Supporting Information

Powerful Two-Dimensional Soft Morphing Actuator Propels Giant Manta Ray Robot

Yi Sun*, Hui Feng, Xinquan Liang, Aaron J. Y. Goh, Peng Qi, Miao Li, Marcelo H. Ang Jr,
and Raye C. H. Yeow*

I. Fin Fabrication and Assembly.

I.i Active Fin Fabrication

Figure S1. Detailed fabrication of the active fin. (A) CF rods ready for fabrication. (B) Winding
frame assembled from CF rods and rod holders. (C) Fiber winding process. (D) Winding frames
ready for molding. (E) Base mold with patterned fabric attached. (F) First silicone layer curing.
(G) Second silicone layer curing. (H) Partially-formed fin SRP after initial demolding. (I)
Partially-formed fin SRP after full demolding. (J) front and rear view of fully demolded fin
SRP. (K) Channel filling process. (L) Trimming process. (M) Bonding of two symmetrical fin
SRPs. (N) Sealing of the front edge. (O) Sealing of the side edge. (P) Tube connection. (Q)
Sealing of the rear edge. (R) Final active fin.

Figure S1 shows the whole active fin fabrication. In the winding frame, we use carbon-fiber
(CF) rods with a 3×2.5 mm2 cross-section profile. However, using the solid 3×2.5 mm2 CF
rods would make the rod removal very difficult in the demolding step later. So we choose two
3×1 mm2 CF rods and one 3×0.5 mm2 CF rod to form a 3×2.5 mm2 profile with the 3×0.5 mm2
CF rod in the middle. Therefore, the first step is to cut all the needed CF rods to the desired
lengths with ends polished and demolding agent applied. Figure S1A shows the prepared 3×1
mm2 CF rods and 3×0.5 mm2 CF rods displayed on the top and bottom racks, respectively. The
base molds are assembled from laser-cut acrylic sheets and all the winding frames assembled
from CF rods and 3D printed rod holders (printer – Objet260, material - VeroClear) are placed
in the mold to mark the exact position of the mold walls (Figure S1B). After that, cotton fibers
(thickness - 0.2 mm) are winded onto all the winding frames with 2 mm winding pitch (Figure
S1C). Figure S1D shows all the frames winded with fiber. In the next step, we attach the
patterned fabric to the base of the mold using double-sided tapes (Figure S1E). After pouring
the freshly-mixed silicone (860 g) into the mold and waiting until the silicone level is even, all
the winded frames are placed into the mold (five pieces a time), after which the walls are fixed
by the miniature clamps (Figure S1F). After one curing session (4 hours), we take the partially-
formed soft robotic pad (SRP) out of the mold, flip it and press it into another mold attached
with non-patterned fabric and filled with fresh silicone (860 g) (Figure S1G). After another
curing session, the partially-formed fin SRP is demolded (Figure S1H). The next steps are the
removal of the rod holders and CF rods. When removing the CF rods, we pull out the 3×0.5
mm2 CF rod in the middle first and then the two 3×1 mm2 CF rods can be removed easily with
the space from removing the 3×0.5 mm2 CF rod. Figure S1I shows the partially-formed fin
SRP with rod holders and CF rods removed, and Figure S1J shows its front (top) and rear
(bottom) view including the channels left by the CF rods in the top and bottom silicone layer.
The next step is to fill the channels with fresh silicone using a customized syringe pump (Figure
S1K). During this process, the channels in the silicone layer on the top side are always filled
first as we can visually monitor the silicone flow in the channels. However, there will always
be excessive silicone pumped out of the channel, which will drip down and block the channels
in the silicone layer below. So before filling the top channels, we use the black plugs to block
the channels at the bottom. Also, after the removal of the rod holders and CF rods, the partially-
formed fin SRP is collapsed with the top and bottom silicone layers closing the fluid chamber.
If we fill the channels in the collapsed state, the excessive silicone that is pumped out of the
channels will then adhere the two silicone layers together after curing and cement the fin SRP
in the collapsed state, resulting in a defective fin SRP shape and smaller fluid chamber size.
Therefore, we insert some supporting ribs made of laser-cut acrylic sheets (thickness – 2 mm)
to separate the two silicone layers and restore the original shapes of the fin SRP and fluid
chamber. With channel plugs and supporting ribs all in place, we then fill the top channels.
After the silicone cures, we remove the channel plugs and flip the fin SRP to fill the channels
that are previously at the bottom. After another curing session, we then trim the excessive
silicone from the front and rear edges (Figure S1L).
By repeating the steps above, we prepare another fin SRP that is symmetrical to the previous
one and then glue the two together with fresh silicone (Figure S1M). The rest of the processes
are to seal the three edges of the active fin. Three different molds are used to fit the size of the
three open edges. The front edge, which is also the longest edge, is sealed first (Figure S1N).
We pour silicone (180 g) into the mold that is fixed at the bottom of the supporting frame. To
prevent the large fin SRP from collapsing, two supporting panels made of laser-cut acrylic
sheets (thickness – 5 mm) are fixed onto the supporting frame with magic arms. The second
edge to seal is the side edge (silicone usage – 160 g) (Figure S1O). An additional step is added
before that sealing that we fix eight 3D-printed blue cones to mark the positions and form the
openings for the tube attachments after the sealing of this edge (Figure S1P). The rear edge is
sealed at last (silicone usage – 80 g) (Figure S1Q) during which a supporting bar is fixed on
the big frame to prevent the active fin from tilting. After demolding and some minor trimming,
the active fin fabrication is completed (Figure S1R). The active fin fabrication itself is a huge
construction work which takes at least one week for each active fin.

