REOVIRUSES

Structure dsRNA, Icosahedral, Segmented, Naked

Taxonomy Family: Reoviridae

Mode of Transmission Fecal-oral route

Vectors Ticks and mosquitoes

Disease Gastroenteritis

Incubation period 1-3 days

Sudden onset of chillness, fever, watery diarrhea, generalized aches (especially of the back and
Signs and Symptoms
extremities), malaise, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain

Infects the CNS, causes pathology and physiologic dysfunction in a wide range of organs and tissues,
Pathogenesis
such as the hepatobiliary system, myocardium, lungs, and endocrine tissues

Diagnostic Lab Tests ELISA, EIA, RT-PCR

Treatment Supportive

Preventive Measures Proper human fecal disposal and sanitation, ensure clean hygiene, vaccination
 ROTAVIRUSES
Structure dsRNA, Icosahedral, Segmented, Naked

Taxonomy Family: Reoviridae

Mode of Transmission Fecal-oral route

Vectors Ticks and mosquitoes

Disease Gastroenteritis

Incubation period 1-3 days

Signs and Symptoms Watery diarrhea, fever, abdominal pain, vomiting, dehydration

Pathogenesis Infects the cells in villi of small intestine and damage the transport mechanism of enterocytes

Diagnostic Lab Tests EIA, RT-PCR, Latex Agglutination

Treatment Supportive

Preventive Measures Proper human fecal disposal and sanitation, ensure clean hygiene, vaccination
 CALICIVIRUSES
Structure Small, ssRNA, (+) sense, Icosahedral, Non-segmented, Naked

Taxonomy Family: Caliciviridae

Fecal-oral route, water-borne, direct contact with body secretions of infected cats and through aerosol
Mode of Transmission
droplets when cats sneeze

Vectors Cats, blood sucking insects (mosquitoes)

Disease Infectious gastroenteritis, diarrheal illness

Incubation period Variable (usually 2-14 days)

Acute diarrhea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, myalgias, malaise, headache, nausea, and low-grade
Signs and Symptoms
fever, hepatitis-like symptom

Pathogenesis Infect the intestinal brush border, preventing proper absorption of water and nutrients

Diagnostic Lab Tests Electron Microscopy, EIA, RT-PCR, Serology for Hepatitis E

Treatment Supportive

Proper human fecal disposal and sanitation, clean hygiene such as frequent hand washing, cat
Preventive Measures
vaccination, avoid contact with virus
 ASTROVIRUSES
Structure Small, ssRNA, (+) sense, Icosahedral, Non-segmented, Naked

Taxonomy Family: Astroviridae

Mode of Transmission Fecal-oral route

Vectors No vectors have been described

Disease Diarrheal illness

Incubation period 3-4 days

Signs and Symptoms Diarrhea, headache, nausea, low-grade fever, abdominal pain, anorexia

Pathogenesis Infects intestinal epithelial cells causes a mild, self-limiting gastroenteritis

Diagnostic Lab Tests Electron Microscopy, Immune EM

Treatment Supportive

Clean hygiene such as frequent hand washing prior to handling the food at all times, good sanitary
Preventive Measures
practices, along with healthy nutrition
 POLIOVIRUSES
Structure Smallest, ssRNA, (+) sense, Icosahedral, Non-segmented, Naked

Taxonomy Family: Picornaviridae | Genus: Enterovirus

Mode of Transmission Fecal-oral route

Vectors No vectors have been described (Humans are reservoir)

Disease Paralytic Poliomyelitis, Post-Polio Syndrome

Incubation period 7-14 days

Signs and Symptoms Fever, fatigue, headache, vomiting, stiffness of the neck and pain in the limbs, meningitis, paralysis

During intestinal replication, the virus invades local lymphoid tissue and may enter the bloodstream,
Pathogenesis and then infect cells of the CNS. Poliovirus-induced destruction of motor neurons of the anterior horn
of the spinal cord and brain stem cells results in distinctive paralysis.

