Impacto Cambio Climatico Sobre Puentes

Erlijn van Genuchten
A Guide
to a Healthier
Planet
Scientific Insights and Actionable Steps
to Help Resolve Climate,
Pollution and Biodiversity Issues
A Guide to a Healthier Planet
A Guide to a Healthier Planet

Scientific Insights and Actionable Steps
to Help Resolve Climate, Pollution
and Biodiversity Issues
Sustainable Decisions
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe Task Force
on Digitalization in Energy
Tübingen, Germany
ISBN 978-3-031-34478-7 ISBN 978-3-031-34479-4 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34479-4
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For nature
Foreword
I consider myself blessed to have an opportunity to work internationally, including

my current role as Senior Governance Expert at the United Nations Development
Programme, which helped me understand the global, regional, and local climate
policy challenges and opportunities. By working internationally, I have had the
privilege of witnessing firsthand the various environmental challenges faced by
different countries and communities. In this crucial moment of our shared existence,
as we face this unprecedented planetary crisis, it has become evident that no single
entity alone—be it a company, a country, or even a continent—can solve the
challenges that lie before us. And yet, the urgency of action by each of them cannot
be overstated. This is a crisis that requires engagement from every individual on this
planet. Whether you find yourself in an office, at home, or simply lounging on a
couch, there are numerous opportunities for you to contribute to the protection of
our planet. Even the laziest among us can make a difference.
This crisis demands a collective effort—a recognition that this challenge is
shared by every human being, and that shared responsibility is essential. It is with
great pleasure that I introduce this book, which serves as an accessible guide for the
general audience, offering an understanding of the challenges we face, as well as the
impact and consequences they have on humanity.
One crucial aspect of addressing these challenges is effective science
communication. Science, often confined to the depths of complex databases, must
break free from these confines and reach the masses. It is imperative that scientific
knowledge is open, understandable, and accessible to all. If we are to make informed
decisions about issues grounded in science, such as climate change, we must be able
to comprehend them. This book presents scientific information in an approachable
language, bridging the gap between scientific jargon and public comprehension. By
doing so, it equips us with one of our most powerful tools—plain language—for
improving climate literacy and encouraging conscious actions.
Within this book, you will find more than just information; you will find
actionable steps that each and every one of us can take. By identifying clear and
achievable actions, this book empowers individuals to make a difference. Through
your personal commitment and actions, you can inspire friends, family, neighbors,
vii
viii Foreword
coworkers, and countless others. It is heartening to witness the growing global

awareness of our environmental challenges, with more people seeking straightforward
and practical steps they can take. This book, drawing from insights found within
hundreds of scientific articles, provides precisely that—a collection of clear and
actionable steps that anyone can incorporate into their everyday lives.
By undertaking these individual actions, we have the power to influence collective
action—the kind of concerted effort that is essential for tackling the greatest crises
of our time. Each action, no matter how small, adds to the collective force that will
shape the trajectory of our planet's future. Let this book serve as a guiding light,
illuminating the path toward a more sustainable and resilient world by individual
actions.
Remember, the crisis we face is vast, but the power of collective action is beyond
measure. Together, we can forge a better future, one step at a time.
United Nations Development Programme Piyush Verma

Acknowlegment
I would like to thank the many wonderful people in my life who have supported me
in my sustainability journey from the beginning, which eventually allowed me to
write this book. In particular, I would like to thank my wonderful partner, family,
friends, and coaches Ken Porter, Jed Pfaff, Gil McIff, Marci Meyers, and Karina
von Keitz, as they have been there for me in good and hard times for a long time. I
am also very grateful for the thoughts and input Sheryl Larson, Rameen Ashraf Ali,
Kanchana Peeris, Kristina Zuna, Mariana Guell, Paul Muhu, and Alexis Petersen
contributed to the content of this book. Also, I would like to thank the many scientists
who are doing an excellent job in providing insights that help us reach a more
sustainable future, and Piyush Verma for writing an awesome foreword. Finally, I
would like to thank Nature for providing me the necessary resources to be able to
live on this gorgeous planet Earth!
ix
Introduction
We are currently living in unprecedented times, facing a triple planetary crisis.

Triple means that we have to deal with three environmental crises at the same time:
The first planetary crisis is climate change. Climate change involves shifts in
temperatures and weather patterns due to the increasing amount of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane.
The second planetary crisis is environmental pollution. Environmental pollution
involves physical, chemical, and biological contaminants that harm the earth or
atmosphere so much that normal processes are negatively affected. Physical
contaminants can for example be plastics, chemical pollution heavy metals, and
biological contaminants harmful microorganisms.
The third planetary crisis is the loss of biodiversity. Biodiversity refers to the
different plants and animals on our planet and loss of biodiversity means that
many species are going extinct.
The effects of these three crises are becoming more and more obvious in daily life.
This is because they have a broad range of consequences on ecosystems. An
ecosystem is a community in which the physical environment interacts with
organisms. The physical environment consists of non-living parts including soil, air,
and water; organisms are living parts such as plants, animals, and microorganisms.
Apart from a broad range of consequences, these three crises also have far-
reaching consequences. This is because changes in one part of the ecosystem affects
other parts of the ecosystem as well. I like to compare it with a mobile: when we
pull on one end, automatically the whole systems start to move.
The bad news about the current broad range of issues and the far-reaching
consequences is that the three planetary crises will become worse and new issues
may arise when we continue mistreating our planet. At the same time, the good
news is that when we do the opposite by taking action toward a healthier planet, the
positive impact can be far-reaching as well. In the video in Fig. 1, I give an example
of how one of my actions triggered a series of positive changes.
As understanding the broad range of issues and the far-reaching consequences
help us realize how we can take action toward a healthier planet, the main part of the
xi
xii Introduction
Fig. 1
Table 1 Overview of Part I

Consequences Chapter 1: Impact of Climate Change on Our Future
Chapter 2: Impact of Climate Change on Our Wine
Chapter 3: Impact of Climate Change on Mental Health
Chapter 4: Impact of Climate Change on the Safety of Bridges
Solutions Chapter 5: Controlling CO2 Levels
Chapter 6: Controlling Methane Levels
book is structured according to the three planetary crises. Each part consists of four
chapters addressing examples of current and future issues. These chapters show the
broad range of consequences and by explaining these in detail, it becomes clear how
far-reaching these consequences are. After these four chapters, each part concludes
with two chapters addressing examples of how we can address these issues and take
action toward a healthier planet.
In the climate change part (see Table 1), we first look at consequences that we are
expected to face in the future by looking at past climates (Chap. 1). After that, we look
at consequences that we are already clearly noticing in daily life: how climate change
affects the grapevines and grapes used to produce wine (Chap. 2). Then we look at
consequences that may not be so obvious: how our mental health is impacted by
extreme weather events caused by climate change (Chap. 3) and how climate change
impacts the safety of our bridges (Chap. 4). In the last two chapters of this part, we
look at solutions: at how CO2 (Chap. 5) and methane levels (Chap. 6) can be controlled.
In the pollution part (see Table 2), we first look at how plastic pollution affects
our environment (Chap. 7) and aquatic animals (Chap. 8). After that, we look at how
light pollution impacts animals’ life at night (Chap. 9) and how heavy metal pollu-
tion impacts our health through Parkinson’s disease (Chap. 10). In the last two chap-
ters of this part, we look at solutions: how pollution can be removed from soil and
water (Chap. 11) and how air pollution can be removed (Chap. 12).
In the biodiversity part (see Table 3), we first look at the consequences of losing
biodiversity on our health (Chap. 13) and the consequences on our health of losing
soil biodiversity in particular (Chap. 14). After that, we look at the consequences of
reduced beaver populations on their ecosystem (Chap. 14) and how biodiversity loss
due to urbanization impacts pollinator behavior (Chap. 15). In the last two chapters
of this part, we look at solutions: how we can save wildlife (Chap. 17) and improve
our farming practices (Chap. 18).
Each chapter is based on one or more recent scientific publications and makes
scientific insights from these publications available in easy-to-understand language.
In addition, in each chapter, ideas are added about what you and I can do in daily
Introduction xiii
Table 2 Overview of Part II

Consequences Chapter 7: Impact of Plastic Pollution on Our Environment
Chapter 8: Impact of Plastic Pollution on Aquatic Animals
Chapter 9: Impact of Light Pollution on Our Environment
Chapter 10: Impact of Heavy Metals on Our Health
Solutions Chapter 11: Removing Pollutants from Soil and Water
Chapter 12: Removing Pollutants from Air
Table 3 Overview of Part III

Consequences Chapter 13: Impact of Biodiversity on Our Health
Chapter 14: Impact of Soil Biodiversity on Our and Our Planet’s Health
Chapter 15: Impact of Beavers on Their Ecosystem
Chapter 16: Impact of Urbanization on Pollinator Behavior
Solutions Chapter 17: Saving Wildlife
Chapter 18: Organic Farming
Fig. 2 By taking action toward a healthier planet, we inspire others to do the same
life to make a positive difference. This is because talking about issues is important,
but taking action is what it is in the end all about. And every action counts as many
small changes together build up to a huge shift. This is not only because the indi-
vidual actions add up but also because we inspire others with our environmentally
friendly behavior to do the same (see Fig. 2).
Figure Credit
Fig. 2 Juergen Priewe on Shutterstock

Contents
Part I Climate Change

1
How Climate Change Impacts Our Future �� 3
1.1 Higher Temperatures�� 4
1.2 Sea Level Rise�� 5
1.3 Regional and Seasonal Changes �� 6
1.4 Recovery �� 7
1.5 Conclusion�� 8
1.6 How We Can Take Action �� 8
Credit�� 8
2
How Climate Change Impacts Our Wine�� 9
2.1 Impact on Phenology�� 10
2.2 Impact on Plant Growth�� 11
2.3 Impact on Product Quality�� 12
2.4 Impact on Yield �� 12
2.5 Impact on the Existence of Viticultural Areas�� 13
Credit�� 15
3
How Climate Change Impacts Mental Health�� 17
3.1 Impact of Extreme Weather Events�� 18
3.1.1 Heat Waves�� 18
3.1.2 Floods�� 18
3.1.3 Tornadoes, Hurricanes, and Storms�� 19
3.1.4 Wildfires and Bushfires�� 19
3.1.5 Droughts�� 20
3.2 Impact of Environmental Changes�� 20
3.2.1 Higher Temperature�� 21
3.2.2 Sea Level Rise�� 21
3.2.3 Deforestation�� 21
xv
xvi Contents

Credit�� 23
4
How Climate Change Impacts the Safety of Bridges�� 25
4.1 Durability Risks�� 26
4.2 Serviceability Risks�� 26
4.3 Geotechnical Risks�� 27
4.4 Increased Demand Risks�� 29
4.5 Accidental Loads Risks�� 30
4.6 Extreme Natural Events Risks�� 31
4.7 Operational Risks�� 32
4.8 The Interconnection Between Risks �� 33
Credit�� 34
5
Climate Solutions: Controlling CO2 Levels �� 35
5.1 Conventional Mitigation Strategies�� 36
5.1.1 Renewable Energy�� 36
5.1.2 Nuclear Power�� 37
5.1.3 Carbon Capture and Storage Utilization �� 38
5.1.4 Alternative Fuels and Improving Energy Efficiency�� 39
5.2 Negative Emission Strategies�� 40
5.2.1 Bioenergy Carbon Capture and Storage �� 40
5.2.2 Afforestation and Reforestation�� 40
5.2.3 Biochar�� 41
5.2.4 Soil Carbon Sequestration�� 41
5.2.5 Direct Air Carbon Capture and Storage�� 42
5.2.6 Ocean Fertilization�� 42
5.2.7 Enhanced Terrestrial Weathering�� 43
5.2.8 Ocean Alkalinity Enhancement�� 43
5.2.9 Wetland Restoration and Construction �� 44
Credit�� 46
6
Climate Solutions: Controlling Methane Levels �� 47
6.1 Research�� 48
6.2 Agriculture�� 49
6.3 Wetlands�� 50
6.4 Regulations �� 51
Credit�� 52
Contents xvii
Part II Pollution
7
How Plastic Pollution Impacts our Environment�� 57
7.1 Biodegradability Depends on Environmental Factors�� 58
7.2 Biodegradability in a Laboratory Versus Natural Environments�� 59
7.3 Misconceptions �� 60
Credit�� 61
8
How Plastic Pollution Impacts Aquatic Animals�� 63
8.1 Affecting Food Intake �� 64
8.2 Impacting Growth and Development�� 65
8.3 Causing Damage Due to Toxicity �� 65
8.4 Entering the Food Chain �� 66
Credit�� 68
9
How Light Pollution Impacts Our Environment�� 69
9.1 Impact on Animals�� 70
9.2 Impact on Plants�� 71
9.3 Impact on Ecosystem Functioning�� 72
Credit�� 75
10
How Heavy Metal Pollution Can Cause Parkinson Disease�� 77
10.1 Iron�� 78
10.2 Copper�� 78
10.3 Manganese�� 79
10.4 Zinc �� 80
10.5 Aluminum �� 80
10.6 Mercury�� 80
10.7 Lead�� 80
Credit�� 82
11
Pollution Solutions: Removing Pollutants from Soil and Water�� 83
11.1 Microorganisms�� 86
11.1.1 Oil Sludge �� 86
11.1.2 Agrochemicals�� 87
11.1.3 Heavy Metals�� 88
11.1.4 Petroleum�� 88
11.1.5 Azo Dyes�� 89
11.1.6 Microplastics�� 89
xviii Contents
11.2 Plants�� 90