I.ii Passive Fin and Peripheral Appendage Fabrication

Figure S2. PF fabrication. (A) Bonding of three sponge sheets. (B) Silicone coating on one
side. (C) Silicone coating on the other side. (D to G) Silicone coating on the four edges. (H)
Mold assembly. (I) Molding process of the passive fin with silicone coated sponge core placed
inside. (J) Final passive fin.

Figure S2 shows the fabrication of the passive fin which is made of silicone rubber
(DragonSkin 0010) with a sponge in the center and fabric on the surface. Three 10 mm thick
sponge sheets are cut in right trapezoid shapes with pre-determined dimensions, and then
bonded together with glue (Figure S2A). The next step is to pour a layer of fresh silicone onto
a smooth surface to form a similar but slightly larger right trapezoid than the sponge (layer
thickness – around 1.5 mm: naturally spread by gravity), and then place the sponge on the
silicone layer (Figure S2B). After curing, a thin layer of silicone is firmly coated on one face
of the sponge. The same process is repeated to coat the silicone layer onto the other side of the
sponge (Figure S2C). After trimming the excess silicone on the edges, the next steps are to coat
silicone onto the four edges with the help of the supporting frame (Figure S2D to G). After the
sponge is sealed with silicone, the final task is to make the passive fin by molding. The mold
is assembled from 3D-printed walls sandwiched in between two acrylic sheets. Before the
assembly, two fabric sheets are adhered to the acrylic sheets. After the assembly, the mold is
tightened by screws and the fabrics are at the inner surface of the mold (Figure S2H). After
placing the sponge core and pouring the silicone, a mold cap is fixed on top of the mold to
squeeze out the excess silicone and maintain the correct passive fin dimension (Figure S2I).
After demolding, the passive fin is completed (Figure S2J).

The peripheral appendage fabrication is a simpler version of passive fin fabrication without the
sponge core. Therefore, the processes are not elaborated here, and we only show the molds for
making the peripheral appendage. In the fabrication, the peripheral appendage is divided into
three parts and three corresponding molds are prepared (Figure S3).

Figure S3. Molds for peripheral appendage fabrication. The peripheral appendage is divided
into three segments for ease of fabrication.

I.iii Fin Fixation and Assembly

The fin fixation is one of the major challenges in the building of this manta ray robot. The
whole fin is made of soft material and will need to generate more than 10 Nm torque with
substantial bending. To fully transfer the bending into the fin flapping without any yielding and
buckling is very difficult as the soft fin can deform given any space. We use a sheet-metal
sleeve and a 3D-printed fin base reinforcement panel to fix the fin as shown in Figure S4A.
During actuation, the top plate of the sheet-metal sleeve serves as the fulcrum point to provide
a downward force to stop the fin from yielding. And the reinforcement panel provides a shear
force to hold the fin in position. The reinforcement panel and the sheet-metal sleeve together
provide a firm fixation of the active fin and guarantee the maximum flapping amplitude (Figure
S4B). If the reinforcement panel is removed, the fin inside the sheet-metal sleeve will also
bend, which will waste some of the fin bending motion and, more severely, the tube connection
between the fin and the bulkhead fitting could be damaged (Figure S4C).

Figure S4. Fin fixation solution (A) Cross-section view of the fin fixation with all the necessary
components. (B) The interaction view of the fin in action with its fixation parts. (C) The
interaction view without the fin base reinforcement panel. (F1 – Supporting force onto the fin
from the top plate of the sheet-metal sleeve; F2 – Force onto the fin from water during fin
flapping; F3 – Shear force onto the fin from reinforcement panel; F4 – Supporting force onto
the fin from the bottom plate of the sheet-metal sleeve).

Figure S5. SRPF assembly. (A) Bonding the fin base reinforcement panel onto the medial side
of the active fin. (B) Active fin insertion into the sheet-metal sleeve. (C) Gluing the passive fin
on the rear edge of the active fin. (D to F) Attaching the three peripheral appendage segments.

