, art,
 At the Battle of Shripurambiyam,
architecture, and maritime trade.
Aditya I formed an alliance with
the Pallavas and defeated the
Aditya I Pandyas. As a result, he gained
(c.871−907 CE) control over certain territories in
the Tanjore area as recompense.
 In c. 893 CE, Aditya I achieved a
major victory by defeating and
killing his Pallava overlord,
Aparajita. This victory brought
Tondaimandalam (southern Tamil
country) under Chola control.
 Aditya I also allied with the Cheras
and, together, they conquered
Kongudesha, likely encompassing
Coimbatore and Salem districts,
from the Pandyas.
 He is believed to have conquered
Talkad, the capital of the Western
Gangas.
 Aditya I further solidified his
influence by entering into a

15
 matrimonial alliance with the
Pallavas. He married a Pallava
princess, strengthening diplomatic
ties between the two dynasties.
 The Chola ruler, often believed to
be Aditya I, conquered the city of
Madurai.
 As a result of his conquest, he
earned the titles "Madurantaka,"
meaning "Madura's destroyer,"
and "Maduraikonda," meaning
Parantaka I "Madura's capturer."
(907−953 CE)  This conquest extended Chola
influence and control over the city
of Madurai.
 Battle of Vellore (1565 AD):
o The Chola ruler achieved
a significant victory at the
Battle of Vellore.
o He defeated the
combined armies of the
Pandyas (a rival dynasty)
and the king of Sri Lanka.
o This victory led to the
incorporation of Pandya
territories into the Chola
empire.
o The Chola ruler's military
prowess and strategic
acumen further expanded
the Chola domains.
 Defeat at the Battle of
Takkolam:
o Despite his successes, the
Chola ruler faced a defeat
at the Battle of Takkolam
in 949 CE.
o He was defeated by the
Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna
III.
o The Rashtrakutas
emerged victorious in this
battle, reversing the
Chola expansion.
 Rashtrakuta Conquest and
Titles:
o Following his victory at
the Battle of Takkolam,
Krishna III was crowned
the "Conqueror of Kanchi
and Tanjai."
16
o The Rashtrakuta army
conquered
Tondaimandalam, further
consolidating their
control over the region.
 Parantaka II, also known as
Uttama Chola, achieved
Parantaka significant military successes and
II/Sundara territorial expansions during his
Chola (c. 957−73 reign.
CE)  He successfully recovered lost
territories, including
Tondaimandalam, and defeated a
combined army of the Pandyas and
Sri Lanka's king.
 His strategic acumen and strength
in battle were showcased in his
victory against the Pandyas.
Parantaka II also launched an
invasion of Sri Lanka, expanding
Chola's influence beyond its
borders.
 Upon ascending the throne,
Uttama Chola inherited a Chola
Uttama Chola kingdom that had successfully
retrieved most of
Tondaimandalam from the
Rashtrakuta rule.
 The recovery of Tondaimandalam
highlighted his predecessor's
efforts and set the stage for his own
reign.
 Rajaraja Chola I is renowned for
transforming the Chola Empire
into the largest dominion in South
India until the 13th century.
 His reign saw the acquisition of
vast territories through a series of
strategic military campaigns.
 He successfully shattered the
confederation between the
Pandyas and the rulers of Kerala
and Sri Lanka.
 Rajaraja Chola I defeated the
Arumolivarman/ Chera navy at Trivandrum,
Rajaraja I captured Quilon, and annexed
Madurai.
(985−1014 CE)
 He extended Chola influence to
the northern regions of Sri Lanka,
which he named Mummadichola
Mandalam.