11.2.1 Phytovolatilization�� 90
11.2.2 Phytodegradation�� 91
11.2.3 Phytostabilization�� 91
11.2.4 Phytoextraction �� 92
11.2.5 Phytostimulation �� 92
11.2.6 Phytofiltration �� 94
Credit�� 96
12
Pollution Solutions: Removing Pollutants from Air �� 97
12.1 Plants�� 98
12.1.1 Green Air Barriers�� 98
12.1.2 Green Walls�� 98
12.1.3 Green Oasis�� 99
12.1.4 (Blue-)Green Roofs�� 100
12.2 Buildings �� 101
12.2.1 Nano-additives�� 101
12.2.2 Anti-smog Towers�� 102
12.2.3 Activated Carbon�� 102
Credit�� 104
Part III Biodiversity
13
How Biodiversity Impacts Our Health�� 107
13.1 Reducing Harm �� 108
13.2 Restoring Capacities �� 109
13.3 Building Capacities�� 110
Credit�� 111
14
How Soil Biodiversity Impacts the Health of Our Planet�� 113
14.1 Supporting Food Production �� 114
14.2 Regulating Pests and Pathogens�� 114
14.3 Supporting Animal Life Above the Ground�� 115
14.4 Improving Water Quality and Availability�� 116
14.5 Controlling Invasive Species�� 117
14.6 Regulating Climate �� 117
Credit�� 118
Contents xix
15
How Beavers Impact Their Ecosystem�� 119
15.1 Stream Shape and Structure�� 121
15.2 Water Movement and Storage�� 122
15.3 Water Quality�� 123
15.4 Plant and Animal Life �� 123
15.5 Consequences Over Space and Time�� 124
Credit�� 126
16
How Urbanization Impacts Pollinator Behavior�� 127
16.1 Higher Short-Term Specialization�� 128
16.2 Higher Long-Term Specialization�� 129
16.3 Preferring Invasive and/or Exotic Plants�� 129
16.4 Longer Visiting Times�� 130
Credit�� 131
17 Biodiversity Solutions: Saving Wildlife�� 133
17.1 Wildlife Rehabilitation Centers�� 134
17.1.1 Facilities�� 134
17.1.2 Staff�� 134
17.1.3 Procedures�� 135
17.1.4 Release�� 136
17.2 Fences to Protect Wildlife�� 136
17.2.1 Protection from Illegal Hunters�� 137
17.2.2 Protection of Their Territory �� 137
17.2.3 Protection from Revenge and Preventive Killing�� 137
Credit�� 139
18 Biodiversity Solutions: Sustainable Agriculture �� 141
18.1 Organic Farming �� 142
18.1.1 Improving Organic Farming �� 142
18.1.2 Seed Priming�� 145
18.2 Integrated Systems�� 149
18.2.1 Duck-Rice Integrated System �� 149
18.2.2 Silvopasture�� 150
Credit�� 152
xx Contents
Part IV Conclusion
19 Psychological Aspects�� 157
19.1 Beliefs About Ourselves �� 157
19.2 Goal-Setting�� 158
19.3 Intrinsic Motivation�� 159
19.4 Cost of Change�� 160
19.5 Fear of Failure�� 161
19.6 Experienced Pains and Gains�� 162
19.7 Consistency �� 163
20 How We Can Take Action�� 165
Index�� 173
Part I
Climate Change
The term climate change for the first planetary crisis is for some people confusing.
They argue that our climate has always been changing, so the current changes are
nothing to worry about. It is correct that our climate has always been shifting over a
long period of time: over the last 100 million years, our planet’s climate gradually
moved from an ice-free and warm world to cold ice ages with ice caps covering one-
fourth of the land surface.
At the same time, it is incorrect that we have nothing to worry about because
although our climate is always shifting slowly, in recent years it is happening much
faster. These relatively rapid changes are caused by human CO2 emissions and are
also called anthropogenic climate change. Anthropogenic means caused by humans.
These emissions cause the planet to warm up, which is a worldwide concern. It is a
concern because warmer temperatures affect the land surface and ocean chemistry.
These changes impact us in many ways and will do so even more in the future.
Chapter 1
How Climate Change Impacts Our Future
Abstract Climate change is expected to have direct, disastrous effects in the future.
This is because CO2 levels in the atmosphere are currently rising 4 to 10 times faster
than 56 million years ago. To be able to mitigate disastrous effects, it is important to
understand in more detail how our climate is changing and what we are facing in the
future. This understanding can be obtained by studying geological data that pro-
vides information about climates in the past. For example, ancient CO2 levels can be
measured using shells on the sea bottom. This information helps us predict that
temperatures and sea levels will rise. Also, regional and seasonal data from past
climates can help us understand what variation is natural. It is expected that our
planet will be able to recover, but that it will take 500,000 years – or 20,000 human
generations – before our planet’s CO2 level returns to pre-industrial levels.
Keywords Science · Science communication · Climate change · Climate change

consequences · Global warming · CO2 emissions · Geology · Pliocene · Cretaceous
As climate change is expected to have direct, disastrous effects in the future, it is

important to understand how our climate is changing today and make predictions
about what we will be facing in the future. These predictions can be used to take
appropriate action today.
Insights about the future can be gained by looking at climates in the past. To this
end, geological information is used as direct measures such as temperature are not
available. This geological information gives us a clearer understanding of what
influences and what is influenced by a changing climate. We can then use this
knowledge from the past to create models, which help us to make predictions. This
is how climate change is expected to impact our future:
Credit: This chapter is based on the scientific article “Past climates inform our future: Review
Summary” by Jessica E. Tierney and colleagues. (Full citation and link available at the end of the
chapter)
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 3

E. van Genuchten, A Guide to a Healthier Planet,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34479-4_1
4 1 How Climate Change Impacts Our Future
1.1 Higher Temperatures
The first way climate change is expected to impact us long-term is through higher
temperatures. How much higher temperatures will be can be predicted by under-
standing how CO2 levels affect global temperature. Ancient CO2 levels can be mea-
sured with shells of planktonic foraminifera (microorganisms). These shells can be
found at the sea bottom and contain different types of boron. The boron composition
of these shells depended on the water acidity. The water acidity in turn depended on
how much CO2 was dissolved in the water. The amount of dissolved CO2 again
depended on the CO2 concentration in the air. In the video in Fig. 1.1, you can see
how and where scientists find these shells and get their data.
Knowing ancient CO2 levels and circumstances can help us predict the tempera-
ture in the future, as high CO2 concentrations in the air lead to high temperatures.
When our emissions become net-negative by the end of the twenty-first century,
which means that we compensate for more CO2 than we emit in the air, CO2 concen-
trations would be similar to Pliocene levels. The Pliocene era was roughly five to
three million years ago.
In the Pliocene era, the average global temperature was about 16 °C (60.8 °F),
which is similar to today’s global average. If we continue emitting a lot of CO2 from
fossil fuels, CO2 concentrations can exceed Eocene (about 56 to 33 million years
ago) or mid-Cretaceous levels (about 145 to 66 million years ago). In these eras, the
average global temperature was around 30 °C (86 °F). Based on today’s trends, cur-
rent models predict a temperature increase of between 1.5 and 4.5 °C (between 34.7
and 40.1 °F; (see Fig. 1.2).
As the environmental impacts, socio-economic implications, and time we have
to solve our issues are very different with a temperature increase of 1.5 °C (2.7 °F)
compared to 4.5 °C (8.1 °F), it is also important to narrow this range down. This
range can be narrowed down by looking at other variables that influenced tempera-
ture increases in past climates and their impact. For example, the climate during the
increase of CO2 levels is important: when the CO2 level doubles, our planet warms
up more in a warmer climate than in a cooler climate. This is because warmer cli-
mates have more clouds in the atmosphere (see Fig. 1.3).
Fig. 1.1
1.2 Sea Level Rise 5
Fig. 1.2 Temperatures have changed naturally over millions of years
Fig. 1.3 The consequences of 4.5 °C (8.1 °F) global temperature increase are very different than
with 1.5 °C (2.7 °F)
1.2 Sea Level Rise
The second way climate change is expected to impact us long-term is through sea
level rise. There are many uncertainties when predicting sea level rise because the
stability of ice sheets, size, and shape are unknown. By looking at past climates, we
Fig. 1.4 With increased global temperature, the sea level will rise
can better understand how areas with ice sheets react to increased temperatures, and
how this may impact sea levels in the future (see Fig. 1.4).
For example, reconstructing the global mean sea level rise during the mid-
Pliocene warm period, which was about 2 to 3 °C (1.9 to 3.6 °F) warmer, lets us
predict a sea level rise of 17 m (23 ft). This would mean that Greenland will be
underwater.
1.3 Regional and Seasonal Changes
The third way past climates climate change is expected to impact us long-term is
through regional and seasonal changes. Regional and seasonal data from past cli-
mates show us what variation is natural.
To measure ancient seasonal changes in temperature, planktonic foraminifera
(see Fig. 1.5) can again be used, as these animals only live for about a month. In
their shells, different types of oxygen molecules are stored. The ratio between these
types gives us information about the temperature during that month.
Measuring ancient rainfall is more complex, but luckily the direction (wetter or
drier) can also be used for future predictions. Current models predict that subtropics
become drier, whereas deep tropics and high latitudes get wetter; when looking at
past climates, wetter circumstances are predicted for the subtropics and high
latitudes.
1.4 Recovery 7
Fig. 1.5 A computer-generated image of a microscopic foraminifera fossil
1.4 Recovery
While climate change is expected to impact us long-term in many ways, it is also

predicted that it can recover itself. Recovery here means that our planet will be able
to recover from the quick increase of CO2 in the atmosphere. This is because dra-
matic changes happened in the past as well because of volcano eruptions, and some-
times lasted for a long time. By looking at what happened afterward tells us how the
planet recovered from such states.
For example, about 56 million years ago, greenhouse gases were also rapidly
emitted. The concentration in the atmosphere doubled or even tripled in less than
5000 years. Because of that, the global temperature increased by 4 to 6 °C (7.2 to
10.8 °F) and more rain fell at the high latitudes. Also, the top 100 m (330 ft) of the
ocean became more acidic, so a lot of species went extinct. It took our planet
100,000 years to recover from this event.
As the current increase of CO2 levels is 4 to 10 times faster than 56 million years
ago, it is an extreme event as well. Our planet can recover from this rapid CO2
increase, but on a geological time scale, which can be tens of thousands of years.
Under a worst-case scenario, it will take 500,000 years, which is about 20,000
human generations, before the CO2 level returns to pre-industrial levels.
1.5 Conclusion
So, even though the term climate change can be confusing as climates shift natu-
rally, the important difference is that the speed of current changes is unnatural:
changes in the past developed over millions of years, whereas they are currently
happening in only several decades.
These rapid changes are causing fast temperature shifts. On average, these shifts
occur toward warmer temperatures: the temperature rise is expected to be between
1.5 and 4.5 °C (between 34.7 and 40.1 °F). The consequences of higher tempera-
tures are diverse. These rapid changes also cause rising sea levels and regional and
seasonal climate changes. And our planet will be able to recover, but by looking at
past climates, this is expected to take hundreds of thousands of years.
1.6 How We Can Take Action
As climate change is currently happening fast due to CO2 emissions, it is important

to limit our emissions as much as possible. Here are practical ideas of what you and
I can do to reduce CO2 emissions in daily life:
• Reducing meat consumption
• Buying as few clothes as possible or buying second hand
• Using sustainable transport, for example cycling to work or using public trans-
port instead of driving a car
• Using energy based on renewable energy sources such as solar and wind energy
instead of energy obtained by burning fossil fuels
Credit
This Chapter Is Based On:
Tierney, J. E., et al. (2020). Past climates inform our future. Science, 370(6517), eaay3701.
Figure Credits
Fig. 1.2 Image based on Figure 1 from the original scientific publication
Fig. 1.3 ParabolStudio on Shutterstock
Fig. 1.4 m.malinika on Shutterstock
Fig. 1.5 Peddalanka Ramesh Babu on Shutterstock
Chapter 2
How Climate Change Impacts Our Wine
Abstract Climate change has severe and short-term effects on agriculture, includ-
ing the grapevine, which is essential for successful wine production. Climate change
is affecting grapevines’ phenology, which is the cyclic and seasonal stages of the
plant. For example, higher temperature cause grapes to ripen earlier. This affects
wine quality, as this leads to a changed balance between acidity and sugar levels,
which in turn leads to a different alcohol percentage and loss of the wine’s typical
characteristics. Climate change also affects plant growth when the soil moisture is
too high or too low or when it damages leaves. This in turn also affects yield. CO2
levels in the atmosphere can partially compensate for the negative impact of higher
temperatures, but not enough to prevent damage caused by these higher tempera-
tures and increased soil dryness. Also, climatic changes can alter the geographical
distribution of existing wine areas, create new areas, and make existing areas
unsuitable.