With all the fin parts fabricated, the final soft robotic pectoral fin (SRPF) is assembled as
illustrated in Figure S5. We firstly attach the fin base reinforcement panel to the medial side of
the active fin using Sil-poxy (Figure S5A). Then the active fin is inserted into the sheet-metal
sleeve from the distal tip to the medial side until the sheet-metal sleeve is stopped by the
reinforcement panel (Figure S5B). After that, the reinforcement panel and the sheet-metal
sleeve are fixed together with screws. The active fin is then lifted upright with the leading edge
facing down, followed by the passive fin adhesion using Sil-poxy (Figure S5C). The last three
steps are to glue the three peripheral appendage segments onto the fin one by one (Figure S5D
to F). The SRPF assembly is complete.

II. Fiber Pattern Optimization

Table S1. Input parameters for optimization and the results
Parameter Value Parameter Value Parameter Value

Chamber height Needed maximum bending

SRP length (mm) 270 20 0
(mm) angle in the length direction (°)

Chamber length Silicone layer Resultant maximum strain in

230 8 0
(mm) thickness (mm) the length direction (%)

Silicone skin Needed bending angle in the

SRP width (mm) 190 2 90
thickness (mm) width direction (°)
 Silicone flesh Resultant maximum strain in
Chamber width (mm) 150 0.006 70.7
thickness (mm) the width direction (%)

Optimization Results

Maximum applicable pressure

Winding pitch (mm) 2 Winding width (mm) 2.5 437
(kPa)

The fin maximum angular amplitude is estimated at 180°, meaning 90° (0.5π in radian) in either
the up or down stroke. With the dimension in the bending region, the nominal maximum strain
in the silicone material is 0.377, given by 𝛼 ∙ 𝑇⁄𝑊 , where α is the maximum bending radian,
T is the total thickness, and W is the width of the bending region. However, in the width-wise
direction, 46.7% of the width is covered by fabric (7 stripes of 10 mm-wide fabric over 15 cm
wide silicone surface), meaning that amount of the surface is not extensible. So the actual
maximum strain is 0.7069, given by 0.377⁄(1 − 0.467).

III. SRPF Characterization

Figure S6. Fin block force and torque test.

 Figure S7. Fin amplitude test in air and water.

Figure S8. Fin shape characterization. (A) Locations of 24 markers on the fin surface. (B) Fin
in action with markers attached during the Vicon tracking experiment.
Figure S9. Fin shape reconstruction as compared to the actual fins at different pressures. (A)
Isometric views. (B) Top views.

IV. Fin Bending Modelling

IV.i Nomenclature
𝜎𝑡 Silicone tensile stress
𝜎𝑐 Silicone compressional stress
𝜀𝑡 Silicone tensile strain
𝜀𝑐 Silicone compressional strain
𝑎 Fabric ratio in the silicone material
𝛼𝑙 Bending radian of the leading edge of the active fin
𝛼𝑟 Bending radian of the rear edge of the active fin
𝑇 Thickness of single SRP at the bending region which is averaged at 33 mm
𝑡 Initial silicone layer thickness which is 8 mm
𝑡𝑜−𝑡𝑜𝑝 Top silicone layer thickness of the outboard SRP after bending
𝑡𝑜−𝑏𝑡𝑚 Bottom silicone layer thickness of the outboard SRP after bending
𝑡𝑖−𝑡𝑜𝑝 Top silicone layer thickness of the inboard SRP after bending
𝑡𝑖−𝑏𝑡𝑚 Bottom silicone layer thickness of the inboard SRP after bending
𝑡𝑖 Total silicone layer thickness of the inboard SRP after bending with chamber closed
𝑅−1 The radius of the curve formed by the external surface of the top silicone layer of the
inboard SRP
𝑅0 The radius of the curve formed by the center line
𝑅1 The radius of the curve formed by the lower surface of the fluid chamber of the outboard
SRP
𝑅2 The radius of the curve formed by the upper surface of the fluid chamber of the outboard
SRP
𝑅3 The radius of the curve formed by the external surface of the top silicone layer of the
outboard SRP
𝑙𝑠 Length of the fluid chamber in the span-wise direction which is 130 mm in the leading
edge area
𝑙𝑐 Length of the fluid chamber in the chord-wise direction which is 100 mm in the leading
edge area
𝐿𝑐 Length of leading edge area in the chord-wise direction which is 120 mm
𝑀𝑃 Moment generated by the fluid pressure in the chamber
𝑀𝜎 Moment generated by material stress in the active fin
𝑀𝜎1 Moment generated by material stress in the outboard SRP
𝑀𝜎2 Moment generated by material stress in the inboard SRP
𝑃 Fluid pressure applied to the chamber
∆ℎ The height difference between the leading and rear edge of the distal side of the active
fin bending region.

Figure S10. Fin bending modelling diagram. (A) Bending region. (B) Front and side views of
the fin cross-section before and after bending. (C) Span-wise and chord-wise curve assumption.
(D) Material model versus experimental results.