Diagnostic Lab Tests Culture, PCR, Serological test

Treatment Supportive

Proper hygiene such as hand washing, administration of inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV)
Preventive Measures
intramuscularly and/or oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV)
 ENTEROVIRUSES
Structure Smallest, ssRNA, (+) sense, Icosahedral, Non-segmented, Naked

Taxonomy Family: Picornaviridae | Genus: Enterovirus

Mode of Transmission Fecal-oral route

Vectors No vectors have been described (Humans are reservoir)

Disease Aseptic Meningitis, Summer flu, Acute Hemorrhagic Conjunctivitis (Enterovirus 70)

Incubation period Variable (usually 3-35 days)

Signs and Symptoms Either asymptomatic or symptomatic (fever, headache, sore throat, non-specific rash)

The virus enters the body through the oral or nasopharyngeal route; cause damage within the central
Pathogenesis
nervous system by inducing apoptosis and autophagy

Diagnostic Lab Tests Cell Culture, PCR, Serological test

Treatment Supportive

Preventive Measures Proper hygiene such as hand washing, good sanitary practice, disinfect frequently touched surfaces
 HEPATITIS A VIRUSES
Structure Smallest, ssRNA, (+) sense, Icosahedral, Non-segmented, Naked

Taxonomy Family: Picornaviridae | Genus: Hepatovirus

Mode of Transmission Fecal-oral route

Vectors No insect or animal vectors (Humans are only reservoir)

Disease Infectious Hepatitis

Incubation period 2-6 weeks

Fever, jaundice, nausea, malaise, joint pain, anorexia, dark urine, pale stool, tenderness of the upper
Signs and Symptoms
right quadrant of abdomen, liver disease

HAV is typically acquired through ingestion and replicates in the liver. After 10 to 12 days, virus is
Pathogenesis
present in blood and is excreted via the biliary system into the feces

Diagnostic Lab Tests Serological test, blood test (IgG anti-HAV), RT-PCR

Treatment Supportive

Prevent clinical illness with serum immunoglobulin, vaccination (pre- & post-exposure prophylaxis),
Preventive Measures
proper hygiene and good sanitary practice
 DENGUE VIRUSES
Structure ssRNA, (+) sense, Icosahedral/spherical, Non-segmented, Enveloped

Taxonomy Family: Flaviviridae

Mode of Transmission Person to person through the bite of an infected female mosquito

Vectors Aedes aegypti, Aedes albopictus

Disease Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever, Dengue Shock Syndrome

Incubation period 5–7 days (range 3–10 days)

Signs and Symptoms High fever, joint/bone/eye pain, nausea, rash, sometimes vomiting, bleeding gums or nose, petechiae

The virus enters the skin together with the mosquito's saliva. It binds to and enters white blood cells,
Pathogenesis
and reproduces inside the cells while they move throughout the body

Diagnostic Lab Tests Tourniquet test, serological test, RT-PCR, NS-1Antigent Test, Dengue Duo IgM/IgG

Treatment Supportive

Wearing a protective clothing, spraying of insect repellants/ insecticides, environmental cleaning,

Preventive Measures
vaccination of susceptible population, proper hygiene
 RABIES VIRUSES
Structure ssRNA, (-) sense, Helical, Non-segmented, Enveloped, “Bullet-shaped”

Taxonomy Family: Rhabdoviridae

Mode of Transmission Direct contact (usually a bite or deep scratch) with saliva from an infected animal

Vectors Wild or domesticated animals (usually dogs, cats)

Disease Rabies

Incubation period Variable (related to the site of inoculation, severity of wound) usually 1-3 months

Weakness or discomfort, fever, headache, anorexia, prickling/itching sensation at the site of the bite,
Signs and Symptoms
hydro- & aerophobia, seizure, anxiety, confusion, and agitation, CNS infection

The virus multiplies in the muscles or connective tissue of animal and enter the nerves at
Pathogenesis
neuromuscular junction and spread up to CNS nerves of the susceptible host

Diagnostic Lab Tests Direct Fluorescent Antibody test, RT-PCR

Treatment Postexposure prophylaxis (passive vaccination - HRIG)

Preventive Measures Vaccination of dogs and prevention of dog bites (Keep animals under control), wound washing
 MARBURG VIRUSES
Structure ssRNA, (-) sense, Helical, Non-segmented, Enveloped

Taxonomy Family: Filoviridae

Mode of Transmission Monkey/bats to human; human to human via respiratory droplets and body fluids

Vectors Fruit bats (Rousettus aegyptiacus), monkey

Disease Severe Hemorrhagic Fever, Liver Necrosis

Incubation period 2-21 days (average is 8 to 10 days)