consequences · Wine · Wine production · Viticulture · Agriculture · Grapevine ·
Grapevine yield · Grape quality · Berry quality · Wine grape phenology ·
Viticultural area · Climate variability · Future climate · European viticulture
Although many feel that climate change and its consequences will only be notice-
able in the future, it is already impacting many aspects of today’s daily life. For
example, climate change has severe and short-term effects on agriculture such as
affecting yields. One of the crops that is affected a lot is also one of the world’s most
important and widespread crops: the grapevine. In 2018, global wine production
was 292 million hectoliters (245 million barrels), which is 11,680 Olympic size
swimming pools. This is produced on over 7.4 million hectares (over 18.3 million
acres), which is about the size of Italy.
Climate conditions are crucial for successful wine production (see Fig. 2.1) as
these conditions not only affect the plant, but they also affect the taste of the wine.
Credit: This chapter is based on three scientific articles by Fotoula Droulia and João A. Santos and
their colleagues. (Full citations and link available at the end of the chapter)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34479-4_2
10 2 How Climate Change Impacts Our Wine
Fig. 2.1 Climate change impacts our wine in many ways
Temperature has the largest impact on wine but also for example the amount of rain
is crucial. By understanding and measuring the opportunities and risks of changing
climates for grape growers, it is possible to continue producing sustainable and
high-quality wine. This is how climate change impacts grapes and our wine:
2.1 Impact on Phenology
The first way climate change impacts our wine is by affecting the grapevines’ phe-
nology. Phenology involves the development stages of living organisms throughout
a season and in relation to the climate. So, in the context of wine, the phenology of
grapevines concerns the cyclic and seasonal stages of the plant.
All grapevines go through several stages, including budding, flowering, and rip-
ening. Which stage is reached at what time depends on the climatic conditions and
is sped up with warmer temperatures. For example, it is predicted that a temperature
increase of 3–5 °C (5.4–9 °F) will cause grapes used for Pinot noir in France to ripe
3 to 5 weeks earlier. Also, grapevines in northeastern Europe are expected to go
through the budding and flowering stages earlier than today.
Not only are these stages predicted to start earlier in the year but also the time
between phases becomes shorter. For example, harvesting dates in southern Italy are
expected to be 7 to 10 days earlier.
2.2 Impact on Plant Growth 11
2.2 Impact on Plant Growth
The second way climate change impacts our wine is by affecting plant growth. An
important factor influencing plant growth is soil moisture:
• The soil moisture should be high during the budding phase. When the soil mois-
ture is low due to less rain and water deficits caused by climate change, vineyards
are affected during this critical growth period.
• The soil moisture should be low in other growth phases, including the flowering
and ripening phases.
This means that not only the amount of rain but also the seasonal distribution is
critical for grapevines (see Fig. 2.2). When the soil is too moist, the plant can grow
too much, causing for example too much shadow or too heavy grapes, which in turn
causes poor fruit and wine quality and lower yields. Also, too much moisture can
cause bunch rot development in vineyards. Alternatively, when the soil is too dry,
the plant growth is restricted, causing grapes to be for example smaller and
more bitter.
Also, climate change is responsible for damaging the plant by making cells die
and making leaves lose their green color. This can result in the plant being unable to
grow in the future.
Fig. 2.2 Soil moisture is important for plants to grow high-quality grapes
2.3 Impact on Product Quality
The third impact of climate change on our wine is by affecting the product quality.
Product quality is affected because higher temperatures cause the grapes to ripen
earlier and the growing period to be shorter. This negatively impacts how the taste
and aroma molecules in wine are built. Also, the amount of rain in different growth
phases impacts how acidic the grapes are and how high their sugar concentrations
rise. Grapes become more acidic when they ripen earlier, and sugar concentrations
increase with higher temperatures. A changed balance between acidity and sugar
levels ultimately leads to a different alcohol percentage. This in turn causes the wine
to lose some of the typical characteristics of the grape from which it was produced.
For example, southern European regions that are suitable for wine production are
experiencing higher solar energy levels, soil dryness, and higher air temperatures.
This causes the grapes to have lower berry weight, lower sugar content, and a differ-
ent aroma. The now unpredictable growth and production of grapes can result in
altered levels of acidity, alcoholic content, color, and aroma of the wine. Also, lon-
ger periods of temperatures above 30 °C and more frequent droughts in Croatian
wine-producing regions will increase the sugar content and lower the acidity level
in grapes, producing unbalanced wines.
2.4 Impact on Yield
The fourth impact of climate change on our wine is by affecting the yield. The direct
impact of climate change on the grapevine yield is very site-specific and differs
between regions, as different factors impact the yield.
The first factor that impacts the yield is rising temperatures. With increasing
temperatures, the soil in already warm areas is more likely to dry out, which nega-
tively impacts the yield. In colder regions, a temperature increase can result in more
productivity at first, but with even higher temperatures, the yield can be impacted
again in the long run.
The second factor that impacts the yield is dryness. As described earlier, dryness
is not a problem in some phases of the plant’s growth but restricts growth in the
early stages. Warmer and drier climate conditions in the Italian Apulia region might
decrease wine production by about 20–26%.
The third factor that impacts the yield is CO2 levels. Interestingly, higher CO2
levels in the atmosphere can partly compensate for the negative impact of higher
temperatures. This is because the grapevine plant uses the available water and solar
energy more efficiently when the CO2 concentration in the air is higher: a higher
CO2 concentration in the air can decrease plant transpiration which compensates for
increased soil evaporation. Unfortunately, any positive effect of CO2 is not enough
to prevent damage caused by higher temperatures and increased soil dryness.
2.5 Impact on the Existence of Viticultural Areas 13
2.5 Impact on the Existence of Viticultural Areas
The fifth impact of climate change on our wine is by affecting the viticultural area.
A viticultural area is any area suitable for growing grapevines. So far, these are
especially areas in warmer climates of southern Europe. Climate change can alter
the geographical distribution of existing viticultural areas, create new areas, and
make existing areas unsuitable (see Fig. 2.3).
Some existing viticultural areas have already expanded and shifted towards the
north. For example, with rising temperatures and less rainfall, some grape varieties
in Italy with specific growing conditions have to be grown further toward the north.
Similar to Italy, wine-producing regions in Greece will have to shift towards higher
mountain regions that were so far unsuitable.
Apart from shifting areas, new areas could be created in currently colder areas,
such as in high-altitude regions in northwestern Spain, Serbia, Hungary, Austria,
and Germany. This is also possible because the farmers in these new regions can
decide to grow new, more low-temperature-resistant grapevines. Even though this
can mean the doubling of current wine-producing regions in those countries, it also
means that current viticultural areas can become unsuitable.
Fig. 2.3 The viticultural areas of today might become too dry and warm for grapevine growth
2.6 Conclusion
So, the consequences of climate change are today already clearly noticeable in agri-
culture. The viticultural sector is one of the agricultural sectors that is highly
affected, as for example higher temperatures and water availability change how and
when the plants grow. This results in different acidity and sugar levels of the grapes
and smaller yields, which in turn affect the quality and availability of the wine.
Also, where grapevines can grow changes due to different environmental cir-
cumstances. This means that areas currently suitable for wine production may
become less suitable. At the same time, other areas that are currently unsuitable may
become productive areas – at least for the time being.
As climate change has a large impact on our wine, paying attention to sustainability
in this area is worth it to limit further pressure on the environment. Here are practi-
cal ideas of what you and I can do to make wine production and consumption more
environmentally friendly.
What you and I can do:
• Buying regional wine
• Buying organic wine
• Paying attention to certifications indicating that wine was produced sustainably
• Buying wine with sustainable packaging
• Bringing corks back to the shop to allow recycling
• Using corks for upcycling projects (see Fig. 2.4)
Fig. 2.4 Corks can be

reused in upcycling
projects, for example
creating a pin board
Credit 15
What grape growers can do:

• Breeding and selecting more resilient rootstocks while preserving genetic diver-
sity, for example drought-resistant grapes
• Modifying viticultural techniques so that grapes can still be harvested in the
optimal period
• Installing sustainable irrigation systems or applying sustainable irrigation strate-
gies, such as drip irrigation systems
• Relocating vineyards to more suitable areas
• Using sustainable packaging
Credit
Droulia, F., & Charalampopoulos, I. (2021). Future climate change impacts on European
Viticulture: A review on recent scientific advances. Atmosphere, 12(4), 495.
Droulia, F., & Charalampopoulos, I. (2022). A review on the observed climate change in Europe
and its impacts on viticulture. Atmosphere, 13(5), 837.
Santos, J. A., et al. (2020). A review of the potential climate change impacts and adaptation options
for European viticulture. Applied Sciences, 10(9), 3092.
Figure Credits
Fig. 2.1 congerdesign on Pixabay

Fig. 2.2 Jill Wellington on Pexels
Fig. 2.3 Tama66 on Pixabay
Fig. 2.4 Dr. Erlijn van Genuchten
Chapter 3
How Climate Change Impacts Mental
Health
Abstract Climate change has many consequences, including a negative impact on

mental health. This impact is often overlooked because mental health issues often
remain hidden inside us. These issues can for example result from experiencing
extreme weather events such as heat waves, floods, tornadoes, wildfires, and
droughts. These events can cause Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and other psycho-
logical disorders, such as anxiety, panic attacks, sleep disorders, compulsive repeti-
tive play, flashbacks, depression, psychosomatic sickness, and paranoia. These can
in turn increase for example the number of suicides. Also, climate change can
impact our mental health through environmental changes. For example, higher sur-
face air temperature can disrupt sleep, and cause mood, behavior, and neurotic dis-
orders, and schizophrenia. And sea level rise can increase people’s stress levels and
lead to for example depression.

consequences · Mental health · Weather · Psychology · Droughts · Wildfire · Heat
wave · Flood · Tornado · Hurricane · Depression · Anxiety · Post-Traumatic Stress
Syndrome · Resilience · Migration · Vulnerability · Climatic and economic turmoil
· Extreme events
While the consequences of climate change on our environment are often easily
noticeable, other consequences are not. An example of an issue that is easily over-
looked is the impact on mental health. This impact is often overlooked because
mental health issues often remain hidden inside us.
For example, when we lose our house because of a flood that is caused by climate
change, the direct, physical consequences are visible and trigger us to find another
place to live or repair our house. Mental issues that occur at the same time or shortly
afterward are invisible and therefore often remain unrecognized. This is unfortunate
Credit: This chapter is based on the scientific article “The Impact of Climate Change on Mental
Health: A Systematic Descriptive Review” by Paolo Cianconi, Sophia Betro, and Luigi Janiri.
(Full citations and link available at the end of the chapter)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34479-4_3
18 3 How Climate Change Impacts Mental Health
because these issues can persist for many years after the disaster, even when all
physical damage has been restored. These mental consequences can even be passed
on to future generations! This is how the consequences of climate change impact
our mental health:
3.1 Impact of Extreme Weather Events
One way climate change can impact our mental health indirectly is by causing
extreme weather events that in turn impact our mental health. Examples of extreme
weather events are heat waves, floods, tornadoes, wildfires, and droughts. Extreme
means that it is rare or outside the normal range, for example excessive heat, too
much rain, too little rain, or very strong winds. This is how different extreme weather
events impact our mental health:
3.1.1 Heat Waves
The first type of extreme weather event that impacts our mental health is heat waves.
Heat waves are spikes of unusually high temperatures over a few days. The stress
caused by these hot periods not only affects the body but also causes for example
mood disorders and anxiety. How much people are affected varies between gender,
age, and socio-economic status.
Also, hot temperatures make people feel less comfortable. This reduced comfort
makes them feel more hostile, have more aggressive thoughts, and sometimes also
behave violently. This increases the number of crimes and suicides.
3.1.2 Floods
The second type of extreme weather event that impacts our mental health is floods.
Apart from causing physical death, floods have a large impact on mental health,
especially leading to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) after the event. This is
because people mourn the loss of lives and property, feel stressed, and become a
refugee in their own country (see Fig. 3.1). Other common consequences are anxi-
ety and depression. And even those who haven’t experienced the flood directly but
live in a nearby area can be affected by post-traumatic stress because community
cohesion changes dramatically.
3.1 Impact of Extreme Weather Events 19
Fig. 3.1 Floods can cause people to become a refugee in their own country
3.1.3 Tornadoes, Hurricanes, and Storms
The third type of extreme weather event that impacts our mental health are torna-
does, hurricanes, and storms. After such events, many people experience stress,
depression, and anxiety, and develop PTSD. How severe the symptoms are, depends
on the severity of the event, but also on other factors such as age, gender, education
level, socio-economic status, employment status, and relationship status.
3.1.4 Wildfires and Bushfires
The fourth type of extreme weather event that impacts our mental health is wildfires
and bushfires. A wildfire is a large-scale fire usually in forests and jungles; a bush-
fire is a wildfire of bushland or forests close to an urban area.
As wildfires usually occur in areas with few inhabitants, the damage is especially
environmental. But environmental issues can cause further problems, such as more
extreme events, which can then again cause mental issues.
As bushfires happen close to urban areas, they have a larger impact. They can
lead to various psychological disorders, including depression, PTSD, psychoso-
matic sickness, and paranoia (see Fig. 3.2). Children suffer for example from anxi-
ety, panic attacks, sleep disorders, compulsive repetitive play, and flashbacks. These
symptoms can occur later and can persist over at least several years.
Fig. 3.2 Bushfires do not only cause property damage or physical injuries, they also cause mental
health problems
3.1.5 Droughts
The fifth type of extreme weather event that impacts our mental health is drought. A
drought is different from the previous extreme events as this event lasts a lot longer,
often about a decade and sometimes even longer. Especially farmers are at risk
because droughts affect crop productivity, agriculture yields, and economic prob-
lems. They are more likely to get depressed, feel demoralized, feel that all events are
predetermined and inevitable, and accept their fate. But also others, especially
women, adolescents, and people with lower socio-economic status feel distressed
and helpless.
Also, droughts can cause mental issues indirectly, when the number of suicides
increases, job security decreases, people need to migrate, or conflicts over natural
resources occur.
3.2 Impact of Environmental Changes
Another way climate change can impact our mental health indirectly is by affecting
the environment. This is how different environmental changes can impact our men-
tal health:
3.2 Impact of Environmental Changes 21
3.2.1 Higher Temperature
The first type of environmental change that impacts our mental health is
higher surface air temperature. Higher surface air temperatures can impact the func-
tioning of our central nervous system, as this system works best around 22 °C
(71.6 °F). Above this temperature, temperature stress can for example reduce the
production of hormones that make us feel happy, such as the feel-good hormone
dopamine.
As a consequence of the disruption of our central nervous system, our sleep is
disturbed and we feel more exhausted. And mania is more likely to occur in the
elderly. Mania involves great excitement or euphoria, delusions, and over-activity.
Further mental illnesses related to higher surface air temperatures are mood, behav-
ior, and neurotic disorders, and schizophrenia. These in turn make us more likely to
be aggressive toward others or ourselves.
3.2.2 Sea Level Rise
The second type of environmental change that impacts our mental health is sea level
rise. Sea level rise especially impacts low-lying areas, such as small islands in the
Indian or Pacific Oceans (see Fig. 3.3). They may lose land because of flooding and
coastal erosion. Thoughts about losing land and having to relocate cause fear, which
prevents a normal relationship between the population and the ocean on a daily
basis. Also, when sea levels have risen, people are forced to migrate to other areas
or countries, which affects social support and social networks.
3.2.3 Deforestation
The third type of environmental change that impacts our mental health is deforesta-
tion. Deforestation in urban areas makes the area hotter and increases people’s
stress levels. This is because nature in urban areas has many mental health benefits
and helps us to recover more quickly from illness. Also, it for example prevents
children from developing mental disorders later in life and makes it easier for us to
connect with other people. This all contributes to a better quality of life.
Although it already has an impact on us in urban areas, deforestation impacts
indigenous populations even more. As their environment changes, they can feel a
strong loss and feel detached from the environment they know. This can for example
lead to depression.
Fig. 3.3 Expected sea level rise in 200 years for the east coast of North Carolina, US. Blue areas
indicate flooded areas
3.3 Conclusion
So, while the physical consequences of climate change are often directly visible, for
example when we lose our house, it also has many less obvious consequences. For
example, when our mental health is affected.
The consequences for our mental health can be diverse, including PTSD, depres-
sion, and anxiety. These mental issues can result in for example aggression towards
others and ourselves, difficulties in relationships, and drug or alcohol abuse. And
they should be taken seriously, as they can persist for many years and even be passed
on to future generations!
Credit 23
As climate change can cause many mental health issues, it is important to limit the
negative consequences. Also, strengthening our mental health today will make us
more resilient in the future. Here are practical ideas of what you and I can do to
improve our own and others’ mental health in daily life.
Improving our own mental health:
• Taking time for self-care on a daily basis, for example by reading or meditating
• Spending time with others to build and keep strong relationships, for example by
joining a club, meeting friends, and spending time with family
• Doing physical exercise
• Sleeping and resting enough
• Eating healthy food, including fruits and vegetables
• Practicing mindfulness
Supporting others to improve their mental health:
• Listening to people who are going through a difficult time, without judging them
or adding our opinions
• Encouraging others to take time for self-care, for example by doing enjoyable
activities or doing exercise
• Offering support or help in a way that improves their mental health
• Being patient with their recovery as it can take a long time
• Learning more about the mental health issue to be able to understand others better
• Supporting them to seek professional help
Credit
Cianconi, P., Betrò, S., & Janiri, L. (2020). The impact of climate change on mental health: a sys-
tematic descriptive review. Frontiers in psychiatry, 11, 74.
Figure Credits
Fig. 3.1 Dreame Walker on Shutterstock