 Rajaraja Chola I conquered the furthered Chola territorial
Maldives islands, further expansion.
enhancing Chola maritime power.  He completed the conquest of Sri
 A naval expedition against the Lanka by defeating King Mahinda
Sailendra Empire (Malaya V.
peninsula) expanded Chola trade  Rajendra I captured the royal
with China. insignia of the Sri Lankan king and
 He emerged victorious in conflicts queen, solidifying Chola control
against the Western Chalukyas, over the island nation for the next
Rashtrakutas, and later Chalukyas, five decades.
annexing territories and asserting  Subjugation of Pandyas and
Chola dominance. Cheras:
 Architectural Marvel -  Rajendra I's campaigns led to the
Brihadesvara Temple: Rajendra I complete subjugation of the
o In approximately 1010 (c.1014−1044 Pandyas and Cheras, effectively
CE, Rajaraja Chola I CE) integrating them into the Chola
commissioned the empire.
construction of the  In 1022 CE, Rajendra I embarked
Rajarajeshwara on a significant expedition to the
Temple, also known as north, crossing the Ganga River
the Brihadesvara along the route taken by the
Temple, dedicated to ancient conqueror Samudragupta.
Shiva, in Thanjavur  He defeated the Pala ruler,
(Tanjore). Mahipal I, and the Western
o This magnificent Chalukyas, commemorating his
temple exemplified victory by assuming the title
Chola architectural "Gangaikondachola" (Chola
brilliance and cultural conqueror of Ganga).
achievements.  Rajendra I established a new
 Rajaraja Chola I implemented a capital called
meticulous revenue system, Gangaikondacholapuram near the
involving land surveys and mouth of the Kaveri River.
assessments.  He constructed a Shiva temple and
 His efforts to re-organize the excavated the Chodagarg tank in
revenue system were recognized the new capital.
by the epithet "Ulakalanada  In 1025 CE, a successful naval
Perumal," reflecting his significant expedition was launched against
contributions to land measurement the revived Sri Vijaya empire,
and administrative order. which encompassed the Malay
 Rajaraja Chola I followed the Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, and
Chola tradition of installing neighboring islands.
images of kings and queens  The Chola expedition led to the
alongside deities in temples. conquest of Kadaram (Kedah) and
 This practice is reflected in the other territories in the Malay
name "Rajaraja temple," Peninsula and Sumatra.
highlighting his role as a patron of  The Chola-Sailendra relationship,
temple art and iconography. once cordial, soured due to Chola
efforts to remove obstacles to
 Rajendra Chola I, the son of Indian traders and expand trade
Rajaraja I, carried forward his with China.
father's expansionist policy and

17
  Rajendra I's focus on enhancing o Instances of plundering,
Chola trade led to conflicts, massacres, and harsh
leading to the weakening of treatment were evident,
Sailendra influence. tarnishing the Chola
 Rajendra Chola I was a notable reputation in these
patron of learning and culture, territories.
earning the epithet "Pandita- o Notably, the Cholas
chola." destroyed Anuradhapura,
 His reign saw support for the ancient capital of Sri
educational and scholarly Lanka, and established a
endeavors, contributing to the military colony in the
cultural flourishing of the Chola Pandya country to exert
empire. control.
 Title:
 Rajadhiraja Chola emerged as a o Rajadhiraja Chola was
remarkable leader who also recognized as Vijaya
consistently led his troops from the Rajendra Chola,
frontlines, standing shoulder to signifying his victorious
shoulder with his soldiers. reign.
 His unwavering courage and valor  Battlefield Demise:
earned him the title of Jayamkonda o Rajadhiraja Chola's valor
Chola, signifying his status as the was evident until his last
victorious Chola king. moments, as he met his
 Triumph over Rivals: end on the battlefield
 Rajadhiraja Chola's military during the Battle of
acumen was evident in his decisive Koppam.
victories against traditional rivals o He fought against
such as the Pandyas, Cheras, and Someshwar, a western
even the ruler of Sri Lanka. Chalukyan king, and his
Rajadhiraja  He effectively subdued these valiant demise earned
(c. 1044-1052 adversaries, solidifying Chola him the revered title of
CE) dominance in the region. Yanai-mel-thunjina
Devar, symbolizing the
 Plunder of Chalukyan Cities:
king who met his fate on
o Rajadhiraja Chola's
the back of an elephant.
military campaigns
extended to the Chalukyan  Rajendra II's ascent to the Chola
heartland, where he sacked throne was marked by a unique
and plundered cities like Rajendra II and dramatic event - his
Kalyani. (c.1054−1063 coronation took place directly on
o The Chola forces planted a CE) the battlefield.
