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Quite a few studies have examined the association of creativity with psychoticism. The present
article reports a meta-analysis that was intended to clarify the strength of the association and to
explain variation in effects sizes reported in 32 previous studies. These 32 studies involved 6,771
participants, most of them college students. Results indicated that the effect sizes were heteroge-
neous, but the overall mean effect size was small (r ⫽ .16, k ⫽ 119, 95% CI [.12, .20]). Of most
importance was that the analyses examining 8 moderators (gender, age, the type of sample, the
particular measure of creativity, the content of the particular creativity test, the index of creativity,
the particular measure of psychoticism, and the domain of creativity) and 2 interaction terms
(Creativity Measure ⫻ Measure of Psychoticism and Creativity Measure ⫻ Content of Creativity
Test) showed that the relationship between creativity and psychoticism is large (r ⫽ .50, 95% CI
[.39, .60]) but only when psychoticism is measured by the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire and
uniqueness is the index of creativity. Results are discussed with respect to their theoretical
implications.
Creativity has long been associated with psychopathology. Ar- mental disorders, including schizophrenia and manic depressive
istotle’s statement “No great genius has ever been without some proclivities. Psychoticism might be considered “subclinical,” just
madness” (and the concise label mad genius) is still debated in the as some schizoaffective tendencies are clearly distinct from
literature. The relationship between creativity and psychopathol- schizophrenia (and therefore not psychopathological; Sass, 2000 –
ogy is difficult to pinpoint, in large part because creativity and 2001; Schuldberg, 2000 –2001). This, of course, makes the possi-
psychopathology are both complex concepts. Also, the relationship ble bridge to creative performance easier to understand, given that
is probably bidirectional, with creativity sometimes influencing creative performance must be effective (Runco, 1988; Runco,
psychopathology and psychopathology sometimes influencing cre- Jaeger, & Cramond, in press). Unambiguous psychopathology
ativity (Runco, 1991). This makes causal explanations quite chal- would make it difficult for the person to be effective, at least in the
lenging. It is not surprising, then, in their review of studies on the sense of adaptive action. To simplify, P involves some character-
relationship between creativity and psychopathology, that Lau- istics of psychotic disorders, but high P scores do not necessarily
ronen et al. (2004) found multiple links. They concluded that there mean a psychotic disorder (H. J. Eysenck, 1995).
was a “fragile association between creativity and mental disorder, H. J. Eysenck (1995) portrayed P as a continuum that has
but the link is not apparent for all groups of mental disorders or for altruistic, socialized, empathic, conventional, and conformist
all forms of creativity” (p. 81). This echoes the conclusion of personality traits on one extreme (low psychoticism; P–); and
Richards (2000 –2001) in her overview of research on this topic. criminal, impulsive, hostile, aggressive, psychopathic, schizoid,
Clearly, it is necessary to be very specific in any examination of unipolar depressive, affective disorders, schizoaffective, and
creativity and psychopathology. With that in mind, the focus of the schizophrenic traits on other extreme (high psychoticism; P⫹).
present article should be explicitly stated. This article is focused on P⫹ scorers tend to have difficulty attending or with vigilance.
psychoticism. It is unique in its use of meta-analytic procedures They may be noncooperative but are often highly original in
used to explore it and its relationship with creativity. word association tests. This last point is also useful when
H. J. Eysenck (1995) defined psychoticism (P) as “a disposi- examining a bridge with creativity. MacKinnon (1962) and
tional variable or trait predisposing people to functional psychotic Cross, Cattell, and Butcher (1967), as well as H. J. Eysenck
disorders of all types” (p. 203). The concept of psychoticism was (1997, 2003), suggested that the study of psychoticism can
derived from psychosis, which is the common label for some contribute much to the understanding of creativity.
One attraction of this line of work is that it bridges personality
with the cognitive underpinnings of creative thinking. As H. J.
This article was published Online First February 27, 2012. Eysenck (2003) described it, some people have loose and very
Selcuk Acar and Mark A. Runco, Torrance Creativity Center, University
wide associative networks, which allow divergent thinking and the
of Georgia, Athens.