Fig. 3.2 Ivankurakevich on Shutterstock
Fig. 3.3 “SeaSea level projections at Alligator RiverRiver National WildlifeWildlife Refuge” by
U.S. FishFishes and WildlifeWildlife Service Headquarters is licensed under CC BY 2.0
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sea_level_projections_at_Alligator_
River_National_Wildlife_Refuge_(5687793984).jpg
Author: https://www.flickr.com/people/50838842@N06
License: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/
Chapter 4
How Climate Change Impacts the Safety
of Bridges
Abstract Climate change is having a significant impact on our safety on the road,
as it affects bridges in many different ways. Different climatic circumstances make
bridges less durable and more likely to collapse, for example due to extreme events
such as wildfires, when different environmental circumstances such as higher tem-
peratures impact the structure, and when weather conditions such as wind put more
strain on the bridge. Also, climate change can affect the area around the bridge so
that the bridge becomes unstable and can cause more accidents that damage the
bridge. While damage is unrepaired, the service a bridge provides can be affected as
well. Individual, combined, and interdependent risks affect the safety of bridges,
causing the safety of individuals on and below the bridge to be put at risk.

consequences · Safety · Infrastructure · Bridges · Risk · Infrastructure safety
Apart from mental health issues, another example of consequences that are not
directly noticeable is how bridges and our safety on the road are affected. Our safety
on the road is affected as bridges are important parts of the infrastructure but degrade
more quickly due to climate change. This increases the risk of collapsing, which not
only has safety consequences for individuals passing on the bridge but also for indi-
viduals below the bridge. Also, a collapsed bridge can have severe consequences
down the line, for example when goods cannot be transported to an area anymore.
When food cannot reach an area, it not only affects safety on the road but also food
security. This is how climate change affects the safety of bridges:
Credit: This chapter is based on the scientific article “A review of the Potential Impacts of Climate
Change on the Safety and Performance of Bridges” by A. Nasr and colleagues. (Full citation and
link available at the end of the chapter)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34479-4_4
26 4 How Climate Change Impacts the Safety of Bridges
Fig. 4.1 Degraded part of the superstructure of a bridge
4.1 Durability Risks
The first way climate change affects the safety of bridges is by increasing risks
related to the durability of the bridge. This means that the material deteriorates and
degrades quicker (see Fig. 4.1):
• Accelerated Degradation of Substructure Higher future temperatures, changes
in humidity, a lower ocean acidity, higher soil saltiness, water level, and more
carbon in the ocean and atmosphere can affect bridges’ foundations. For exam-
ple, when the water level drops, parts of the pillars suddenly get in touch with
oxygen in the air, which allows biodegradation of the pillar; when the water level
becomes higher, splash water can affect unprotected parts of the bridge.
• Accelerated Superstructure Degradation Higher temperatures, more precipi-
tation like snow and rain, higher air humidity, and more carbon in the atmosphere
speed up the degradation of the visible part of the bridge. For example, concrete
and metals can suffer from corrosion, and timber from biodegradation by
increased microorganism activity.
4.2 Serviceability Risks
The second way climate change affects the safety of bridges is by increasing the risk
of failing serviceability of the bridge. This means that the usefulness and reliability
of the bridge are affected (see Fig. 4.2):
4.3 Geotechnical Risks 27
• Heat-Induced Damage to Pavements and Railways More frequent heat waves

can destruct railways and pavements. This is because heat causes metal and con-
crete or asphalt to extend. As a consequence, it bends or cracks and potentially
causes accidents.
• Risk of Increased Long-Term Deformations Higher temperatures and changes
in air humidity can cause very slow changes or deformations in concrete and
timber, which cause risks in the long term. For example, slow changes can affect
how much weight a bridge can carry, possibly causing a sudden collapse.
4.3 Geotechnical Risks
The third way climate change affects the safety of bridges is by increasing the risks
related to geotechnical engineering. Geotechnical engineering involves building on
top of and in the ground. This means that when the surrounding ground changes,
bridges can be at risk:
• Higher Scour Rates Scour rate is the amount of erosion of the soil around the
base of a bridge. For example, melting permafrost due to higher temperatures,
more rain, and higher sea levels cause more soil around pillars to be carried away.
Fig. 4.2 A damaged road impacting the serviceability of the bridge

• Higher Risk of Bridge Side-Slope Failure and Higher Risk of Landslides

More intense precipitation and the absence of plants that protect slopes due to
climate change can make slopes unstable and increases the chance of a landslide.
Landslides can cause bridges to become unstable and collapse.
• Higher Risks of Rock Fall, Debris Flows, and Snow Avalanches Similar to
slope failure and landslides, melting permafrost can cause rock slopes to become
unstable and more debris to flow. And higher temperatures can make snow ava-
lanches more likely. These can all damage bridges. For example, a severe rock
fall punched the bridge deck in Glenwood Canyon, Colorado, USA. In the
video in Fig. 4.3, a drone shows the damaged bridge and where the rocks and
debris came from.
• Higher Risk of Foundation Settlement With higher and lower water levels due
to climate change, the earth on which the bridge is built can become unstable.
For example, with lower water levels, soil can be compressed by the bridge when
the soil is not completely saturated with water anymore. With higher water lev-
els, soil that is held together by water-sensitive forces loses this force when it
comes into contact with water. Without these forces, the soil can be compressed
as well.
• Higher Risk of Soil Liquefaction Soil liquefaction means that the strength of
the soil is reduced due to strong shaking. This is one of the main causes of bridge
damage during an earthquake. When the water level rises due to climate change,
the bridge puts less pressure on the soil below (just like we are less heavy when
standing in a pool with water reaching our neck compared to a pool with water
reaching our waist). With less pressure, an earthquake can more easily shake
the soil.
• Additional Loads on Piles That May Overstress Them Bridges can also be
damaged when the pressure on the piles of the bridge becomes too high. This can
for example happen when the opposite occurs in the pool example: when the
water level drops due to climate change, the pile becomes heavier and has to
carry more weight.
• Damage Due to Clay Shrinking and Swelling Shrinking and swelling are com-
mon reasons for bridges to get damaged. When the drying and wetting cycles
become more intense due to climate change, also the shrinking and swelling and
the resulting damage become more extreme.
Fig. 4.3
4.4 Increased Demand Risks 29
4.4 Increased Demand Risks
The fourth way climate change affects the safety of bridges is by increasing the risks
due to higher demands on the bridge. This means that bridges are exposed to more
extreme forces:
• Higher Risk of Wind-Induced Loads Due to climate change, stronger winds
are expected to be a threat to certain areas. Wind affects bridges in several ways,
including pushing the bridge sideways, hitting the bridge, swaying cables, and
causing a twisting motion. In the video in Fig. 4.4, you can see how the Tacoma
Narrows Bridge, Washington, USA started to twist due to wind and eventually
collapsed (0:20–0:38).
• Higher Wave Impact on Piers and Abutments As climate change can make
winds blow faster in some regions, also the frequency and height of extreme
waves increase. Extreme waves can damage bridges as well, especially the piers
and abutments. The abutment is where the bridge connects with the land.
• Additional Snow Load on Covered Bridges With increasing snowfall due to
climate change, even more load on covered bridges can put them at risk. I guess
because the snow cannot be cleared as easily from the roof as it can be from
the deck.
• Higher Risk of Thermally Induced Stresses With increased temperatures due
to climate change, several problems can occur. For example, bridges with decks
that can be opened may get stuck when the bridge expands too much due to the
heat. Also, more solar radiation can increase the temperature difference between
the top and the bottom of the deck. This puts stress on the deck.
• Additional Demand on Drainage Capacity With more rain due to climate
change, the drainage system becomes even more important, but can also be over-
whelmed. In the video in Fig. 4.5, you can see a bridge collapsing after strong
rain and wind (0:09–0:56).
• Higher Pressure Behind Bridge Abutments With increased rain and higher
water levels, more water can build up behind a bridge’s abutment. Gravity causes
this water to put pressure on the structure.
• Increased Load on Bridges With Control Sluice Gates Some bridges are com-
bined with sluices. These sluices can for example be used to regulate the amount
of irrigation water or to protect against floods. With high water levels, more pres-
Fig. 4.4
sure is put on the sluice gates and as a consequence on the abutments and piles
or piers.
• Increased Stresses Due to the Faster Loss of Prestressing Force When bridges
are built, the concrete is prestressed before it is put in place. This means that the
concrete is compressed to make it later more resilient against pulling forces. But
over time, concrete can become less compressed, which is called loss of pre-
stressing force. This can be the result of deformation caused by a constant load
or by the humidity difference between concrete and the environment.
• Higher Ice-Induced Loads When the area around a bridge is covered by an ice
sheet, this ice can damage the bridge with changing temperatures as well. For
example, when the temperature in the ice cover changes, the ice expands or con-
tracts, which puts pressure on the piers/piles of the bridge. And when the water
level changes and the ice sheet moves up or down, the ice can damage the piers/
piles as well.
4.5 Accidental Loads Risks
The fifth way climate change affects the safety of bridges is by increasing the num-
ber of accidents on the bridge:
• Higher Chance of Water Vessel Collisions It is expected that the amount of
water in clouds will increase due to climate change. This would mean that fogs
become denser and make it more likely that ships bump into bridges. Also, higher
waves make navigating ships harder, which increases the chance that a ship col-
lides with a bridge. And with higher water levels, ships are more likely to bump
into bridges as the bridges become too low. In the video in Fig. 4.6, you can see
a ship breaking down a bridge (for example 0:39–1:04) and a bridge breaking
down a ship (for example 1:19–1:32).
• Higher Chance of Vehicle-Pier Collisions The increased amount and density of
fog can also make it more likely that cars crash into the piers of the bridge. And
more precipitation like snow and rain can make roads more slippery so that more
cars crash into piers. Also, when the pavement is damaged due to climate change,
vehicles are more likely to crash into the bridge or each other.
Fig. 4.5
4.6 Extreme Natural Events Risks 31
• Higher Chance of Vehicle Accidents The same circumstances make it more

likely that vehicles bump or crash into each other. When a fire starts as a conse-
quence of a crash, this can damage the bridge.
• Higher Chance of Train-Pier Collisions When the rail track is damaged due to
climate change, the chance that a train collides with a pier increases. This of
course damages the bridge even further. In the video in Fig. 4.7, you can see how
a train got derailed on a track and destroyed a bridge.
4.6 Extreme Natural Events Risks
The sixth way climate change affects the safety of bridges is by increasing the risks
caused by extreme natural events, such as storms, wildfires, and floods:
• Increase in Intensity and Frequency of Storms The number of extreme storms
such as hurricanes and cyclones is expected to increase due to climate change.
They can severely damage or destroy bridges for example by lifting the
bridge deck.
• Increase in Intensity and Frequency of Wildfires Higher temperatures and
less precipitation caused by climate change can increase the number of wildfires.
This increases the risk that bridges are damaged through burning.
• Increase in Intensity And/or Frequency of Floods The number of floods is also
expected to increase due to climate change. Floods are one of the most damaging
extreme weather events to infrastructure including bridges. In the video in
Fig. 4.8, you can see a bridge collapsing due to floods and people having to take
a huge detour because of this (2:52–3:32).
Fig. 4.6
Fig. 4.7
Fig. 4.8
Fig. 4.9 Bridge maintenance and maintenance costs will increase due to climate change
4.7 Operational Risks
The seventh way climate change affects the safety of bridges is by increasing opera-
tional risks. These risks involve the amount of effort and money that needs to be put
into the bridge to keep it safe (see Fig. 4.9):
• Additional Operational Costs for Snow Removal In areas with increased
snowfall due to climate change, more effort needs to be put into removing snow
from the deck. This also increases the costs needed to prevent bridge blockages.
4.9 Conclusion 33
• More Frequent Temporary Bridge Restrictions With increased extreme