Jaystambha at Yadgir, a  One of the notable feats of
symbolic representation of Rajendra II's reign was his victory
their conquest. over Someshwar, a prominent
 Harsh Conquests and figure in his time.
Administration:  This triumph over Someshwar was
o Despite his military accentuated by the planting of a
successes, Rajadhiraja Jaystambha at Kolhapur,
Chola's conquests were symbolizing Chola dominance and
marked by a harsh conquest.
attitude towards the  Virarajendra's reign witnessed a
inhabitants of the regions significant military victory as he
he subdued. defeated Someshwar II, further

18
Virarajendra enhancing Chola authority and Chola’s Administration
(c.1063−1067 dominance.
CE)  A hallmark of Virarajendra's reign The Chola dynasty, renowned for its effective governance and
was the establishment of a Vedic well-organized administrative structure, played a pivotal role in
college of learning. shaping South India's history.
 This initiative underscored his
commitment to education and  Royal Authority and Titles: Chola kings held
intellectual growth, contributing to prestigious titles such
the cultural and scholarly fabric of as ko, perumal,
the Chola dynasty. perumal adigal (the
great one), raja-
 Athirajendra's rule was rajadhiraja, and ko-
characterized by a series of konmai kondan,
Athirajendra rebellions and uprisings that posed underscoring their
(c.1067−1070 significant challenges to his grandeur and power.
CE) authority and stability.  The monarchs'
 Suppression of Rebellions: authority was all-
o Athirajendra's efforts to encompassing, and
maintain control and they were often
suppress the rebellions compared to gods,
demonstrate his invoking a sense of
commitment to divine rule.
preserving Chola rule and  King's Attributes and Actions: Chola inscriptions
order. laud the kings for their attractive appearance, warrior
 Demise During Suppression: prowess, patronage of the arts, and generosity towards
o The culmination of Brahmanas. The kings were protectors of varnasharma
Athirajendra's efforts to dharma, defenders against the Kali age's evils, and
quell a rebellion led to his undertook administrative tours to stay connected with
unfortunate demise. their realm.
o He died while actively  Governance and Officials: The Chola administration
engaged in suppressing displayed a complex structure with numerous terms
one of the uprisings that for offices and officials, reflecting its expansion. The
had emerged during his Venetian traveler Marco Polo's account highlights the
reign. loyalty of bodyguards, willing to sacrifice their lives
 The last Chola king, for the king's safety.
Shungamtavirtta, ruled as an  Administrative Division: The Chola empire was
abolisher of tolls, leading to the divided into eight mandalams or provinces, each
Kollutung I empire's disintegration and governed by a Viceroy or Governor, often members of
(c.1070−1122 shrinkage. the royal blood or nobility. Provinces further
CE)  In 1077 CE, a Chola embassy sent segmented into Kottams or Valanadus, which were
70 merchants to China, taking divided into Nadus (districts) consisting of
tribute for trade items like autonomous villages.
glassware, camphor, brocades,  Role of Villages and Guilds: Villages played a
rhinoceros horns, and ivory. pivotal role in the Chola administrative structure,
 The kingdom also had flourishing facilitating local governance and contributing to the
trade with Shri Vijaya. He is empire's stability. Guilds, known as shrenis or pugas,
credited with uniting the eastern were autonomous corporate organizations
Chalukyas of Vengi with the representing various crafts and trades.
Cholas and discarded wars during  Role of Nagarams: The Nagarams, or assemblies of
his relatively peaceful reign. merchant groups, were specific to different trades,
fostering specialized economic activities. Prominent
 Kamban, the Tamil writer, was
at his court.

19
 guilds like Ayyavole and Manigramam exerted
significant influence over trade and commerce.
 Guild Autonomy and Development: As the Chola
dynasty waned, guilds gradually gained independence
and power, leading to their reduced dependence on
royal support. Guilds' codes of conduct, collective
decision-making, and influence highlight their role in
shaping economic and societal dynamics.