Onset is sudden marked by fever, chills, headache, and myalgia, maculopapular rash on the trunk
Signs and Symptoms
(chest, back, stomach)

Primary targets cells (macrophages and dendritic cells) where infection leads to paralysis of the innate
Pathogenesis
response and dysregulation of co-stimulation of lymphocytes

Diagnostic Lab Tests Cell Culture, Direct Immunofluorescence, Electron Microscopy, PCR

Treatment Supportive

Avoid contact with virus (isolation of infected person), avoid contact with blood and body fluids,
Preventive Measures
export prohibitions on wild-caught monkeys, proper hygiene
 EBOLA VIRUSES
Structure ssRNA, (-) sense, Helical, Non-segmented, Enveloped

Taxonomy Family: Filoviridae

Mode of Transmission Monkey to human; human to human via respiratory droplets and body fluids

Vectors Monkey, gorilla, chimpanzee

Disease Severe Hemorrhagic Fever, Liver Necrosis

Incubation period 2-21 days (average is 8 to 10 days)

Fever, severe headache and muscle/joint pain, weakness and fatigue, sore throat, loss of appetite,
Signs and Symptoms
abdominal pain, diarrhea, and vomiting, unexplained hemorrhaging, bleeding or bruising

The virus enters a person through mucous membranes, breaks in the skin, or parenterally and infect
Pathogenesis
many cell types, including monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells, etc.

Diagnostic Lab Tests Cell Culture, Direct Immunofluorescence, Electron Microscopy, PCR

Treatment Supportive

Avoid contact with virus (isolation of infected person), avoid contact with blood and body fluids,
Preventive Measures
export prohibitions on wild-caught monkeys, proper hygiene
 HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUSES
Structure ssRNA, requires a Reverse Transcriptase, Icosahedral, Non-segmented, Enveloped

Taxonomy Family: Retroviridae | Genus: Lentivirus

Direct/indirect contact with an infected person such as sexual contact, blood and blood product
Mode of Transmission
exposure, perinatal exposure

Vectors No insect or animal vectors (Humans are only reservoir)

Disease HIV Infection, Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome

Incubation period 2-4 weeks

Asymptomatic in early then symptomatic such as fever, headache, sore throat, pneumonia, thrush,
Signs and Symptoms
diarrhea, swollen lymph glands, meningitis, retinitis, Kaposi’s Sarcoma, lymphadenopathy
HIV weakens the immune system by infecting and destroying CD4+ T cells, which in turn leads to
Pathogenesis immunodeficiency at later stage of disease. The virus attaches to the CD4+ protein on the surface of
these and other cells or can attach to a chemokine receptor to gain entry.

Diagnostic Lab Tests Western Blot, immunohistochemical Stains, CD4/CD8 counts, RT-PCR

Treatment Entry inhibitors, protease inhibitors, integrase inhibitors, reverse transcriptase inhibitors

Preventive Measures Proper and clean hygiene, avoid contact with infected blood and secretions, have protected sex
 MUMPS VIRUSES
Structure Large, ssRNA, (-) sense, Helical, Non-segmented, Enveloped

Taxonomy Family: Paramyxoviridae | Genus: Rubulavirus

Mode of Transmission Direct contact with saliva or respiratory droplets of infected person

Vectors No insect or animal vectors (Humans are only reservoir)

Disease Acute Parotitis, Orchitis, Oophoritis, Mumps Pancreatitis

Incubation period 10-21 days (average 2 weeks)

Signs and Symptoms Fever, headache, joint pain, dry mouth, loss of appetite, puffy cheeks, swollen jaw, deafness

It replicates in the nasopharynx and regional lymph nodes. It sheds in saliva from 3 days before to 9
Pathogenesis
days after onset of gland swelling, infect the kidneys so it causes viruria that lasts up to 14 days

Diagnostic Lab Tests Cell Culture (PMK), Serological test, Mucus and Sputum Test, EIA, Immunofluorescence Assay

Treatment Supportive

MMR vaccination, avoid sharing of utensils and contact with saliva or droplets from infected person,
Preventive Measures
disinfect frequently touched surfaces, good hygiene
 MEASLES VIRUSES
Structure Large, ssRNA, (-) sense, Helical, Non-segmented, Enveloped