weather events or a larger number of maintenance time frames, bridges have to
be closed more often to guarantee safety. This means that users need to make a
detour more often.
• Increased Risk of Power Shortage The availability of renewable energy such as
wind energy can be affected by climate change. With less or too much wind,
wind turbines cannot operate, possibly causing a power shortage. Lack of elec-
tricity can affect the operation of bridges, for example when traffic lights don’t
work as this hinders the traffic flow on the bridge. Or movable bridges can’t be
moved anymore.
4.8 The Interconnection Between Risks
In addition to all these ways in which climate change affects the safety of bridges,
additional risks occur due to their interconnection:
• Increased Risks by Combined Risks While many risks can affect the safety of
bridges, they rarely occur alone. Instead, bridge failure is often a combination of
several factors occurring at the same time.
• Increased Risks by Inter-Dependencies Between Risks Risks do not only add
up, they can also cause further failure. For example, a landslide can cause the
expansion areas to close, so that future expansion damages the bridge.
4.9 Conclusion
So, the impact of climate change on the safety of bridges and our safety on the road
is not obvious to most. And yet, climate change affects bridges in many different
ways, so that they becomes less durable and more likely to collapse. As a conse-
quence, the harm that can be done is far-reaching.
Bridges are for example affected by climate change when extreme natural events
such as wildfires damage the bridge, when different environmental circumstances
such as higher temperatures impact the structure, and when weather conditions such
as wind put more strain on the bridge. And climate change can alter the area around
the bridge so that the bridge becomes unstable and can cause more accidents that
damage the bridge.
Also, before a bridge collapses, the service a bridge provides can be directly
affected, for example because the pavement gets damaged and remains unrepaired
because the costs to maintain the bridge have increased and cannot be provided.
And what makes it worse, combined risks and interdependent risks affect the safety
of bridges even further. As a consequence of this direct effect of climate change on
bridges, the safety of individuals on and below the bridge is put at risk.
As climate change has a large impact on our bridges, contributing to limiting climate
change is extremely important. Here are practical ideas of what you and I can do to
slow down climate change when traveling:
• Traveling long distances by train instead of flying
• Using carpooling instead of traveling in multiple vehicles
• Traveling by bus into the city center instead of traveling by car
• Cycling to work instead of driving by car
• Working from home instead of driving to work by car
And this is what we can do in other parts of daily life to slow down climate change:
• Eating vegetarian or vegan meals
• Buying as few products as possible
• Reducing energy consumption for example by using energy-efficient devices and
switching devices off when not in use
• Buying renewable energy from energy provider or generating renewable energy
ourselves through solar panels
Credit
Nasr, A., Björnsson, I., Honfi, D., Larsson Ivanov, O., Johansson, J., & Kjellström, E. (2021). A
review of the potential impacts of climate change on the safety and performance of bridges.
Sustainable and Resilient Infrastructure, 6(3–4), 192–212.
Figure Credits
Fig. 4.1 mykhailo pavlenko on Shutterstock

Fig. 4.2 Fehmiu Roffytavare on Shutterstock
Fig. 4.9 ChiccoDodiFC on Shutterstock
Chapter 5
Climate Solutions: Controlling CO2 Levels
Abstract Climate change is already having many negative consequences and is

expected to have many more negative consequences in the future. To mitigate these
consequences, it is important to reduce the amount of greenhouse gases we emit.
The main greenhouse gas that is causing about 2/3 of global temperature rise is
CO2. To control CO2 levels, it is necessary to reduce CO2 emissions and remove
CO2 from the atmosphere. Reducing CO2 emissions is possible with conventional
mitigation strategies, such as renewable energy, biofuel, or nuclear power. Negative
emission strategies are bioenergy carbon capture and storage, growing trees, and
creating biochar as it stores CO2 for a long time. Other possible strategies such as
storing carbon in soil, capturing CO2 from the atmosphere, fertilizing the ocean,
and restoring and constructing wetlands are possible as well but less promising.
Keywords Science, Science communication · Climate change · Climate change

solutions · CO2 emissions · Greenhouse gas · Decarbonization · Negative emissions
· Renewable energy · Nuclear power · Carbon capture and storage · Biofuel ·
Afforestation · Reforestation · Biochar · Soil carbon sequestration · Ocean
fertilization · Terrestrial weathering · Ocean alkalinity enhancement · Wetland
restoration · Climate change mitigation · Negative emissions technologies · Carbon
dioxide removal · Technologies
As climate change is already having many negative consequences and is expected to

have many more negative consequences in the future, it is very important to reduce
the amount of greenhouse gases we emit. Greenhouse gases are naturally present in
the atmosphere to some extent, but by for example burning fossil fuels, their levels
increase. They absorb the heat radiated by our planet, which causes the heat to stay
in the atmosphere instead of being released into outer space.
Credit: This chapter is based on the scientific article “Strategies for mitigation of climate change:
a review” by Samer Fawzy, Ahmed I. Osman, John Doran and David W. Rooney. (Full citation and
link available at the end of the chapter)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34479-4_5
36 5 Climate Solutions: Controlling CO2 Levels
Fig. 5.1 We can help our planet to cool down
The greenhouse gas that currently has the biggest impact and is causing about
2/3 of global temperature rise is CO2. That is why in the current debate about cli-
mate change, the focus is usually on reducing and compensating for CO2. But to be
able to mitigate this global temperature rise and other disastrous consequences, the
urgent question is “how?”. The answer is decarbonization. Decarbonization means
removing or reducing the amount of CO2 that is emitted into the atmosphere. This
is how we can control CO2 levels to cool our planet down (see Fig. 5.1):
5.1 Conventional Mitigation Strategies
The first way we can control CO2 levels is by using conventional climate change
mitigation strategies. Most of them are already well-established and risks related to
these strategies are well-managed.
5.1.1 Renewable Energy
The first conventional mitigation strategy is using renewable energy. Renewable

energy is energy from renewable sources. These sources are called renewable as the
source is available again after a relatively short period of time. This as compared to
for example fossil fuels, which take millions of years to be replenished. Examples
of renewable energy sources are:
5.1 Conventional Mitigation Strategies 37
Fig. 5.2 Using renewable energy instead of energy based on fossil fuels is an effective way to
reduce CO2 emissions
• solar energy (see Fig. 5.2),

• wind energy,
• tidal and wave energy,
• geothermal energy,
• biomass
These sources help mitigate climate change, as they prevent us from burning fossil
fuels. Burning fossil fuels is problematic, as large amounts of carbon that have been
stored away over a long period of time are suddenly emitted into the atmosphere as
CO2. As decarbonization through renewable energy is extremely effective, the
development of renewable energy projects should be seen as a top priority.
5.1.2 Nuclear Power
The second conventional mitigation strategy is using nuclear power. Nuclear power
is electricity generated from the heat that is created when heavy atoms are split into
lighter atoms in a nuclear reactor. This process is called nuclear fission (see Fig. 5.3).
As nuclear fission does not emit any CO2, using this method prevents yearly 1.2–2.4
Gt CO2 emissions when compared to power production with coal or natural gas.
This is equivalent to the CO2 emission of a plane flying non-stop for 550–650 years.
Although energy from nuclear fission is a low-carbon solution, it comes with sev-
eral major disadvantages. Disadvantages include high operational costs and radio-
active pollution.
Fig. 5.3 Comparison of nuclear fission and nuclear fusion
An alternative to nuclear fission as a renewable energy source is nuclear fusion

(see Fig. 5.3). In nuclear fusion, to opposite happens: two lighter atoms are com-
bined into one heavier atom. This also sets free a lot of energy in the form of heat;
our sun produces its heat with nuclear fission as well. Nuclear fusion can generate
four times more energy than nuclear fission from the same amount of input and
about 4 million times more energy than burning oil and coal. And it doesn’t produce
radioactive waste. Currently, the first test reactor is being built and is expected to be
up and running in 2035. This means it still takes many years before this source can
be used on a large scale.
5.1.3 Carbon Capture and Storage Utilization
The third conventional mitigation strategy is carbon capture and storage from pro-
cesses that are based on fossil fuels. Carbon capture and storage means that CO2
gases are separated, captured, turned into a liquid, and transported through pipelines
or with ships to reservoirs. Here, they are stored for a very long time. Alternatively,
the captured CO2 can be used to create other products, such as fuel. The goal of this
strategy is to be able to use fossil fuel but without CO2 emissions.
5.1 Conventional Mitigation Strategies 39
To be able to capture CO2, several promising technologies have been developed:

• pre-combustion technologies capture CO2 before the fossil fuel is burned
• post-combustion technologies capture CO2 after the fossil fuel is burned
• oxyfuel combustion technologies allow burning fossil fuel with pure oxygen
instead of normal air so that mostly CO2 and water are produced in the process.
This makes capturing CO2 easier than when CO2 is mixed with other gases.
Although this sounds promising, it currently still has several disadvantages that
need to be addressed. These disadvantages include safety risks when stored CO2
leaks, energy inefficiency when new products are produced, and high costs.
5.1.4 Alternative Fuels and Improving Energy Efficiency
The fourth conventional mitigation strategy is using alternative fuels and improving
energy efficiency. Alternative fuels to fossil fuels can be biofuels, for example bio-
fuels made from microalgae such as biodiesel (see Fig. 5.4). These alternatives have
in their lifecycles low or zero carbon emissions. For example, fuels based on micro-
algae have low carbon emissions over their lifecycle, as they capture CO2 from the
atmosphere during growth.
Also, energy efficiency must be improved. For example, in the production indus-
try, waste heat generated during the production process can be used to create elec-
tricity. In the transportation sector, energy efficiency can be achieved for example
with more efficient engines.
Fig. 5.4 Biodiesel is a more environmentally friendly fuel than conventional diesel
5.2 Negative Emission Strategies
The second way we can control CO2 levels is by using negative emission strategies.
Negative in this context means that more is removed than added. The goal is to
remove CO2 from the atmosphere.
5.2.1 Bioenergy Carbon Capture and Storage
The first negative emission strategy is bioenergy carbon capture and storage. This
means that bioenergy is extracted from biomass and the carbon is captured and
stored. Here, the principles of alternative fuel and carbon capture and storage utili-
zation are combined: biomass captures CO2 in the natural photosynthesis process
during growth, which is then used as fuel. Photosynthesis is the process of convert-
ing CO2 and water with the help of sunlight into nutrients. The CO2 emitted as a
result of burning the fuel is captured and stored. This strategy can significantly
contribute to reducing CO2 from the atmosphere.
5.2.2 Afforestation and Reforestation
The second negative emission strategy is afforestation and reforestation.

Afforestation means growing a new forest in an area that didn’t have a forest in the
past. Reforestation means planting new trees in an area that used to have a forest.
Depending on tree species, CO2 is taken up for 20–100 years until the trees are
matured. After that, CO2 storage rates slow down significantly.
Trees are the most effective, natural way to decarbonize. This is because they cap-
ture CO2 from the atmosphere and store it in their trunk, leaves, etc. Also after the tree,
leaves, etc. die, CO2 remains captured in the dead organic matter, which also ends up
in the soil through decomposition. As forests can store carbon for a very long time,
afforestation and reforestation are important strategies to mitigate climate change.
The video in Fig. 5.5 shows how seed balls are used to plant a lot of trees
in Kenya.
Fig. 5.5
5.2 Negative Emission Strategies 41
5.2.3 Biochar
The third negative emission strategy is creating biochar. Biochar is charcoal made
from biomass (see Fig. 5.6). Biomass can be for example agricultural waste, for-
estry leftovers, and crops. Creating biochar is carbon negative, as the plants used
CO2 from the atmosphere during growth, which remains captured in the biochar
instead of being released back into the atmosphere.
Also, biochar can be put to good use. For example, when put in soil, it improves
the soil structure, makes soil able to hold more water, and reduces erosion. As bio-
char takes about 4000 years to decompose, it is a very effective way to remove
carbon and store it for a long time.
5.2.4 Soil Carbon Sequestration
The fourth negative emission strategy is soil carbon sequestration. Carbon seques-
tration is the capture and storage of CO2; soil carbon sequestration means that CO2
is captured from the atmosphere by changing how land is used so that the soil can
store more carbon. How much carbon soil can store depends on the CO2 input
through for example fertilizers, and the CO2 output through for example soil distur-
bance. Methods to improve soil carbon sequestration include:
• crop rotation, which involves growing different crops in subsequent years on the
same land to prevent exhaustion of the soil
• zero-tillage, which means that the soil is untouched between harvesting a crop
and planting new crops
• nutrient management, which involves for example using fertilizers
• using biochar (see previous section)
• water management, which involves giving crops the amount of water they need
to thrive
Fig. 5.6 Biochar is created using for example pyrolysis, which is burning material without the use
of oxygen
Fig. 5.7
Although this strategy is effective, CO2 is not stored for a long time and once soil is
saturated, no more carbon can be stored. Depending on the climatic conditions, this
can take between 10 and 100 years. After saturation, continuous management is
needed to make sure that the carbon stays in the soil, instead of ending up in the
atmosphere again.
The video in Fig. 5.7 shows in more detail how carbon is stored in the soil and
what role fungi play (0:00–1:35).
5.2.5 Direct Air Carbon Capture and Storage
The fifth negative emission strategy is direct air carbon capture and storage. Direct cap-
ture and storage means that CO2 is extracted from the outside air. This is done by bring-
ing air in contact with chemicals called sorbents. These chemicals can either absorb CO2
by dissolving it when the sorbent is liquid or adsorb CO2 by binding it when the sorbent
is solid. The captured CO2 can be stored in reservoirs or used to create products. The
video in Fig. 5.8 explains how direct air carbon capture works (2:48–3:38).
Even though this sounds promising, a major disadvantage of this method is that it
requires a lot of energy to operate the fans, pumps, etc., to compress the CO2, and to
reverse the sorbents once they are saturated. Another major disadvantage is that it is
very expensive to build a plant. As it is easier to capture CO2 from highly concentrated
gases, capturing carbon before it is released into the atmosphere is more effective.
5.2.6 Ocean Fertilization
The sixth negative emission strategy is ocean fertilization. Ocean fertilization means
adding nutrients to the surface of the ocean. Normally, nutrients in the ocean come
from and are limited by the decomposition of marine animals and plants. By adding
nutrients, more biological activity is promoted, which makes it possible to capture
more CO2. For example, microscopic organisms called phytoplankton can use these
nutrients to grow. This is helpful as they are important for capturing and storing CO2
in the ocean, just like plants do on land. From the surface, their biomass is trans-
ported into the deep ocean.
5.2 Negative Emission Strategies 43
Fig. 5.8
Fig. 5.9
In the video in Fig. 5.9, you can see an example of technology for ocean fertiliza-
tion and how it works.
5.2.7 Enhanced Terrestrial Weathering
The seventh negative emission strategy is enhanced terrestrial weathering. Terrestrial