 Legacy and Decline: The Chola dynasty's efficient
administration and socio-economic structures
contributed to their dominance, although gradual
decline marked their later years. The Cholas left an
indelible mark on history, with their achievements
impacting not only their era but also future
generations.
Chola’s Village Administration
The Cholas, renowned for their remarkable administrative
system, extended their influence to the grassroots level through
a well-structured village administration model. This system,
often considered an early version of the Panchayati Raj System,
showcased their advanced organizational skills and
commitment to effective local governance.
Chola village administration:
 Village Assemblies:
o Ur: In non-Brahmadeya villages
(vellanvagai), the general assembly, known
as Ur, convened to discuss land-related
matters, such as land sale, gift, and tax
exemptions. This assembly was characterized
by informal discussions, and its membership
typically comprised fewer than ten residents.
o Sabha or Mahasabha: Agraharas, rent-free
Brahmadeya villages, had an exclusive
assembly called Sabha or Mahasabha.
Membership in these assemblies was
restricted to Brahmans. The criteria for
membership included property ownership,
family background, education, and good
conduct.
 Mahasabha's Autonomy and Responsibilities:
Mahasabha enjoyed significant autonomy within its
jurisdiction. It possessed propriety rights over
communal lands and controlled private lands. This
assembly had the authority to raise loans for the village
and impose taxes. In case of default, Mahasabha had
the right to auction off lands to realize revenue. This
financial autonomy empowered the village
administration.
 Chola-Brahmana Sabha Relations: Evidences from
inscriptions indicate close connections between some
20
Brahmana Sabhas and the Chola court. Uttaramerur
inscriptions specify that resolutions of Sabhas were
made in the presence of a king-appointed official.
Tanjavur inscriptions reveal that Rajaraja I directed
the Cholamandalam Sabhas to perform services for the
renowned Brihadeshvara temple.
 Executive Committees and Village Affairs: Village
affairs were managed by an executive committee
comprising educated property owners. Members were
elected through either drawing lots or rotation and held
three-year terms. Distinct committees were
responsible for various activities, including
maintaining law and order, ensuring justice, and
overseeing the distribution of water through the
erivariya (tank committee).
 Land Ownership and Revenue: The Chola village
assembly held absolute ownership over village lands,
as well as lands newly acquired through conquest or
expansion. The main source of revenue for the Chola
Empire was land revenue, typically amounting to 1/6th
of the agricultural produce.
 Collection of Royal Dues: The village assemblies
collected royal dues from the residents, which could
be paid in cash, kind, or both. These dues contributed
to the empire's treasury.
 Land Surveys and Record Keeping: Chola
government conducted periodic land surveys, ensuring
accurate documentation of land holdings and
transactions. These surveys contributed to effective
revenue collection and administration.
 Kani Rights and Subdivisions: Land transfers
involving kani rights were prevalent, signifying the
transfer of possession along with associated rights and
obligations. Kani rights were further categorized
into Karanmai (right to cultivate) and Mitachi
(superior possessive right).
 Women in Leadership: Intriguing inscriptions from
Karnataka highlight instances where women held
leadership roles in villages. For example,
Chandiyabbe served as a village chieftain (agavundi),
and Jakkiyabbe acted as her counsellor (mantraki).
Chola’s Society and Economy
The Chola society, while divided along caste lines, experienced
distinct dynamics that shaped its structure and interactions.
Notably, the Paraiyar (untouchables) endured a pitiable status,
suffering from severe discrimination. In contrast, the Vellallas,
identified with the Shudra varna, held higher social and
economic positions due to their role as landholders.
 Emergence of Supra-Caste Dichotomy: The Chola
society witnessed the emergence of a unique supra-
 caste dichotomy: a. Idangai (left hand caste groupings): Chola Temple Architecture: A Masterpiece of
Comprised artisans and trading groups. b. Valangai Innovation and Grandeur
(right hand caste groupings): Encompassed agricultural
communities.
o Initially, these divisions coexisted without (Kailasanatha Temple, Kanchipuram)
conflict. Over time, tensions and conflicts
gradually surfaced between the two caste
groupings.