We thank Rod Dishman and Nur Cayirdag for their contributions and
discovery of remote and highly original ideas. This is overinclusive
valuable comments on this article. thinking and is, for Eysenck, rooted in personality. Open-ended
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Selcuk tests reveal this characteristic because they allow people with
Acar, 350 Aderhold Hall, Torrance Creativity Center, University of Geor- wider associative horizons to produce novel, original, and unusual
gia, Athens, GA 30602. E-mail: acarse@uga.edu responses. Overinclusive tendencies underlie both creativity and
341
342 ACAR AND RUNCO
psychotic disorders. In fact, H. J. H. J. Eysenck (2003) proposed reasons to focus the meta-analysis on the P scale. First, the inclu-
that this is precisely why so many unambiguously creative persons sion of schizotypy would have complicated analyses because of
have been diagnosed with psychopathology. additional heterogeneity that hinders meaningful interpretation.
H. J. Eysenck (1994) empirically tested his theory by adminis- Besides, studies have shown that schizotypal scales involve quite
tering the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire—Revised ([EPQ–R] a bit of neuroticism (for a review, see H. J. Eysenck, 1993), which
which involves the P, Neuroticism [N], Extraversion, and Lie could be the reason for loading on different factors than P in factor
scales); tests of impulsiveness (I), empathy (Em), and venture- analytic studies (e.g., White, Joseph, & Neil, 1995). In addition,
someness (V); Word Association Rare Response Test (WARRT); there are enough studies (more than 30) specifically examining the
and Barron–Welsh Art Scale (B-W). Bivariate correlations be- relationship between the P scale and creativity measures. Prece-
tween P and creativity measures were ⫺.25 (p ⬍ .01), .27 (p ⬍ dents for meta-analyses with 30 – 40 studies are easy to find (e.g.,
.01), and .17 (ns) for usual, unique, and rare responses from the Bennett & Gibbons, 2000; Kim, 2008). Taken together, these
WAT, and .16 (ns) with the total score from the B-W. Those were reasons supported the decision to conduct a meta-analysis that
lower than coefficients reported in the earlier study by Woody and focused entirely on P and creativity.
Claridge (1977), who found correlations ranging between .32 and A meta-analysis on creativity and psychoticism could also ex-
.68 (p ⫽ .001). Multidimensional scaling analysis indicated that amine specific factors to determine whether they lead to the
creativity measures (P, I, V, WAT rare, WAT unique, and B-W) aforementioned mixed results. One such factor reflects the variety
constituted a cluster different from another cluster consisting of of definitions and measures of creativity used in previous studies.
Em, WAT common, and N. Large effect sizes would be expected from research using word
Kline and Cooper (1986) used scales of flexibility of closure, association and divergent thinking tests, at least if H. J. Eysenck
spontaneous flexibility, ideational fluency, word fluency, and orig- (1993, 2003) was correct in his suggestion that high psychoticism
inality from the Comprehensive Ability Battery (Hakstian & Cat- is related to higher performance in overinclusive thinking. Word
tell, 1976) as creativity measures to test their relationship with P association and divergent thinking tasks are open-ended and as
from the EPQ (H. J. Eysenck & Eysenck, 1975). Analyses were such allow this sort of associational processes (Glazer, 2009).
conducted separately for men and women. The highest and the The nature of the test content, as verbal or figural, may be
only significant correlation was with word fluency (r ⫽ .20) relevant. Guilford (1968) reported that verbal (symbolic and se-
among men. All other correlations were lower and not statistically mantic) divergent thinking was related to higher IQ than figural
significant. tests. Runco (1986) found that verbal and figural stimuli produce
Barron (1993) also suspected a relationship between creativity qualitatively and quantitatively different outcomes. He raised the
and psychoticism. In fact, he found that creative individuals had possibility that each elicits a unique ideational and associative
high scores on the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory process. Runco (1993) also noted the difference between ideations
Schizophrenia scale, compared with the general population (Bar- generated from verbal and figural tasks in that the former tend to
ron, 1963/1990). Evidence regarding high ego strength in creative be more “rote and preconceived” and the latter more “effortful and
individuals, along with a negative correlation between ego strength spontaneous” (Runco, 1986, p. 351). Also, verbal measures could
and schizophrenia in the general population, convinced him to be more subject to experiential bias (Runco & Acar, 2010). At-
argue that weird thoughts become defensibly original because ego tempts to enhance creativity, as measured by tests of divergent
strength allows the individual to sort out inconvenient thoughts. thinking, at least sometimes lead to improvements in verbal indices
That is what he called controlled weirdness. Fodor (1995) reported but not figural (Kauffman & Rich, 2010). Richardson (1986) used
more recent evidence supporting a similar view. He found that these kinds of findings to postulate a two-factor theory of creativ-
people with psychosis proneness and high ego strength were more ity. One factor is verbal, the other figural.