weathering is a natural process, which means that silicate rocks decompose. During
this decomposition, a chemical reaction uses CO2 from the atmosphere and releases
different types of ions. Ions are atoms with a positive or negative charge. These ions
end up in groundwater and eventually reach the ocean where they are stored.
Enhanced terrestrial weathering involves the same process, but is sped up by
grinding the silicon rock into small pieces. The much larger surface makes it pos-
sible to capture more CO2.
In the video in Fig. 5.10, terrestrial weathering and enhanced terrestrial weather-
ing are explained (0:14–2:05).
5.2.8 Ocean Alkalinity Enhancement
The eighth negative emission strategy is ocean alkalinity enhancement. Ocean alka-
linity enhancement is similar to ocean fertilization, but in this case, alkaline sub-
stances are added to the water instead of nutrients. Alkalinity is the opposite of
Fig. 5.10
Fig. 5.11
acidity. This is helpful, as more chemical reactions can take place that capture CO2
and store it in an inorganic form when the ocean’s alkalinity is higher. Alkalinity can
be increased using different methods, including:
• enhanced terrestrial weathering (see previous section)
• adding alkaline silicate rocks directly into the ocean
• adding lime to the ocean surface
• accelerated weathering of limestone
Ocean alkalinity enhancement, ocean alkalinity and acidity, and CO2 capture and
storage are nicely explained in the video in Fig. 5.11 (0:00–2:42).
5.2.9 Wetland Restoration and Construction
The ninth negative emission strategy is wetland restoration and construction.

Wetlands are just like forests able to capture and store a lot of carbon with the help
of photosynthesis. Examples of wetlands are peatlands, mangrove forests, tidal
marshes (see Fig. 5.12), and seagrass meadows. A seagrass meadow is an area under
water covered by seagrass.
Although wetlands can capture and store a lot of CO2, they also emit non-CO2
greenhouse gases such as methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O). When wetlands
are constructed and restored, this should be evaluated for the specific site to make
sure the wetland is a carbon sink and does not accidentally become a greenhouse
gas source.
5.4 How We Can Take Action 45
Fig. 5.12 Tidal marsh
5.3 Conclusion
So, to be able to mitigate the negative consequences of climate change, it is impor-

tant to control CO2 levels. This is helpful because these levels are currently rapidly
increasing over a few decades due to human CO2 emissions, as opposed to thou-
sands of years due to natural changes. Controlling CO2 levels is possible by reduc-
ing CO2 emissions and removing CO2 from the atmosphere.
Reducing CO2 emissions is possible with conventional mitigation strategies.
Promising strategies are using renewable energy, biofuel, or nuclear power through
fusing atoms as an alternative to fossil fuels. Renewable energy is already becoming
widespread, biofuel is available but not widespread yet, and the application of
nuclear fusion to generate energy on a large scale will still take many years.
The alternative of removing CO2 from the atmosphere is possible with negative
emission strategies. Promising strategies are bioenergy carbon capture and storage
as it combines two methods, growing trees as trees are the most effective natural
way to decarbonize, and creating biochar as it stores CO2 for a very long time.
As CO2 emissions impact CO2 levels, which in turn speeds up climate change, it is
important that we contribute to reducing our CO2 emissions in daily life. Here are
practical ideas of what you and I can do to reduce CO2 emissions:
Fig. 5.13
• Supporting reforestation by planting trees

• Supporting reforestation by making and/or spreading seed balls; the video in
Fig. 5.13 explains how you can make your own seed balls.
• Driving a car based on biofuel or other renewable energy sources instead of fos-
sil fuels
• Carpooling instead of driving in separate cars
• Buying renewable energy from energy company
• Traveling by train instead of flying
• Driving a smaller rather than larger car
• Removing snow from car before driving off
• Driving at constant speed
• Taking foot from accelerator pedal instead of braking
Credit
Fawzy, S., Osman, A. I., Doran, J., & Rooney, D. W. (2020). Strategies for mitigation of climate
change: a review. Environmental Chemistry Letters, 18(6), 2069–2094.
Figure Credits
Fig. 5.1 kpboonjit on Shutterstock

Fig. 5.2 fotohunter on Shutterstock
Fig. 5.3 VectorMine on Shutterstock
Fig. 5.4 EVANATTOZA on Shutterstock
Fig. 5.12 Maria T Hoffman on Shutterstock
Chapter 6
Climate Solutions: Controlling Methane
Levels
Abstract Methane is the second most important greenhouse gas as it has so far
caused about 1/3 of the rise in global temperature. As it is a 28 times stronger green-
house gas than CO2 and further temperature increases will cause permafrost to melt
so that more methane will be released, it is important to control methane levels and
reduce methane emissions urgently. This can be achieved by doing more research to
understand and find methane sources so that appropriate action can be taken. Also,
regulations need to be put in place to prevent methane emissions. Additionally, wet-
lands need to be protected and farmers need to feed their cattle differently and deal
with manure differently so that less methane is emitted into the atmosphere.

solutions · Methane emissions · Greenhouse gas · Permafrost · Research ·
Regulations · Wetlands · Agriculture
While the greenhouse gas CO2 strongly contributes to climate change, it is not the
only important greenhouse gas. Another important one is methane, which has
caused about 1/3 of the rise in global temperature. Compared to CO2, methane stays
in the atmosphere a lot shorter (about a decade versus thousands of years). But ris-
ing levels of methane are still extremely worrisome. This is because methane can
store more heat radiated by our planet and is therefore a 28 times stronger green-
house gas than CO2.
It is also extremely worrisome that further temperature increases will cause per-
mafrost to melt (see Fig. 6.1). Permafrost is ground frozen for more than two years
in a row. When it thaws, crystals of frozen methane that are trapped will melt and be
released into the atmosphere. While methane levels are currently already rising
quickly and at the highest level in over 800,000 years, the melting of permafrost will
cause these levels to rise even quicker.
Credit: This chapter is based on three scientific articles by Phoebe Barnard, Angela Lafuente, and
Rabia Munsif and their colleagues. (Full citations and links available at the end of the chapter).

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34479-4_6
48 6 Climate Solutions: Controlling Methane Levels
Fig. 6.1 Methane gas bubbles trapped in ice
Fortunately, methane has a short lifespan of only 12 years, which means that
reducing methane levels will reduce environmental damage in a relatively short
period of time. This is how we can control methane levels:
6.1 Research
The first initiative we can take to control methane levels is doing further research.
This is important as science isn’t able to explain the current rapid rise in methane
levels yet. These rising levels may be related to Arctic warming, where reservoirs of
methane and carbon are stored in the permafrost and release massive amounts of
methane. But currently, too little data has been collected to confirm this. And most
scientists’ knowledge is descriptive, which is not enough to allow a breakthrough in
our understanding.
To reach this breakthrough, collecting information and researching methane
sources and mitigation is essential to provide more information on how to take
action. Also, this will help us better predict whether these (rising) methane levels
could be catastrophic on a 10 to 100-year timescale. That is where research on
methane levels and how they can be reduced to pre-industrial levels as rapidly as
possible should focus on:
• Developing natural processes to reduce methane, such as methane-eating bacte-
ria called methanotrophs. This is a promising approach as these bacteria already
6.2 Agriculture 49
Fig. 6.2 Map showing the annual increase of methane emissions relative to the global mean
annual increase
live in drylands all over the world. Drylands are areas in which water is scarce
and cover almost half of the Earth’s land surface
• Monitoring worldwide methane levels to document both problem areas and
progress (see Fig. 6.2). Data from for example the Sentinel satellites and
MethaneSat can be used. MethaneSat will especially be helpful because it spe-
cializes in measuring methane, making it possible to provide data faster, cheaper,
and in more detail. For example, it cannot only measure methane on a global
level but also detect emissions from many small sources. And by keeping track
of how emissions are changing, solutions can more easily be prioritized. Its
launch is planned for October 2023.
6.2 Agriculture
The second initiative we can take to control methane levels is controlling methane
emissions from agriculture. This is because agriculture is the largest man-made
source of methane, especially raising animals for meat and dairy. For example, cows
burp and fart methane, as methane is produced by the fermentation of grass and
other vegetation in their stomachs. Fermentation is the chemical breakdown of a
substance by bacteria, yeasts, or other microorganisms. And when cows live in a
stable, also a lot of methane is produced when urine and feces mix; 75% more than
when they live outside and urine and feces are spread in the field.
Another source of methane in agriculture is the decomposition of plant materials.

Methane is produced by microorganisms when they decompose organic material
without oxygen. This happens for example in landfills and open stockpiles.
This is how these methane sources in agriculture can be minimized:
• Feeding cows differently, for example giving them seaweed instead of grass
• Handling manure differently, for example making sure oxygen can enter a stock-
pile and gases are captured in a biogas plant
• Changing grazing habits, for example to make sure that feces and urine remain
separated as much as possible
• Reducing food waste to increase agricultural efficiency
• Charging mitigation fees for high levels of methane production
• Changing how crops grow, for example when growing rice by selecting good rice
varieties, fertilizers, and water systems
• Eating less meat and dairy to reduce required livestock
6.3 Wetlands
The third initiative we can take to control methane levels is by protecting wetlands
(see Fig. 6.3). Wetlands naturally produce about 30% of methane worldwide. This
happens when wetland plants decompose. But this natural process is very slow, so
methane is also produced slowly. When destroying wetlands, this process is sped up
a lot. So, protecting wetlands is an effective strategy to limit any further rapid rise
in methane levels.
Fig. 6.3 Wetland

6.4 Regulations
The fourth initiative we can take to control methane levels is implementing regula-
tions. These regulations set up by governments should target sources of methane,
such as agriculture, industry, and oil and gas production. Examples of regulations to
limit methane emissions are:
• Requiring methane from industrial emissions to be reduced and removed using
available technologies
• Adopting policies, practices, and technologies to remove methane from the
atmosphere
• Requiring households and buildings to use electricity based on renewable
energy
6.5 Conclusion
So, to be able to mitigate the negative consequences of climate change, it is

important to control methane levels. This is because methane is the second most
important greenhouse gas after CO2. To be able to achieve this, it is first impor-
tant to do more research. This research will help us understand and find methane
sources.
With an increased understanding of methane sources, it is possible to develop
new ways to control emissions, accompanied by regulations to limit methane emis-
sions. For example, wetlands can be protected. Or in agriculture, farmers can be
required to feed cows differently and deal with manure differently, so that less meth-
ane is produced.
As controlling methane emissions is helpful to mitigate climate change, it is impor-

tant to reduce methane emissions in daily life as well. Here are practical ideas of
what you and I can do to reduce methane emissions:
• Reducing the amount of meat and dairy we eat
• Supporting regulations that reduce methane emissions
• Converting energy use to renewable resources whenever possible
• Composting organic waste instead of sending it to landfill
Credit
Barnard, P., Moomaw, W. R., Fioramonti, L., Laurance, W. F., Mahmoud, M. I., O’Sullivan, J.,
et al. (2021). World scientists’ warnings into action, local to global. Science Progress, 104(4),
00368504211056290.
Lafuente, A., & Cano-Díaz, C. (2022). Can methane-eating bacteria in drylands help us reduce
greenhouse gases?. Soil biodiversity.
MethaneSat 20201. (n.d.). MethaneSAT. https://www.methanesat.org
Munsif, R., Zubair, M., Aziz, A., & Zafar, M. N. (2021). Industrial air emission pollution: potential
sources and sustainable mitigation. In Environmental emissions. IntechOpen.
Figure Credits
Fig. 6.1 Strelyuk at Shutterstock