IV.ii Assumption
1 The bending of the leading edge of the fin is calculated based on the 12×13 cm2 region as
shown in Figure S10A.
2 The fin thickness is assumed the same at an average of 66 mm (the thickness of the cross-
section 7 cm and 20 cm away from the median side is 72.72 and 59.2 mm, respectively).
3 The inboard SRP chamber closes right after actuation with the inboard top and bottom
silicone layers fused together, while the edge wall remains un-deformed (Figure S10B).
The actual situation is that the chamber closes gradually with the water drained out of the
 chamber. This assumption will make the model give a slightly higher prediction in the
bending angles as the immediate chamber closure minimizes the bending resistance.
4 The amount of span-wise bending depends on the length of the bending region ranging
from 13 cm to 5 cm along the chord-wise direction as shown in Figure S10A. Please note
that the actual span length of the bending section ranges from 7 cm to 15 cm, however, the
proximal 2 cm is covered by the sheet-metal sleeve and hence is not considered functional
in bending.
5 The curve in the chord-wise direction is assumed as the arc corresponding to the chamber
chord length of the fluid chamber (21 cm) from the side view as shown in Figure S10C.
Thus the secondary (chord-wise) bending angle is also the angle corresponding to that arc
- 𝛽.

IV.iii Material Model

Before the bending modelling, we firstly provide the material model for the silicone
(DragonSkin 0010 – Smooth-On) as they will be used in the model. Instead of using the well-
established material models, we use our own material model system which is a combination of
power functions because this will make the modelling and calculation easier.
The tensile strain-stress curve is given in the model below:
𝜎𝑡 = 100 ∙ 𝜀𝑡 0.7 + 45 ∙ 𝜀𝑡 1.7 (S1)
Due to the incorporation of stiffness customization and patterning, the silicone tensile model
is modified as follows:
1 0.7 1 1.7
𝜎𝑡 = 100 ∙ (1−𝑎) ∙ 𝜀𝑡 0.7 + 45 ∙ (1−𝑎) ∙ 𝜀𝑡 1.7 (S2)

The compression model is a second-order polynomial function as shown below:

𝜎𝑡 = 500 ∙ 𝜀𝑐 2 + 136.6 ∙ 𝜀𝑐 (S3)
For simplicity, this model is made only to match the actual compressional characteristics within
0.5 of strain as the maximum compressional strain that occurred in the fin is within 0.5.
Both the model and experimental curves for tensile and compressional strain-stress
characteristics of the silicone are given in Figure S10D to show the accuracy of the models.

IV.iv Bending Model

The bending modelling starts with the leading edge bending which is to build the relation
between 𝛼𝑙 and 𝑃. This relation is established upon the equilibrium between the moments
generated from the fluid pressure and the silicone stress in the span-wise direction. During the
bending, the thicknesses of the silicone layers and the chambers change, which affects the
bending substantially, therefore, the first step is to establish the relation between the thickness
of the silicone layers and the bending radian of the leading edge.
The two fin SRPs in the active fin are named the outboard SPR which is at the convex side of
the bent active fin and the inboard SRP which is at the concave side of the bent active fin. With
the silicone incompressibility, the silicone layer thickness can be calculated geometrically.
For 𝑡𝑜−𝑏𝑡𝑚 , we have:
𝛼𝑙
𝑡 ∙ 𝑙𝑠 = ∙ (𝑅1 2 − 𝑅0 2 ) (S4)
2

𝛼𝑙 𝑙 2 𝑙 2
𝑡 ∙ 𝑙𝑠 = ∙ [(𝛼𝑠 + 𝑡𝑜−𝑏𝑡𝑚 ) − (𝛼𝑠 ) ] (S5)
2 𝑙 𝑙

𝛼𝑙 ∙ 𝑡𝑜−𝑏𝑡𝑚 2 + 2 ∙ 𝑙𝑠 ∙ 𝑡𝑜−𝑏𝑡𝑚 − 2 ∙ 𝑡 ∙ 𝑙𝑠 = 0 (S6)

√𝑙𝑠 2 +2∙𝛼𝑙 ∙𝑡∙𝑙𝑠 −𝑙𝑠

𝑡𝑜−𝑏𝑡𝑚 = (S7)
𝛼𝑙

For 𝑡𝑜−𝑡𝑜𝑝 , we have:

𝛼𝑙
𝑡 ∙ 𝑙𝑠 = ∙ (𝑅3 2 − 𝑅2 2 ) (S8)
2

𝛼𝑙 𝑙 2 𝑙 2
𝑡 ∙ 𝑙𝑠 = ∙ [(𝛼𝑠 + 𝑇) − (𝛼𝑠 + 𝑇 − 𝑡𝑜−𝑡𝑜𝑝 ) ] (S9)
2 𝑙 𝑙

𝛼𝑙 ∙ 𝑡𝑜−𝑡𝑜𝑝 2 − 2 ∙ (𝑙𝑠 + 𝛼𝑙 ∙ 𝑇) ∙ 𝑡𝑜−𝑡𝑜𝑝 + 2 ∙ 𝑡 ∙ 𝑙𝑠 = 0 (S10)