creative than those with psychosis proneness with low ego H. J. Eysenck and Eysenck (1976) examined the specific scores
strength, high ego strength without psychosis proneness, and low from tests of divergent thinking and concluded that psychoticism is
ego strength without psychosis proneness. This finding held across more related to originality than fluency and flexibility. This fits
various measures of creativity. with later findings that reported positive correlation between psy-
Other findings raised some doubts about the relation of P to choticism and uniqueness scores in word association tests (H. J.
creativity. Csikszentmihalyi (1993) argued that psychoticism does Eysenck, 1993).
not say much about creativity and the relationship between the two Domain differences in creative performance (Baer, 1998;
is weak: “How significant is it, for instance, that less than 3% of Plucker, 1998; Runco, 1987) may also be relevant to the
the variance in a divergent-thinking test filled out by university creativity–psychoticism relationship. Sass (2000 –2001), Ludwig
students is in common with the variance in their scores on psy- (1992), and Post (1994) all found that incidences of psychopathol-
choticism?” (p. 189). On the other hand, Martindale (1993) ac- ogy varied according to domains. Post, for example, found that
cepted H. J. Eysenck’s (1993) theory because he felt that the psychopathologies are more common among creative artists than
relationship between creativity and psychoticism explains swings among creative scientists. For this reason, the domains of science,
of physiological arousal in creative people. writing, and arts, and relationships with psychoticism were exam-
Mixed results about the relationship between creativity and ined in the meta-analysis.
psychoticism suggest that it would be beneficial to look more The relationship between creativity and psychoticism may differ
closely. A meta-analysis of studies reporting the relationship be- in males and females, given that male gender is positively corre-
tween creativity and psychoticism could help to resolve the con- lated with P (H. J. Eysenck, 1993; H. J. Eysenck & Eysenck,
troversy. Although psychoticism represents a broader conceptual- 1976). Certainly, differences could also be attributed to social
ization than the P scale of H. J. Eysenck (1995), there were several factors that influence creative efforts and achievements (Csik-
PSYCHOTICISM AND CREATIVITY 343
szentmihalyi, 1993; Runco, Cramond, & Pagnani, 2010). With this 2. Are there domain-based differences in the relationship
in mind, the meta-analyses, reported below, took into account sex, between creativity and psychoticism?
as well as age.
The relationship of psychopathology and creativity may be most 3. Can the strength of relationship between creativity and
obvious in studies with eminent individuals (Andreasen & Powers, psychoticism be explained by the type of creativity tests
1974, 1975; Ludwig, 1994). Perhaps the presence of psychoticism used in the studies? More specifically, do divergent
itself has an impact on the salience that attracts fame and earns thinking and word association tests yield higher effect
eminence. A related possibility is that fame leads to the collection sizes than the other tests?
of detailed information (e.g., biographies and autobiographies),
4. Does the figural or verbal content of the creativity tests
which in turn allows easier interpretation of problems or psycho-
make a difference in terms of the relationship between
pathology. Consider as one example Isaac Newton. He was ru-
creativity and psychoticism?
mored to have autism, but this rumor only started after autism was
defined (in the 1940s) and recognized as a legitimate diagnostic 5. To what degree do different indices of creativity explain
category for psychologists and psychiatrists. Once autism was the variability in the effect sizes? More specifically, does
defined, biographers could look back at Newton’s idiosyncrasies, the number of unique responses yield higher effect sizes
which were readily available. But they were only available because than the others?
Newton was famous and a great deal had been written about him.