Fig. 6.2 “Methane growth anomaly ESA24326775” by European Space Agency is licensed
under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Methane_growth_anomaly_
ESA24326775.jpeg
Author: https://open.esa.int/
License: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/igo/deed.en
Fig. 6.3 Irina Wilhauk at Shutterstock
Part II
Pollution
Pollution issues related to the second planetary crisis is facilitated by the develop-
ment of the industrial and agricultural sectors, rapid urban expansion, and huge
population growth during the last few decades. Pollution means that our environ-
ment, including soil, water, and air, gets contaminated with different types of harm-
ful substances.
A well-known type of pollution is plastic pollution. Plastic pollution is unfortu-
nately very common today, caused by plastics being mass-produced since the 1950s
but only 10% being recycled. In 2013, we produced 300 million tons of plastic, and
it is expected that we will produce 33 billion tons by 2050. To compare, this was
about the weight of 53 Great Pyramids of Giza in 2013 and is expected to be 5,739
Great Pyramids of Giza in 2050. This plastic often ends up in the environment,
where larger pieces of plastic waste break down into tiny particles when the plastic
Fig. 1 Microplastics
54 II Pollution
gets damaged, or due to chemical reactions. These tiny particles are called micro-
plastics or nanoplastics. Microplastics are plastic particles smaller than 5 mm
(0.2 inches) and nanoplastics smaller than 1 μm (0.04 μinch; see Fig. 1).
Another well-known type of pollution is air pollution. Air pollution is any chem-
ical, physical, or biological contamination of the air. It can have different forms—as
gases, liquid droplets, or tiny solid particles—and can have a serious health impact.
The consequence is more than three million deaths worldwide every year, two times
the number of people killed in traffic accidents. Some of the most dangerous pollut-
ants are:
• Carbon monoxide (CO) is a gas emitted from the incomplete combustion of fos-
sil fuels. Symptoms of inhaling carbon monoxide include headache, dizziness,
weakness, nausea, vomiting, and loss of consciousness. It can even poison us
directly when the concentration is high enough.
• Smog is a mix of water droplets with other pollutants. The word “smog” is the
contraction of smoke fog. It is dangerous and can be found in many cities, espe-
cially in cities with a lot of car traffic. Car traffic causes smog because dust from
for example car tires and asphalt mixes with car fumes and air (see Fig. 2). It
becomes even more dangerous when it stays in the same place, for example when
a city is located in a dip without much wind. This is because it diminishes lung
function, can cause asthma, and increases the number of premature deaths.
• Soot from exhaust gases and tire particles are solid particles that can end up in
our lungs, causing damage to lungs, hearts, and nervous systems, and even cancer.
Fig. 2 City covered in smog. (Warsaw, Poland)

II Pollution 55
And this type of pollution is increasing, as more and more people move from rural
areas into cities.
Another well-known, but less often discussed type of pollution is heavy metal
pollution. Heavy metal pollution is highly critical, because it has a large, negative
impact on human health, especially when heavy metals enter our body in higher
concentrations. Heavy metals are metals with a relatively high density, or a relativey
high atomic weight. Examples of heavy metals are cadmium, nickel, lead, and
manganese.
A less well-known and yet widely present type of pollution is light pollution.
Light pollution means a brighter night sky caused by light from man-made sources
such as street lights (see Fig. 3). It may be less well-known because it is not a sub-
stance, like the previous types of pollutants. And yet, it should not be overlooked as
currently about 80% of the world’s population is already exposed to light-polluted
night skies. And as the world population is growing, this percentage is growing
as well.
Fig. 3 Difference between the sky in a dark area (left) and an area with light pollution (right)
56 Pollution
Figure Credits
Fig. 1 chayanuphol at Shutterstock

Fig. 2 Martyn Jandula on Shutterstock
Fig. 3 “Light pollution It’s not pretty” by Jeremy Stanley is licensed under CC BY 2.0
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Light_pollution_It’s_not_pretty.jpg
Author: https://www.flickr.com/photos/79297308@N00
License: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/deed.en
Chapter 7
How Plastic Pollution Impacts our
Environment
Abstract Plastics often stay in the environment for a long time, especially fossil-
fuel-based plastics as they don’t degrade. For example, in the Great Pacific Garbage
Patch 79,000 tonnes of floating plastic have gathered in a 1.6 million square km
(about 618,000 square miles) area. Instead of degrading, these plastics stay trapped
until they break down into microplastics. Both large and small plastic particles can
harm the environment and animals. That is why alternatives have been developed
that don’t stay around as long. These are biodegradable plastics. Biodegradable
plastics are more environmentally friendly but it is still important to prevent littering
and properly manage waste because they often don’t break down as well as we think.
Keywords Science · Science communication · Pollution · Plastic pollution ·

Pollution consequences · Biodegradability · Biodegradable plastic · Microplastics ·
Great Pacific Garbage Patch · Decomposition · Degradation · Bioplastics ·
Biodegradable products · Misconception · Sustainability · Biopolymer ·
Biodegradation
Already many years ago, it became clear that plastics harm our environment. This is
because they end up as microplastics and stay in the environment for a very long
time. For example, a huge amount of this plastic enters the ocean via rivers every
year. Part of this plastic ends up in the Great Pacific Garbage Patch (see Fig. 7.1),
where it keeps floating around in circles for many years. This Garbage Patch is 1.6
million square km (about 618,000 square miles) in size, which is about three times
the size of France and larger than India! Most of the 79,000 tonnes of floating plas-
tic stay trapped until it breaks down into microplastics. When that happens, it seems
to have disappeared but may have been swallowed by an animal, meaning it will
return to the environment when the animal dies and degrades.
Apart from staying around for a long time, another problem is that plastics are
often so light that they easily float to other areas. This means that plastic
Credit: This chapter is based on two scientific articles by Shinhyeong Choe and Laurent
C. M. Lebreton and their colleagues. (Full citation and link available at the end of the chapter).

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34479-4_7
58 7 How Plastic Pollution Impacts our Environment
Fig. 7.1 The Great Pacific Garbage Patch is a huge area polluted with floating plastics
contamination easily spreads, even to extreme habitats for example 6 km (20,000 ft)
underwater in the Pacific Ocean.
Because of these long-term negative consequences, alternatives have been devel-
oped, including biodegradable plastic. This type is more environmentally friendly
than conventional plastics: it can be decomposed with the help of microorganisms
instead of being fragmented into microplastics. Just like a corpse is decomposed
into minerals by microorganisms instead of being crumbled down into single cells.
But even though this sounds promising, also biodegradable plastic can stay around
for a long time and harm the environment. This is why:
7.1 Biodegradability Depends on Environmental Factors
The first reason why biodegradable plastic may degrade less well than expected and
therefore still affects the environment for a long time is that biodegradability
depends on environmental factors. One important factor is which microorganisms
are present to decompose the plastic. Helpful microorganisms are for example bac-
teria and fungi. Other important factors are temperature and humidity, and the
amount of sunlight and oxygen.
7.2 Biodegradability in a Laboratory Versus Natural Environments 59
For example, the importance of temperature becomes clear when looking at a

compost bin: in winter when it’s cold, the pile of food scraps only gets higher. In
summer, the pile shrinks again.
As different parts of the world have different environmental circumstances, bio-
degradable products degrade better in some areas than in others.
7.2 Biodegradability in a Laboratory Versus

Natural Environments
The second reason why biodegradable plastic may degrade less well than expected
and therefore still affects the environment for a long time is that biodegradability is
different in a laboratory compared to a natural environment. Usually, how well bio-
degradable plastics decompose is tested in laboratories. But the circumstances in
these laboratories are often very different from circumstances in the real world. For
example:
• The temperature is usually constant in a laboratory but changes during the day
in nature.
• The light in a laboratory from a light bulb usually doesn’t contain UV radiation,
whereas sunlight does. And in nature, the amount of light differs over time: not
only because of day and night but also because of shadows and for example
being underwater.
• The shape of the plastic is optimized for laboratory tests, for example by making
the surface as large as possible. By doing this, microorganisms have more space
to do their job and are quicker (see Fig. 7.2).
To give you an idea of how much better degradation works in the laboratory com-
pared to the real world, the graph shows how much biodegradable plastic degrades
Fig. 7.2 Microorganisms

60 7 How Plastic Pollution Impacts our Environment
Fig. 7.3 Average degradation of plastic per day in different environments
on average per day (see Fig. 7.3). The higher the bar, the quicker the degradation. It
shows that degradation in the laboratory is about three times as fast compared to the
sea/ocean and about four times as fast compared to soil. That is why producers often
overestimate how biodegradable their plastics are.
7.3 Misconceptions
As biodegradable plastic degrades less well because of different environmental cir-

cumstances and different circumstances between the laboratory and natural envi-
ronment, misconceptions can be brought into the world. This is because we as
consumers assume plastic can be fully degraded when it is labeled as such and are
probably unaware that the biodegradability is not as good as we think. This can
result in more polluting behavior: when we assume that nature will take care of our
waste, it is more tempting to litter. This results in more plastic trash in nature, which
can nevertheless harm the environment for a long time.
7.4 Conclusion
So, plastic pollution negatively affects the environment for a long time because it
takes many years to disappear. This is especially the case for fossil-fuel-based plas-
tics because they don’t degrade. Instead, this plastic breaks down into tiny particles
which can do animals harm over and over again, because they return to nature after
an animal dies.
Credit 61
More environmentally friendly alternatives, such as biodegradable plastic are

better because they damage the environment less. But still, we should prevent litter-
ing biodegradable plastic and properly manage waste as it often is not as biodegrad-
able as we expect and therefore can still harm the environment for a long time.
As plastic pollution impacts the environment for a very long time, it is important to
limit the amount of plastic pollution. Here are practical ideas of what you and I can
do to reduce plastic pollution in daily life:
• Preventing littering and disposing of plastic waste in bins
• Doing a beach cleanup to prevent plastic from being washed into the ocean
• Donating to initiatives that remove plastic pollution or prevent plastic from enter-
ing rivers and oceans
• Minimizing or refraining from using single-use plastic products, such as single
use straws and plastic bags
• Using biodegradable alternatives to plastic products, such as paper or reusable
cotton bags
Credit
Choe, S., Kim, Y., Won, Y., & Myung, J. (2021). Bridging Three Gaps in Biodegradable Plastics:
Misconceptions and Truths About Biodegradation. Frontiers in Chemistry, 9(671), 750.
On Great Pacific Garbage Patch:
Lebreton, L., Slat, B., Ferrari, F., Sainte-Rose, B., Aitken, J., Marthouse, R., Hajbane, S., Cunsolo,
S., Schwarz, A., Levivier, A., Noble, K., Debeljak, P., Maral, H., Schoeneich-Argent, R.,
Brambini, R., & Reisser, J. (2018). Evidence that the Great Pacific Garbage Patch is rapidly
accumulating plastic. Scientific Reports, 8(1), 1–15.
Figure Credits
Fig. 7.1 Elime on Shutterstock

Fig. 7.2 Christoph Burgstedt on Shutterstock
Chapter 8
How Plastic Pollution Impacts Aquatic
Animals
Abstract Plastics are not only harmful to the environment but they also harm
aquatic animals. More than 700 species of aquatic organisms have been shown to be
impacted by plastics, ranging from tiny animals such as water fleas and shrimps to
massive animals such as sharks and whales. This is because microplastics can carry
pollutants into aquatic environments, such as chemicals and heavy metals, as well
as microorganisms such as antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Also, the plastic itself can
harm animals, for example when it is toxic or when it causes issues with food and
nutrient intake. These immediate effects can have far-reaching consequences, for
example when plastic enters the food chain and causes animals to swallow plastic
when eating other animals.
Keywords Science · Science communication · Pollution · Plastic pollution ·

Pollution consequences · Microplastics · Aquatic organisms · Marine environment
· Phagostimulants · Toxicity · Nanoplastics · Food chain
While plastics float around in aquatic environments, as in the Great Pacific Garbage
Patch, or crumble down into micro- and nanoplastics, they not only harm the envi-
ronment, they also harm aquatic animals. Already more than 700 species of aquatic
organisms have been shown to be impacted by plastics! These organisms range from
tiny animals such as water fleas (see Fig. 8.1) and shrimps to larger animals such as
turtles and penguins, and massive animals such as whales and sharks.
One reason why plastics impact aquatic animals is that microplastics can carry
pollutants into aquatic environments, such as chemicals and heavy metals. This is
possible because plastics tend to repel water or can become charged so that chemi-
cals and metals can stay on the surface.
Another reason why plastics impact aquatic animals is that microplastics can
carry microorganisms into aquatic environments. Some of these microorganisms
are harmful, such as antibiotic-resistant bacteria. This is also because the surface
Credit: This chapter is based on two scientific articles by Sen Du and Merlin N. Issac and their
colleagues. (Full citations and link available at the end of the chapter)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34479-4_8
64 8 How Plastic Pollution Impacts Aquatic Animals
Fig. 8.1 Water flea.