 Shift in Religious Patronage and Economy: A
significant transformation in the religious sphere was
the shift of royal patronage from Brahmanas to temples.
Both royalty and wealthy merchants generously
contributed to temple maintenance. Revenue from
numerous villages was allocated to temple upkeep, with
Brahmana Sabhas managing financial resources to
ensure transparency.  Chola temple architecture stands as a testament to the
 Expansion of Agrarian Economy: The early medieval ingenuity and grandeur of the Chola dynasty. This
period marked the expansion of the agrarian economy, architectural style, characterized by its intricate
attributed to various factors: details, towering vimanas (temple towers), and
o Land reclamation extended the agricultural elaborate sculptures, reached its zenith during the
margin. Chola rule.
o Irrigation techniques, including the use of the  Notable for its innovative features and engineering
agrahatta (Persian wheel), facilitated irrigation marvels, Chola temple architecture left an indelible
through tanks, canals, wells, and sluices. mark on Indian art and culture.
o Crop diversity expanded, contributing to
economic growth.
 Craft Production and Trade Centers: Craft
techniques improved during this period, leading to the
emergence of craft production centers:
o Kanchipuram gained prominence as a
weaving hub.
o Kudamukku excelled in betel nut and areca
nut cultivation, along with metalwork, coin
minting, and textiles.
o Palaiyarai served as a vital administrative and
residential capital.
 Emergence of Trading Castes: Trading castes played
a vital role in Chola society: Hoysaleshvara Temple, Halebid
o Garvares: Northern merchants migrating
southwards in the 10th−11th centuries. Key Features and Innovations:
o Gaudas/Gavundas: Originally cultivators.  Vimana: Chola temples featured towering vimanas,
o Heggades: Initially revenue officials. often pyramidal in shape, with multiple tiers adorned
o Kayasthas: Specialized in drafting and by intricate carvings and sculptures. These vimanas
writing land grant documents. symbolized the cosmic mountain Mount Meru, abode
o Karanas: Represented professional scribes. of the gods.
 International Trade and Relations: Chola kings  Gopuram: Elaborate entrance gateways, known as
established robust commercial connections with gopurams, welcomed devotees with ornate sculptures
Southeast Asia and China, reflecting their engagement depicting deities, celestial beings, and mythological
in international trade and diplomacy. narratives. These monumental gateways showcased
the Cholas' artistic prowess.
 Mandapa: Chola temples introduced various types of
mandapas (pillared halls) for religious and cultural

21
 gatherings. These halls displayed exquisite sculptures
portraying deities, celestial dancers, and scenes from
epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata.
 Shikhara: The topmost part of the vimana, known as
the shikhara, often featured a dome-like structure
embellished with intricate carvings. The shikhara was
a crowning glory of Chola temple architecture.
Prominent Chola Temples
 Brihadeshvara Temple (Thanjavur): Built by Rajaraja I,
this UNESCO World Heritage Site is a masterpiece of
Chola architecture. Its towering vimana and massive
monolithic Nandi (bull) statue showcase the Chola
aesthetic.
 Airavatesvara Temple (Darasuram): Renowned for its
exquisite carvings and intricate details, this temple is a fine
example of the Chola style. Its richly carved walls depict
scenes from Hindu mythology.
 Gangaikonda Cholapuram: Constructed by Rajendra I,
this temple complex reflects the Cholas' imperial
ambitions. The grand scale of the vimana and intricately
carved sculptures highlight the architectural finesse.
 Thillai Nataraja Temple (Chidambaram): Dedicated to
Lord Nataraja (Shiva as the cosmic dancer), this temple is
famous for its Chit Sabha (Hall of Consciousness) adorned
with 108 classical dance poses.
 Sculptural Brilliance: Chola temples are renowned for
their captivating sculptures that intricately portray deities,
celestial beings, and stories from Hindu mythology.
Sculptures captured dynamic poses, emotions, and
expressions, showcasing the Cholas' mastery over stone
carving.