Ludwig’s (1995) study of 1,000 eminent people indicated that 6. Does the particular measure of psychoticism explain the
increased eminence is related to higher incidences of psychopa- variability of effect sizes?
thology. Richards (1981) found higher levels of psychopathology
among eminent creators than among laypeople. Gotz and Gotz 7. Do eminence, age, and gender explain the strength of the
(1979b) compared highly and less successful artists and found that relationship between creativity and psychoticism?
there was higher P in the former group but no difference in
originality. Bachtold (1980) studied 18 eminently creative artists Method
and scientists and concluded that the relationship between creativ-
ity and psychoticism is more related to assertiveness and success Literature Search
rather than the creative process. This variation as a function of
eminence could apply specifically to psychoticism. Level of Studies published in 1975 through 2010 were located through an
achievement was therefore tested in the following meta-analysis. extensive literature search in English. The year 1975 was chosen as
Last but not least, different versions of the P scale could lead to the starting year because use of the P scale became possible after
variation. The P scale (H. J. Eysenck & Eysenck, 1976) was the publication of the EPQ (H. J. Eysenck & Eysenck, 1975). The
designed to measure psychoticism as a personality trait that is literature search was mainly conducted through keywords, which
believed to exist in varying degrees in psychotic as well as non- consisted of creativity and psychoticism. Those keywords were
psychotic groups. Factor analytic methods were employed in its entered to electronic databases including Google Scholar, Psycho-
construction and revision. Its main use is in nonpsychotic groups; logical Abstracts Index, Science Direct and Web of Science, and
thus, it is focused on personality traits rather than symptoms. Still, Educational Resources Information Center search engines. Sec-
it has been used a criterion against psychiatric diagnoses. All 25 ond, the reference lists and bibliographies of the articles found
items are worded as “yes” or “no” questions (e.g., “Would being through electronic search were reviewed.
in debt worry you?”; “Do most things taste the same to you?”; “Do The decisions for inclusion and exclusion of the studies were
you try not to be rude to people?”). After the release of the P scale made based on the research questions listed above. Figure 1
as a component of the EPQ, a new version (S. B. G. Eysenck, summarizes this process. The following criteria were followed for
Eysenck, & Barrett, 1985) was developed to improve the psycho- the studies to be included in or excluded from analyses:
metric quality of the scale. There were three problems with the
initial form: low reliability, low range of scoring, and highly
skewed distribution of scores. After addition and removal of sev-
eral items, the revised P consisted of 32 items. The correlation of
the new and old P was .88 and .81 for male and female groups,
respectively. When compared with the old form, the revised P had
slightly higher reliability (.78 and .76 against .74 to .68 for males
and females, respectively), a remarkably larger range of scores,
and moderately improved skewness. The measure of psychoticism
was included in this study because of those significant differences
between the two forms.
In sum, based on the theoretical and prior empirical data from
previous investigations, we addressed the following questions:
Table 1
Definitions and Scope of Moderators
Moderator Definition/test
Gender
Male Samples with male groups above 75%
Female Samples with female groups above 75%
Mixed Samples with both males and females
Age (years)
Above 30 Samples with age above 30
Below 30 Samples with age below 30
Eminence
Eminent Studies with eminent or highly successful individuals in a field of creativity
Noneminent Studies with normal individuals
Measure of creativity
Divergent thinking (DT) DT (Wallach & Kogan, 1965); Torrance Test of Creative Thinking, (Torrance,
1974, 2008); Inventiveness subscale of the Berlin Intelligence Structure Test
(Jäger, Süß, & Beauducel, 1997); House–Tree–Person Projective Drawing
Technique (H-T-P;Buck, 1992); Word Fluency (Goodglass & Kaplan, 1972);
Letter Fluency (Lezak, 1995), Thurstone Written Fluency Test, (Thurstone &