Taxonomy Family: Paramyxoviridae | Genus: Morbillivirus

Mode of Transmission Aerosol route via droplets of infected person

Vectors No insect or animal vectors (Humans are only reservoir)

Disease Measles, Sub-acute Sclerosing Panencephalitis

Incubation period 10-15 days (average 2 weeks)

Signs and Symptoms High fever, cough and sneezing, runny nose, watery/red eyes, rash, Koplik’s spots

The virus first infects and replicates in epithelial cells of the respiratory tract, then lymphoid organs. Its
Pathogenesis structure has an F (fusion) protein, to fuse with host cell membranes, penetrate, then hemolyze them,
and an H (hemagglutinin) protein, for binding of virus to receptors on host cells

Diagnostic Lab Tests Cell Culture (PMK), Serum Neutralization test, EIA, Immunofluorescence Assay

Treatment Supportive, Ribavirin

MMR vaccination, avoid sharing of food, water, and utensils contaminated with droplets from infected
Preventive Measures
person, cover mouth and nose when sneezing or coughing, good hygiene
 RUBELLA VIRUSES
Structure ssRNA, (+) sense, Icosahedral, Non-segmented, Enveloped

Taxonomy Family: Togaviridae | Genus: Rubivirus

Mode of Transmission Respiratory route, transplacental

Vectors Mosquitoes

Disease Rubella (mild exanthematous disease)

Incubation period 12 to 23 days

Signs and Symptoms Low-grade fever, severe headache, vomiting, muscle/joint pain, sore throat, rash, cough and runny nose

The virus replicates in the nasopharynx and regional lymph nodes. In a pregnant woman, placental
Pathogenesis
infection occurs during viremia and may lead to transplacental fetal infection

Diagnostic Lab Tests Cell Culture, EIA, Nucleic Acid Amplification Test, Serological test

Treatment Supportive

MMR vaccination, avoid sharing of food, water, and utensils contaminated with droplets from infected
Preventive Measures
person, cover mouth and nose when sneezing or coughing, good hygiene
TTO MOA
Food Chemistry: X, Volume 13, 2022, 100217, ISSN 2590-1575, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fochx.2022.100217.

Trial 1 20 mm
Trial 1 14 mm Trial 2 20 mm
Trial 2 14 mm Trial 3 20 mm
Trial 3 14 mm

Tetracycline 32 ug/ml Tetracycline 0.0625

Tea Tree Oil 333.33 ug/ml Tea Tree Oil 0.0625

Combination 16 ug/ml (Tetra) + 166.665 ug/ml (TTO) FICI 0.125 Synergistic

INTERMEDIATE RESULT SUPPORT:

http://www.oxoid.com/UK/blue/techsupport/its.asp?itsp=faq&cat=toxin+detection&faq=tsfaq021&c=UK&lang=EN&print=N
Our results indicate that the antibiotic Tetracycline may or may not inhibit the growth of the bacteria resulting in an intermediate result but according
to the dose-response study, the zone of inhibition increased with concentration of essential oil. The result could also indicate that certain variables in
the susceptibility test were not properly controlled and that the values fell into a "buffer zone." Media preparation protocols must be strictly adhered
to, since a number of factors in this procedure can influence the zone sizes such as the depth of the agar, moisture, and incubation time.
Although disc diffusion is a simple test to perform, attention to detail and care must be taken to obtain accurate and reproducible results, since
relatively minor changes in operating procedure can affect the results obtained.
DEPTH OF AGAR-if the agar is too thin, larger zones will appear since the volume is decreased, and the effective antibiotic concentration
increased. If the agar is too thick, smaller zones will appear since the effective antibiotic concentration has been decreased.
MOISTURE-The moisture in the medium plays an important role in disc diffusion: when the antibiotic discs are applied to the agar, moisture from
the plate is absorbed, dissolving the antibiotic, and allowing it to diffuse into the agar.
INCUBATION-Delays before incubation will allow the antibiotic to diffuse out before the organism starts to grow and will result in larger zone
sizes. Plates incubated in large stacks will have a poor transfer of heat to the middle of the stack, thus the antibiotics will diffuse before the test gets to
temperature potentially resulting in larger zone sizes.
It is worth noting that although other broad-spectrum tetracyclines (eg, eravacycline, omadacycline) have some activity in vitro against resistant A.
baumannii, we do not routinely use them because clinical experience is extremely limited (Kanafani et. al 2023)