𝑙𝑠 +𝛼𝑙 ∙𝑇−√(𝑙𝑠 +𝛼𝑙 ∙𝑇)2 −2∙𝛼𝑙 ∙𝑡∙𝑙𝑠
𝑡𝑜−𝑡𝑜𝑝 = (S11)
𝛼𝑙

For 𝑡𝑖 , we have:
𝛼𝑙
2 ∙ 𝑡 ∙ 𝑙𝑠 = 2
∙ (𝑅0 2 − 𝑅−1 2 ) (S12)
𝛼𝑙 𝑙 2 𝑙 2
2 ∙ 𝑡 ∙ 𝑙𝑠 = ∙ [(𝛼𝑠 ) − (𝛼𝑠 − 𝑡𝑖 ) ] (S13)
2 𝑙 𝑙

𝛼𝑙 ∙ 𝑡𝑖 2 − 2 ∙ 𝑙𝑠 ∙ 𝑡𝑖 + 4 ∙ 𝑡 ∙ 𝑙𝑠 = 0 (S14)

𝑙𝑠 −√𝑙𝑠 2 −4∙𝛼𝑙 ∙𝑡∙𝑙𝑠

𝑡𝑖 = (S15)
𝛼𝑙

The next step is to establish the equations below

𝑀𝑃 = 𝑀𝜎 (S16)
𝑇
𝑀𝑃 = 𝑃 ∙ (𝑇 − 𝑡𝑜−𝑏𝑡𝑚 − 𝑡𝑜−𝑡𝑜𝑝 ) ∙ 𝑙𝑐 ∙ 2 (S17)

𝑀𝜎 can be divided into two parts: 𝑀𝜎1 and 𝑀𝜎2

𝑇 𝑇−𝑡𝑜−𝑡𝑜𝑝
𝑀𝜎1 = ∫0 𝐿𝑐 ∙ 𝑑𝑥 ∙ 𝜎𝑡 ∙ 𝑥 − ∫𝑡 𝑙𝑐 ∙ 𝑑𝑥 ∙ 𝜎𝐿 ∙ 𝑥 (S18)
𝑜−𝑏𝑡𝑚
 𝑇 1 0.7 1 1.7 𝑇−𝑡𝑜−𝑡𝑜𝑝
𝑀𝜎1 = ∫0 𝐿𝑐 ∙ [100 ∙ (1−𝑎) ∙ ε𝑡 0.7 + 45 ∙ (1−𝑎) ∙ ε𝑡 1.7 ] ∙ 𝑥 ∙ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫𝑡 𝑙𝑐 ∙ [100 ∙
𝑜−𝑏𝑡𝑚

1 0.7 1 1.7
(1−𝑎) ∙ ε𝑡 0.7 + 45 ∙ (1−𝑎) ∙ ε𝑡 1.7 ] ∙ 𝑥 ∙ 𝑑𝑥 (S19)
𝛼𝑙 ∙𝑥
Since ε𝑡 = , the expression of 𝑀𝜎1 after integration becomes:
𝑙𝑠

100∙𝐿𝑐 1 0.7 𝛼 0.7 45∙𝐿𝑐 1 1.7 𝛼 1.7 100∙𝑙𝑐 1 0.7

𝑀𝜎1 = ∙ (1−𝑎) ∙ ( 𝑙 𝑙) ∙ 𝑇 2.7 + ∙ (1−𝑎) ∙ ( 𝑙 𝑙) ∙ 𝑇 3.7 − ∙ (1−𝑎) ∙
2.7 𝑠 3.7 𝑠 2.7

𝛼 0.7 2.7 45∙𝑙𝑐 1 1.7 𝛼 1.7 2.7

( 𝑙 𝑙) ∙ [(𝑇 − 𝑡𝑜−𝑡𝑜𝑝 ) − 𝑡𝑜−𝑏𝑡𝑚 2.7 ] − ∙ (1−𝑎) ∙ ( 𝑙 𝑙) ∙ [(𝑇 − 𝑡𝑜−𝑡𝑜𝑝 ) −
𝑠 3.7 𝑠

𝑡𝑜−𝑏𝑡𝑚 2.7 ] (S20)

On the other hand, 𝑀𝜎2 can be derived in a similar manner:

𝑇 𝑇
𝑀𝜎2 = ∫0 𝐿𝑐 ∙ 𝑑𝑥 ∙ 𝜎𝑐 ∙ 𝑥 − ∫𝑡 𝑙𝑐 ∙ 𝑑𝑥 ∙ 𝜎𝑐 ∙ 𝑥 (S21)
𝑖

𝑇 𝛼𝑙 ∙𝑥 2 𝛼𝑙 ∙𝑥 𝑇 𝛼𝑙 ∙𝑥 2 𝛼𝑙 ∙𝑥
𝑀𝜎2 = ∫0 𝐿𝑐 ∙ [500 ∙ ( ) + 136.6 ∙ ] ∙ 𝑥 ∙ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫𝑡 𝑙𝑐 ∙ [500 ∙ ( ) + 136.6 ∙ ]∙𝑥∙
𝑙𝑠 𝑙𝑠 𝑖 𝑙𝑠 𝑙𝑠