Thurstone, 1962); Alternate Uses (Guilford, Christensen, Merrifield, &
Wilson, 1978); and Utility Test (Wilson, Merrifield, & Guildford, 1969)
Word association tests Word Association Rare Response Test (Kent-Rosanoff, 1910; Palermo &
Jenkins, 1964); Word Halo Test (Armstrong & McConaghy, 1977); AMT
(Merten & Fischer, 1999)
Barron–Welsh (B-W) B-W (Barron & Welsh, 1987; Welsh & Barron, 1963); Polygons (Vanderplas
and Garvin, 1959); Welsh Figure Preference Test (Welsh, 1949); and
origence test (Rawlings & Georgiou, 2004)
Creative personality Adjective Checklist or Creative Personality Scale (ACL/CPS; Gough, 1979)
Other Remote Associates Test (Mednick, 1962); Bridge-the-Associative-Gap
(Gianotti, Mohr, Pizzagalli, Lehmann, & Brugger, 2001); conceptual
expansion (T. B. Ward, 1994); constraint of examples (Smith, Ward, &
Schumacher, 1993); creative imagery (Finke, 1990); How Do You Think
(Davis & Subkoviak, 1975); insight problems (Karimi, Windmann,
Güntürkün, & Abraham, 2007); number of publications (Rushton, 1990); and
performance based (writing a story or poem; Martindale & Dailey, 1996)
Measure of psychoticism
P scale of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) H. J. Eysenck & Eysenck, 1975
P scale of the Eysenck Personality S. B. G.Eysenck et al., 1985; H. J. Eysenck & Eysenck, 1991
Questionnaire—Revised (EPQ–R)
Symptom Checklist–90 (SCL-90) Derogatis, Lipman, & Covi, 1973
Other 66-item anonymous survey (Rushton, 1990)
Content of creativity test
Verbal All tests with verbal content, including DT, WAT, CPS/ACL, and other tests
Figural All tests with figural content, including DT, B-W, and other tests
Both Composite of both verbal and figural scores
Numerical Items related to numbers in the Inventiveness scale of the Berlin Intelligence
Structure Test
None Studies using no measures or number of publications as a measure of creativity
Indices of creativity
Fluency Number of total responses or total score
Flexibility Number of categories
Infrequency Number of infrequent ideas including unique scores
Uniqueness Number unique scores only
Practicality Practical value of ideas
Other Studies reporting no particular index of creativity
Domains
Arts Participants were artists or measurement of creativity relied on artistic skills
(H-T-P, Buck, 1992; B-W, Welsh & Barron, 1963; Polygons, Vanderplas &
Garvin, 1959); Welsh Figure Preference Test (Barron & Welsh, 1987;
Welsh, 1949); and origence test (Rawlings & Georgiou, 2004)
Science Measurement was scientific based (number of publications)
Writing Participants were artists or measurement of creativity relied on writing skills
(Creative Writing—Poetry Measure; Joy, 2008)
General General population or usual measures of creativity
Note. DT ⫽ divergent thinking; WAT ⫽ Word Association Test; AMT ⫽ multiple-choice association test.
346 ACAR AND RUNCO
Table 2
Number of Studies and Categories and Univariate Analyses of Moderators
Gender
Male ⫺1 16 .13 [.05, .20] .002
Female .5 21 .17 [.11, .22] ⬍.001
Mixed .5 82 .17 [.11, .22] ⬍.001
Age (years)
Below 30 1 93 .18 [.13, .22] ⬍.001
Above 30 ⫺1 14 .05 [⫺.07, .16] .46
Not reported 0 12 .15 [.07, .23] .001
Eminence
Eminent ⫺1 5 ⫺.04 [⫺.32, .24] .78
Noneminent 1 114 .17 [.13, .21] ⬍.001
Measure of creativity
DT 1/2 70 .18 [.12, .24] ⬍.001
WAT 1/2 10 .22 [.14, .31] ⬍.001
B-W ⫺1/3 11 .11 [.03, .18] .006
CPS ⫺1/3 4 .03 [⫺.02, .08] .27
Other measures ⫺1/3 20 .12 [.02, .21] .02
Not used — 4 .18 [.10, .25] ⬍.001
Type of creativity test
Verbal 0 71 .16 [.11, .22] ⬍.001
Figural ⫺1 37 .15 [.08, .22] .001
Numerical — 1
Both — 2 .22 [.00, .43] .05
None 1 8 .18 [.09, .27] .001
Indices of creativity
Fluency ⫺1/4 34 .13 [.06, .21] .001
Flexibility ⫺1/4 7 .00 [⫺.11, .11] .99
Infrequency ⫺1/4 17 .16 [.10, .22] ⬍.001
Uniqueness 1 18 .40 [.27, .51] ⬍.001
Practicality — 1
Other ⫺1/4 42 .11 [.06, .16] .001
Domains
Arts ⫺1/2 17 .14 [.08, .19] ⬍.001
Science 1 2 .36 [.19, .51] .001
Writing ⫺1/2 10 .17 [.03, .30] .02
General 0 90 .16 [.11, .21] ⬍.001
Measure of P
EPQ 1 67 .20 [.15, .26] ⬍.001
EPQ–R 0 49 .11 [.08, .15] ⬍.001
SCL-90 ⫺1 2 ⫺.44 [⫺.55,⫺.31] ⬍.001
Other —
Note. DT ⫽ divergent thinking; WAT ⫽ Word Association Rare Response Test; B-W ⫽ Barron–Welsh
Art Scale; CPS ⫽ Creative Personality Scale; P ⫽ psychoticism; EPQ ⫽ Eysenck Personality Question-
naire; EPQ–R ⫽ Eysenck Personality Questionnaire—Revised; SCL-90 ⫽ Symptom Checklist–90.