 Religious Significance and Symbolism: Chola temples
were not merely architectural wonders; they held profound
religious significance. They served as spiritual centers,
fostering devotion, and offering spaces for rituals,
ceremonies, and cultural activities.
 Legacy and Influence: Chola temple architecture left an
enduring legacy, influencing subsequent temple-building
22
traditions across India. The intricate carvings, monumental
structures, and symbolic elements continue to inspire awe
and reverence.
 In essence, Chola temple architecture epitomizes the
synthesis of artistic brilliance, engineering excellence, and
spiritual devotion. It stands as a glorious chapter in India's
architectural history, enriching the cultural tapestry of the
nation.
Chola Dynasty:
Flourishing Art
Forms and
Literature
The Chola dynasty,
known for its remarkable
temple architecture, also
fostered a rich tapestry
of art forms and
literature that reflected
the cultural vibrancy of
its time. From sculpture
and painting to literature
and music, the Chola period witnessed a flourishing of creative
expressions that continue to inspire and captivate.
 Sculpture: Chola sculpture is renowned for its intricate
detailing, lifelike expressions, and devotion to deities.
Temples were adorned with exquisite sculptures that
narrated mythological stories, showcased divine beings,
and celebrated the cosmic order. Iconic examples include
the Nataraja (Shiva as the cosmic dancer) statue at
Chidambaram and the majestic monolithic Nandi bull at
Brihadeshvara Temple. The art of sculpture attained high
standard during this period as evident in the giant statue
of Gomateswar at Sravan Belgola.
 Bronze Casting: Chola artisans mastered the technique of
bronze casting, producing divine figurines of deities that
were worshipped with great reverence. These bronzes
exhibit fine craftsmanship, intricate jewelry, and
expressive faces, making them objects of artistic and
spiritual admiration.
 Painting: Though few Chola paintings have survived,
references to mural paintings in temples highlight their
significance. These paintings adorned temple walls with
vibrant depictions of deities, divine narratives, and scenes
from epics. The Brihadeshvara and Gangaikonda
Cholapuram temples were known for their murals.
 Literature: The Chola period was a golden era for Tamil
literature, with prominent literary works composed during
this time. Notable literary contributions include:
 o Sangam Literature: The Cholas preserved and
patronized earlier Sangam literature, showcasing
their commitment to literary heritage.
o Tirukkural: Authored by Thiruvalluvar, this
masterpiece explores ethical and moral
principles, offering insights into human behavior
and values.
o Nalayira Divya Prabandham: A collection of
devotional hymns by the Alvars, dedicated to
Lord Vishnu. These hymns played a significant
role in Bhakti movement.
o Silappadikaram and Manimekalai: These epic
poems narrate tales of love, valor, and ethical
dilemmas, providing valuable insights into
society and culture.
 Music and Dance: Chola rulers were patrons of music and
dance, contributing to the development of classical art
forms. The Chidambaram Natyanjali dance festival and the
presence of dance sculptures in temples testify to their
patronage.
 Architecture in Literature: Literary works like "Periya
Puranam" celebrated the lives of the 63 Nayanars (devotees
of Shiva) and provide insights into the socio-religious
landscape of the Chola era.
The Chola dynasty's patronage of art forms and literature
not only enriched Tamil culture but also left an indelible
impact on the broader Indian artistic tradition. Through
their support and encouragement, the Cholas nurtured a
cultural renaissance that continues to inspire and influence
creative expressions to this day.

Conclusion
The Chola dynasty's enduring legacy in ancient India is marked
by remarkable achievements in administration, trade, art,
literature, and culture. Their architectural marvels, such as the
Brihadeeswarar Temple, showcase their artistic prowess. Their
contributions to Tamil literature and their influence in
Southeast Asia underscore their cultural significance. While
their power eventually waned, the Cholas' impact on India's
history and heritage remains a testament to their enduring
legacy.

UPSC CSE Mains PYQs:

Q. Chola architecture represents a high watermark in the
evolution of temple architecture. Discuss. (2013)
Q. Discuss the main contributions of Gupta period and Chola
period to Indian heritage and culture. (2022)

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