𝑑𝑥 (S22)
𝛼 2 𝛼𝑙 𝛼 2
𝑀𝜎2 = 125 ∙ 𝐿𝑐 ∙ ( 𝑙 𝑙) ∙ 𝑇 4 + 45.53 ∙ 𝐿𝑐 ∙ ∙ 𝑇 3 − 125 ∙ 𝑙𝑐 ∙ ( 𝑙 𝑙) ∙ [𝑇 4 − 𝑡𝑖 4 ] − 45.53 ∙ 𝑙𝑐 ∙
𝑠 𝑙𝑠 𝑠
𝛼𝑙
∙ [𝑇 3 − 𝑡𝑖 3 ] (S23)
𝑙𝑠

Therefore, the relation between 𝛼𝑙 and 𝑃 is obtained as follows:

𝑀𝜎1 +𝑀𝜎2
𝑃= 𝑇 (S24)
(𝑇−𝑡𝑜−𝑏𝑡𝑚 −𝑡𝑜−𝑡𝑜𝑝 )∙𝑙𝑐 ∙
2

Once 𝛼𝑙 is calculated, the secondary bending angle 𝛽 can be obtained geometrically. According
5
to assumption 5, 𝛼𝑟 = 13 ∙ 𝛼𝑙
𝑅 𝑙𝑠
𝑚1 = cos0𝛼 = 5 (S25)
𝑟 𝛼𝑙 ∙cos( ∙𝛼𝑙 )
13

𝜋 𝑙 𝜋 5
𝑛1 = 𝑅0 ∙ cos ( 2 − 𝛼𝑙 ) = 𝛼𝑠 ∙ cos (2 − 13 ∙ 𝛼𝑙 ) (S26)
𝑙

𝑙 𝜋 5 5
𝑚2 = 𝑛1 ∙ tan 𝛼𝑟 = 𝛼𝑠 ∙ cos (2 − 13 ∙ 𝛼𝑙 ) ∙ tan (13 ∙ 𝛼𝑙 ) (S27)
𝑙

𝜋 𝑙 𝜋 5
𝑚3 = 𝑅0 ∙ sin (2 − 𝛼𝑙 ) = 𝛼𝑠 ∙ sin ( 2 − 13 ∙ 𝛼𝑙 ) (S28)
𝑙

𝑙𝑠 𝑙 𝜋 5 5 𝑙 𝜋 5
∆ℎ = 𝑚1 − 𝑚2 − 𝑚3 = 5 − 𝛼𝑠 ∙ cos ( 2 − 13 ∙ 𝛼𝑙 ) ∙ tan (13 ∙ 𝛼𝑙 ) − 𝛼𝑠 ∙ sin ( 2 − 13 ∙
𝛼𝑙 ∙cos( ∙𝛼𝑙 ) 𝑙 𝑙
13

𝛼𝑙 ) (S29)

𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , 𝑚3 , and 𝑛1 , are geometrical parameters as shown in Figure S10C. Once ∆ℎ is obtained,

the secondary bending angle 𝛽 can be calculated as follows:
𝛽+2∙𝛾 = 𝜋 (S30)
 210
𝛽 = 𝜋 − 2 ∙ 𝛾 = 𝜋 − 2 ∙ sin−1 (√2102 ) (S31)
+∆ℎ2

IV.v Matlab Code for Fin Bending Model

Ls = 130; %SRP length
ls = 130; %SRP chamber length
Lc = 120; %SRP width
lc = 100; %SRP chamber width
T = 33; % SRP thickness
a = 0.5; % fabric ratio
t = 8; % silicone thickness
h = T-2*t; % air chamber height
alpha = 0:0.001:pi; % span-wise bending angle
i=0;
for alphai = 0:0.001:pi
i=i+1;
tobtm(i)=(sqrt(ls^2+2*alphai*t*ls)-ls)/alphai; % bottom silicone layer thickness after
bending
totop(i)=(alphai*(ls/alphai+T)-sqrt(alphai^2*(ls/alphai+T)^2-
2*alphai*t*ls))/alphai; % top silicone layer thickness after bending
ti(i)=(ls-sqrt(ls^2-4*alphai*ls*t))/alphai; % inboard SRP total silicone thickness
al(i)=alphai/ls;
M1(i)=(100/2.7)*Lc*(al(i)/(1-a))^0.7*T^2.7;
M2(i)=(45/3.7)*Lc*(al(i)/(1-a))^1.7*T^3.7;
M3(i)=(100/2.7)*lc*(al(i)/(1-a))^0.7*((T-totop(i))^2.7-tobtm(i)^2.7);
M4(i)=(45/3.7)*lc*(al(i)/(1-a))^1.7*((T-totop(i))^3.7-tobtm(i)^3.7);
M5(i)= 125*Lc*al(i)^2*T^4+45.53*Lc*al(i)*T^3;
M6(i)= 125*lc*al(i)^2*((T)^4-ti(i)^4)+45.53*lc*al(i)*((T)^3-ti(i)^3);
PP(i)=(M1(i)+M2(i)-M3(i)-M4(i)+M5(i)-M6(i))/((T-totop(i)-tobtm(i))*lc*T/2); %
pressure
end
for ii=1:1:3142
m1(ii)=130/(alpha(ii)*cos(5*alpha(ii)/13));
n1(ii)=cos(pi/2-alpha(ii))*130/alpha(ii);
m2(ii)=n1(ii)*tan(5*alpha(ii)/13);
m3(ii)=sin(pi/2-alpha(ii))*130/alpha(ii);
deltah(ii)=m1(ii)-m2(ii)-m3(ii);
beta(ii)=pi-2*asin(210/sqrt(210^2+deltah(ii)^2));
end
plot(PP,180*alpha/pi, 'r', PP, 180*beta/pi,'k');