bution of effects was slightly skewed positively (g1 ⫽ 228) and 95% CI [⫺.32, .24]) than those with only unexceptional participants
leptokurtic (g2 ⫽ 1.37). The fail-safe sample size was (N⫹) (r ⫽ .17, 95% CI [.13, .21]). In addition, studies measuring psychoti-
8,452. The mean effect size (r) was .16 (k ⫽ 119, 95% CI [.12, cism with the EPQ had a larger mean effect size (r ⫽ .20, 95% CI
.20], p ⬍ .00001). Because of its heterogeneity, QT(118) ⫽ [.15, .26]) than those using the EPQ–R (r ⫽ 11, 95% CI [.08, .15]) or
625.67, the mean effect size was not representative of the the Symptom Checklist–90 ([SCL-90] r ⫽ ⫺.44, 95% CI [⫺.55,
studies included. The more meaningful analyses, therefore, are ⫺.31]). Cell comparisons of the interaction of Measure of Psychoti-
probably those focused on the moderators (below). cism ⫻ Index of Creativity Test indicated that the largest effect sizes
The overall multiple regression model explained a significant were reported in studies that used the EPQ as the measure of psy-
amount of the variance of the effect sizes, QR(11) ⫽ 89.36, p ⬍ choticism and uniqueness as the index of creativity measure (r ⫽ .50.
.0001, R2 ⫽ .46; QE(98) ⫽ 104.59, p ⫽ .31. This model indicated 95% CI [.39, .60]; see Figure 3). The other three cells each had mean
that the type of sample ( ⫽ .22, z ⫽ 2.77, p ⫽ .006), the measure effect sizes slightly above .10.
of psychoticism ( ⫽ .29, z ⫽ 3.35, p ⫽ .001), and the interaction All effect sizes for each level of the moderators are provided in
of Measure of Psychoticism ⫻ Index of Creativity Test ( ⫽ .58, the Table 2 along with the number of effect sizes (k), the mean r
z ⫽ 4.48, p ⬍ .001) were independently related to effect size. effect size values, the 95% CIs, and the p values for planned
Planned comparisons indicated that studies consisting of eminent or comparisons. The descriptive results of the overall regression
highly successful individuals reported smaller effect sizes (r ⫽ ⫺.04, model are also presented in the Table 3.
PSYCHOTICISM AND CREATIVITY 347
Table 3 References
Standardized Regression Coefficients for the Moderators
References marked with an asterisk indicate studies included in the
Effect moderator  p meta-analysis.
*Abraham, A., Windmann, S., Daum, I., & Güntürkün, O. (2005. Concep-
Gender .09 .24 tual expansion and creative imagery as a function of psychoticism.
Age ⫺.10 .24 Consciousness and Cognition, 14, 520 –534. doi:10.1016/j.con-
Type of sample .22 .01 cog.2004.12.003
Content of creativity test .12 .14 Acar, S. (2011). Asynchronicity. In M. A. Runco & S. R. Pritzker (Eds.),
Measure of creativity .01 .95
Encyclopedia of creativity (2nd ed., Vol. 1, pp. 72–77). San Diego, CA:
Index of creativity measure ⫺.03 .85
Measure of psychoticism .29 .00 Academic Press. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-375038-9.00015-7
Domain of creativity ⫺.04 .65 *Aguilar-Alonso, A. (1996). Personality and creativity. Personality and
Index of Creativity Measure ⫻ Measure of Psychoticism .58 .00 Individual Differences, 21, 959 –969.
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*Burch, G. St. J., Hemsley, D. R., Corr, P., & Pavelis, C. (2006). Person-
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