V. Robot Design, Assembly and Components

V.i. Robot Design
The overall shape of the robot is designed based on the top view of the manta ray (Figure 4a)
which results in a diamond-shaped body and two triangular fins. The body size is then designed
with the inner components (pumps, batteries, controller, etc) and their orientations. The key
components are the pumps which determine the thickness and the other dimensions of the robot
body. After finishing the design of the robot body and the layout of the inner components, the
fin design is then implemented. The fin is designed into a quasi-right-trapezoid with leading
edge, trailing edge and height at 730, 220 and 470 mm, respectively. This fin dimension along
with the robot body gives a 2.27 body aspect ratio, which is smaller than that of the manta rays
(≈3.5). But it is a trade-off between body aspect ratio and fin weight. To reach the ratio of 3.5,
the fin will be very long and heavy, which will make the fin installation challenging. Moreover,
the heavy weight of the fin might tear itself apart upon installation due to the softness of the
silicone. Therefore, the current dimensions of the fin are appropriate. The thickness of the fin
at the medial side is decided at 80 mm based on the thickness of the robot body and the
installing scheme. The fin is tapered from 80 to 10 mm along the leading edge. The thickness
range from 80 to 28 mm defines the active fin section and the rest is the peripheral appendage.
With this division, the leading edge length of the active fin is 500 mm. The side length of the
active fin is 270 mm which is decided by the strength of the CF rods. In the fabrication, the CF
rods need to stay straight during the winding process. If the CF rods are too long, the tension
of the fiber winding will bend the CF rods, making it hard for the silicone to submerge the CF
rods during the molding process (Figure 2D and F) and thus sabotage the fabrication. With the
lengths of the leading edge and side determined, the rest of the active fin dimensions can be
decided with emanating tapering in the active fin to have a consistent thickness of 28 mm along
the distal edge. With the completion of the active fin design, the passive fin is then designed to
taper in both span and chord-wise directions. The span-wise tapering matches the trailing edge
of the active fin, while the medial side is tapered from 80 to 45.4 mm. The tapering is emanated
to form the consistent thickness (28 mm) at the distal edge. Also, the angle of the distal edge
of the passive fin is widened from 34° to 61° to make the overall shape of the whole fin bear a
close resemblance to the manta ray fin (Figure 4A). Finally, the peripheral appendage is
designed with the same emanating tapering from 28 mm at the distal edge of the active and
passive fin to 10 mm at the distal edge of the peripheral appendage. The fin design is completed,
followed by the mold design and the fin fabrication.

V.ii. Robot Assembly

The entire robot assembly is illustrated in Figure S11. Before the assembly starts, the bottom
acrylic sheet (thickness – 8 mm) is bolted onto the PE body frame with the seal ring in between.
Then several components are attached into the body including the 3D printed battery cage,
weight cage, and the motor drives (Figure S11A). Meanwhile, the soft robotic pectoral fins
(SRPFs) are also made ready with bulkhead fitting attached (Figure S11B). The threads of the
bulkhead fittings are wrapped with seal tape and installed with one seal ring and their original
nut. The first step is to install one fin onto the body frame with all eight bulkhead fittings
passing through their corresponding holes on the body frame (Figure S11C). The sheet-metal
sleeve of the fin is fixed first with screws and then the bulkhead fitting is tightened with another
seal ring and nut. The second fin is installed with the same procedure (Figure S11D). The next
steps are to connect all eight pumps with all the fittings in the orientations given in Figure
S11E, and then pump water into the fin SRP chambers (Figure S11F and G). With all 4
chambers filled, the robot body and the fins are laid flat, followed by the placement of all other
components including the battery, control system, balance weight, antenna fixation and all the
wiring (Figure S11H). With the top acrylic sheet (thickness – 8 mm) installed and tightened
with screws (Figure S11I), the robot is lifted upright for head installation (Figure S11J) and the
final manta ray robot is finished as shown in (Figure S11K).
Figure S11. Robot assembly. (A) Body frame with acrylic sheet bolted at the bottom. (B)
SRPFs ready with bulkhead installed. (C) Right SRPF installed on the body frame. (D) Left
SRPF installed on the body frame. (E) Pumps installation. (F) Water injection into the right
SRPF. (G) Water injection into the left SRPF. (H) Installation of battery, weight, control
electronics and wiring. (I) Robot body capped and sealed with acrylic sheet. (J) Head
installation. (K) Final prototype.

V.iii. Robot Components

Tubes and fittings:
All tubes used in the robot are 12 mm in outer diameter and 10 mm in inner diameter. The
tubes on the fins are silicone tubes as the adhesion of silicone tubing to the silicone fins could
be made very secure using silicone glue (Sil-poxy, Smooth-On, Inc.). The tubes inside the body
frame are PU tubes for secure connections.
The fittings used in the robot include bulkhead union, straight union, T-shaped union and L-
shaped union, which are all for tubes with 12 mm outer diameter.
Hydraulics:
The hydraulic pumps are gear pumps (model number 24V-ZC-760) from Lin An Zhongchuang
Electronics, Inc, which can produce a higher flow rate and maximum output pressure. The
gearbox and the brush motor specifications, as they are proprietary information, are not
available. The key specifications of the pumps are as follows:
Nominal voltage – 24 V
Tubing interface – 12 mm
Flow rate without loading – 5.6 L min-1
Max output pressure – 450 kPa
Flow rate at 100 kPa output pressure – 4.5 L min-1
Noise at 0.5 m – Less than 55 dB
Weight – 500 g
Max working hours – 1000 hours
Electronics:
Battery for gear pumps
Voltage – 24 V
Energy charge – 15 AH
Maximum current – 20 A
Dimension – 190×140×40 mm3,
Number of batteries – 3
Controller – Arduino Mega
Communication module: APC220 RF module

VI. Robot Underwater Test.

In the calculation of the Strouhal number, the peak-to-peak amplitude of motion in the mid-
span is estimated as the results of amplitude tests (0.2055, 0.288 and 0.3616 m at 2, 3 and 4 s
periods, respectively). The peak-to-peak amplitude is twice the single-sided amplitude from
the measurement without the peripheral appendage (Figure 3B). Meanwhile, the peak-to-peak
amplitude in the mid-span is roughly half of the peak-to-peak amplitude. Therefore, the peak-
to-peak amplitude in the mid-span is roughly equal to the single-sided amplitude from the
measurement. Although adding the peripheral appendage results in larger peak-to-peak
amplitude in the mid-span, the fin sweeping range is compromised as the weight of the fin
limits the motion above the frontal plane of the robot. Therefore, we assume the two factors
offset each other.
The propulsive efficiency, also known as the Froude efficiency, is defined as 𝜂𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑑𝑒 = 𝑇 ∙
𝑈/𝑃𝑡𝑜 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 . Here, P is the total power delivered to the fluid by the fin, estimated by finding
the difference between the power delivered to the motor when the fin is flapping in air and
when it is flapping in water, and then multiplying the result by the motor efficiency which is
estimated at 0.75.

Figure S12. Robot thrust test and the results. (A) Testing setup. (B) Measured results.

Table S2. Underwater Test Results of the Manta Ray Robot

Parameters Experimental results Equations

Period (s)
Unit Symbol Test No
2 3 4

1 0.09976 0.15082 0.29304

2 0.08518 0.14745 0.28065

Swimming speed m s-1 𝑆 3 0.09151 0.14963 0.28257

mean 0.09215 0.14930 0.28542

SD 0.00597 0.00140 0.00544

Body length m 𝐵𝐿 0.7

Speed wrt body length BL s-1 0.132 0.213 0.408 𝑆⁄𝐵𝐿

Mid-span Amplitude m 𝐴 0.206 0.288 0.362

Strouhal number 𝑆𝑡 1.115 0.643 0.317 (𝑓 ∙ 𝐴)/𝑆

Thrust N 𝑇 5.02 7.2 9.53

Power of swimming W P 0.463 1.075 2.720 𝑇∙𝑆

Power of in-air flapping Fin 1 34.634 38.804 43.753

W 𝑃𝑎𝑖𝑟
(two fins with 8 pumps) Fin 2 45.706 49.008 54.781
 Fin 3 34.134 38.924 44.131

mean 38.158 42.245 47.555

SD 5.341 4.782 5.112

Fin 1 49.182 56.726 64.078

Fin 2 54.927 63.381 70.755

Power of underwater
flapping (two fins with 8 W 𝑃𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 Fin 3 45.823 52.701 59.642
pumps)
mean 49.977 57.603 64.825

SD 3.759 4.404 4.567

Pump motor efficiency % 𝜂𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 75%

Power delivered to the fluid W 𝑃𝑡𝑜 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 8.865 11.518 12.953 (𝑃𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 − 𝑃𝑎𝑖𝑟 ) ∙ 𝜂𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟

Froude efficiency % 𝜂𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑑𝑒 5.218 9.333 21 (𝑃 ∙ 100)/𝑃𝑡𝑜 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

Overall efficiency % 𝜂 0.926 1.866 4.196 (𝑃 ∙ 100)/𝑃𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