(Daphnia Pulex)
repels water. The rougher the surface and the more the plastic repels water, the more
microorganisms can attach.
A third reason why plastics impact aquatic animals is that the plastic itself can
harm animals. This is how (micro-)plastics negatively impact aquatic organisms:
8.1 Affecting Food Intake
The first way (micro-)plastics negatively impact aquatic organisms is by affecting

food intake. This is because (micro-)plastics are being misidentified as food (see
Fig. 8.2):
• Plastic can look like food. For example, plastic bags are seen as jellyfish. Also,
aquatic organisms mistakenly eat microplastics of the same size as their food.
• Plastic gets covered by real food. For example, when algae start to grow on plas-
tic particles or when an animal eats an organism with plastic in its body. In this
case, the plastic is hidden from view and smells like normal food.
• Plastic is invisible. For example, animals filtering plankton from water uninten-
tionally filter microplastics as well.
• Plastic can have attractive chemical and biological characteristics. For example,
corals are attracted to eating plastic, because plastic releases phagostimulants.
Phagostimulants are substances like sugar that stimulate further intake.
Once these (micro-)plastics accumulate in their guts, they hinder further food con-
sumption. Sometimes even to a point where the stomach is so full of plastic that
normal food doesn’t fit anymore.
8.3 Causing Damage Due to Toxicity 65
Fig. 8.2 Plastic can accumulate in the body
8.2 Impacting Growth and Development
The second way (micro-)plastics negatively impact aquatic organisms is by affect-

ing their growth and development. This is because plastic doesn’t provide nutrients.
Also, when the organism’s digestive tract gets blocked, they feel full up and eat less.
This eventually depletes stored energy and restricts their growth and development.
For example, when a copepod (see Fig. 8.3), a microscopic aquatic organism, is
exposed to polystyrene of 20 μm (0,78 μinch), its biomass is reduced by 40%, and
as a consequence, its energy decreases, its growth is inhibited, and it eventually
dies. Something similar happens to for example lobsters, fish and plankton, and
aquatic plants, such as different algal species.
8.3 Causing Damage Due to Toxicity
The third way (micro-)plastics negatively impact aquatic organisms is by damaging

them due to toxicity. Plastics, especially polyethylene, are toxic for several reasons:
• Most often, microplastics are toxic because of the additives that are used in the
production and processing of plastics. Additives are substances that are added to
products to improve or preserve them. In the case of plastic, they are added to
prevent the plastic from becoming hard and brittle at low temperatures, or soft
and sticky at high temperatures.
Fig. 8.3 A cyclops, which is a copepod
• Also, microplastics can stick to other pollutants including hazardous toxic com-
pounds. These include heavy metals, some organic pollutants, and pesticides.
When an organism eats the microplastic, these toxic pollutants are released into
its body. The physical and chemical characteristics of microplastics such as sur-
face area and water-repelling capacity are responsible for deciding how much
and what type of chemical pollutant can stick to the plastic particle.
• A third reason is that microplastics can break down even further into nanoplas-
tics, which are even more toxic to organisms: because they are so small, they can
enter cells and affect cell metabolism.
Although the toxicity of plastic differs between organisms, the consequences of the
toxicity are that the organisms’ growth, metabolism, and feeding patterns are
affected. For example, the amount of chlorophyll in algae decreases. Chlorophyll is
the pigment that makes plants look green. But also the organisms’ genes, nervous
system, or reproduction system can be damaged. For example, oysters exposed to
polystyrene produce fewer and lower quality eggs, and the speed and number of
released sperms decrease. Also, copepods produce fewer and smaller eggs when
exposed to microplastics for a longer time.
8.4 Entering the Food Chain
The fourth way (micro-)plastics negatively impact aquatic organisms is by entering

the food chain. This means that microplastics end up in organisms that don’t eat the
plastic themselves but eat food that contains this plastic. For example, when shrimps
Fig. 8.4 How plastic ends up on our plates
eat zooplanktons that contain nanoplastics, these shrimps indirectly consume

plastic.
Important here is that the food chain does not stop in aquatic environments (see
Fig. 8.4). For example, we as humans can eat shrimps that have eaten contaminated
zooplanktons. This way, we consume plastic too. This means that not only aquatic
organisms but also all other organisms can be affected by plastic waste. For exam-
ple, tiny plastic particles have been found in our organs, in our blood, in cows’ milk,
and in livestock meat.
8.5 Conclusion
So, (micro-)plastics not only affect the environment, they also harm aquatic ani-
mals. This harm can be done immediately when plastics are toxic to these animals.
Also, when (micro-)plastics cause issues with food and nutrient intake, they possi-
bly let animals starve to death.
And what makes it worse, these immediate effects have far-reaching conse-
quences. For example, plastics can enter the food chain, so that animals who never
ate plastics themselves can swallow plastic when eating other animals that have
plastic inside them. This shouldn’t be taken lightly, as we are in the food chain as
well, so this includes us when we for example eat fish!
As plastic pollution causes problems for aquatic animals, it is important to limit

plastic pollution as much as possible. Here are practical ideas of what you and I can
do to reduce plastic pollution:
• Discarding plastic in bins, instead of littering
• Preventing plastics from entering the ocean by for example participating in beach
cleanups
• Removing plastics from the bottom of the sea when swimming/snorkeling,

which is called strawkling
• Minimizing or refraining from single-use plastic products
• Using biodegradable alternatives to plastic products, such as paper bags
Credit
Du, S., et al. (2021). Environmental fate and impacts of microplastics in aquatic ecosystems: a
review. RSC Advances, 11(26), 15762–15784.
Issac, M. N., & Kandasubramanian, B. (2021). Effect of microplastics in water and aquatic sys-
tems. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 28(16), 19544–19562.
Figure Credits
Fig. 8.1 Lebendkulturen.de on Shutterstock

Fig. 8.2 Pogorelova Olga on Shutterstock
Fig. 8.3 “Oczlik” by MarekMiś is licensed under CC BY 4.0
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Oczlik.jpg
Author: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:MarekMiś
Fig. 8.4 Siberian Art on Shutterstock
Chapter 9
How Light Pollution Impacts Our
Environment
Abstract While plastic pollution can stay in the environment for a long time, other
types of pollution only stay around for a short time. For example light pollution,
which is gone as soon as the light source is switched off. But as many light sources
remain turned on at night due to the growing human population and reduced costs
for artificial light, the negative impact on ecosystems near urban areas is growing.
This is possible because artificial light at night impacts the natural periodic cycles
of animals and plants, changes animals’ behavior, can harm plants, and impacts the
functioning of whole ecosystems. These changes can have far-reaching conse-
quences, so light pollution should not be overlooked.
Keywords Science · Science communication · Pollution · Light pollution ·

Pollution consequences · Ecosystem · Artificial light at night · Food chain ·
Nightscape · Urban areas
While plastic pollution can harm the environment for a long time, other types of
pollution only stay around for a short time. An example is light pollution, which is
gone as soon as the light source is switched off. But as artificial light at night ben-
efits human lives in many ways, many light sources remain turned on. Benefits
include making streets and dark spaces such as parks safer for pedestrians and
cyclists and making it possible to work or enjoy social activities even after nightfall.
Instead, light pollution increases due to the growing population and reduced costs
for artificial light (see Fig. 9.1).
Unfortunately, while artificial light at night has many benefits for us, it has a
huge negative impact on the ecosystems near urban areas. This is how light pollu-
tion negatively impacts ecosystems around urban areas:
Credit: This chapter is based on the scientific article “A review of the effects of artificial light at
night in urban areas on the ecosystem level and the remedial measures” by Justine Mushobozi
Katabaro, Yonghong Yan, Tao Hu, Quan Yu, Xiang Cheng. (Full citation and link available at the
end of the chapter)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34479-4_9
70 9 How Light Pollution Impacts Our Environment
Fig. 9.1 Price development for artificial light in UK pounds
9.1 Impact on Animals
The first way in which light pollution can negatively impact the ecosystems around
urban areas is by affecting animals in these areas. Animals are affected because
natural periodic cycles are used to trigger biological activities and behaviors.
Natural periodic cycles related to light are day versus night, day-length variation
throughout the different seasons, and the monthly lunar calendar. The peaks of these
cycles become less obvious when natural darkness and lack of light at night are
disturbed.
When the peaks of natural cycles are less obvious, animals’ biological activities
and behaviors get disrupted and they get confused. One reason is that the production
and regulation of the hormone melatonin get disturbed. In humans, melatonin is
produced when it gets dark and helps us fall asleep.
One of the biological activities that gets disrupted involves reproduction: many
species use light to recognize seasonal cycles and the best time for them to repro-
duce. With light pollution, it might be unclear when to reproduce or they can’t
find a mate.
For example, fireflies emit flashes of light in their abdomen at night to attract
mating partners (see Fig. 9.2). With light pollution, their lights are less well visible
and their communication gets disturbed.
One of the behavioral changes that gets disrupted involves migration: many ani-
mals need darkness for orientation. With light-contaminated night skies, they can
become disoriented or bump into something, which changes their migration behav-
ior. Also, their survival can be at risk, especially when the light pollution makes it
harder to hide from predators, find food, or more likely to get crushed or injured
by a car.
9.2 Impact on Plants 71
Fig. 9.2 Fireflies communicate with light which becomes less well visible with light pollution
Fig. 9.3 Baby turtles making their way to the ocean for the first time, using light for orientation
For example, turtles who just hatched from their eggs need a dark night to be able
to identify the dim lights on the horizon as the sun starts to rise (see Fig. 9.3).
Because of artificial light at night, these delicate sunbeams are less well visible or
even invisible, so they are unable to find their way into the sea. As a consequence,
more hatchlings get disoriented, lose their energy, get dehydrated, are caught by
predators, and die.
9.2 Impact on Plants
The second way in which light pollution can negatively impact the ecosystems
around urban areas is by affecting plants in these areas. Plants also have natural
cycles that are triggered by light patterns. By losing track of the day and night, sea-
sonal, and lunar cycles, plants are affected in many ways. For example, some plants
Fig. 9.4 These buds have been caught by the cold
continue growing during winter because of light pollution, which makes them
weaker and more likely to die because of the cold. Other plants grow flowers before
spring, making it harder to deal with harmful microorganisms and cold (see Fig. 9.4).
Another way light pollution can negatively affect plants is by physically damag-
ing them. This is because artificial light has a smaller spectrum; daylight has a
continuous full and well-regulated spectral content (see Fig. 9.5). A small spectrum
can negatively affect a plant’s photoreceptors. For example, blue LED lamps can
change the color of leaves and can cause burns on the tips of the leaves.
9.3 Impact on Ecosystem Functioning
The third way in which light pollution can negatively impact the ecosystems around
urban areas is by affecting the functioning of these ecosystems. One reason ecosys-
tem functioning is impacted is that light pollution limits the energy flow and circula-
tion of an ecosystem. Energy flow involves nutrients, organic matter, and prey
moving around within and between ecosystems. Normally, energy flows from the
primary producer to the direct consumer, the secondary consumer, etc., which cre-
ates a natural regulation and balance between species. But artificial light can disturb
this balance, including the prey-predatory balance (see Fig. 9.6).
For example, when plants as primary producers grow fewer fruits because flow-
ers die from the cold, this impacts direct consumers such as mice who normally feed
on these fruits. When fewer mice are available as prey for predators such as hawks,
also their numbers will decrease.
Another reason why ecosystem functioning can be impacted is that light pollu-
tion affects information transmission. Information types being exchanged daily in
Fig. 9.5 Natural light consists of light with different wave lengths, blue LED light of fewer
wave lengths
ecosystems include physical, chemical, and behavioral information. An example of

physical information is the size of an animal; an example of chemical information
is pheromones, which are chemical substances produced and released by animals to
influence other animals; an example of behavioral information is a mating dance to
attract a partner. When information can’t be transmitted properly anymore because
of light pollution, the normal functioning of the ecosystem is affected.
For example, light pollution can make it harder for migrating birds to find each
other or find the final destination. When they arrive late at the breeding grounds, for
example the climatic conditions are different so that they may not be able to repro-
duce anymore.
9.4 Conclusion
So, light pollution has short-term negative consequences on the environment

because it is gone as soon as the light is switched off or it becomes daylight. And
yet, the consequences can be large, because it impacts natural periodic cycles of
animals and plants, changes animals’ behavior, can harm plants, and impacts the
functioning of whole ecosystems. In all cases, these changes can have far-reaching
consequences, for example when a food chain is affected. This is why this type of
pollution should not be overlooked.
As light pollution causes short-term problems that nevertheless can have far-
reaching consequences, it is important to limit light pollution as much as possible.
Here are practical ideas of what you and I can do to reduce light pollution:
• Making sure street and torch lights shine down (see Fig. 9.7)
• Dimming street lights when no one is around
Fig. 9.6 In ecosystems, energy flows from the primary producer to the direct consumer, the sec-
ondary consumer, etc
• Using outside lights with motion detection instead of having them on all the time
• Installing fewer outside lights
• Using dark mode of phone when outside at night (see Fig. 9.8)
• Turning off lights when they are not in use
• Keeping blinds and curtains closed when using artificial light inside
• Avoiding driving at night
• Letting eyes adjust to the darkness instead of using light
This is what cities can do:
• Planning urban night lighting, taking similarities and differences in light sensi-
tivity of animals and plants into account
• Adopting a lighting strategy
• Using appropriate lighting colors
• Turning off traffic lights when traffic density is low at night
Credit 75
Fig. 9.7 The amount of light pollution depends on the direction of the rays
Fig. 9.8 Light versus dark mode on smart phone
• Using sensors to make sure lights are only switched on when there is not enough
natural moonlight
• Prohibiting buildings to be lit from the outside at night
• Prohibiting shops to lit their shop windows
Credit
Katabaro, J. M., Yan, Y., Hu, T., Yu, Q., & Cheng, X. (2022). A review of the effects of artificial
light at night in urban areas on the ecosystem level and the remedial measures. Frontiers in
Public Health, 10, 969945.
Figure Credits
Fig. 9.1
“The price for lighting in the United Kingdom” by Fouquet and Pearson on
OurWorldInData.org is licensed under CC BY 4.0
Source: https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/the-price-forlighting-per-million-lumen-
hours-in-the-uk-in-british-pound
Author: https://ourworldindata.org/
Fig. 9.2 Fer Gregory on Shutterstock
Fig. 9.3 MenCre on Shutterstock
Fig. 9.4 Budimir Jevtic on Shutterstock
Fig. 9.5 Image adapted from udaix on Shutterstock
Fig. 9.7 tales of stars on Shutterstock
Chapter 10
How Heavy Metal Pollution Can Cause
Parkinson Disease
Abstract Heavy metals can harm our health, mainly through medications, con-
taminated seafood, exposure at work, environmental pollution, and amalgam fill-
ings in teeth. They can disrupt the physical balance in our bodies, leading to negative
impacts on the entire body, including the brain. Additionally, they can change our
genes and increase the expression of genes associated with certain diseases, such as
Parkinson’s disease. Heavy metals such as iron, copper, manganese, zinc, alumi-
num, lead, and mercury affect mechanisms in our bodies that cause this disease to
develop over a relatively long period of time. The disease causes proteins to clump
together, damage our brain, and impair our movements. Luckily, not everyone who
is exposed to high concentrations of heavy metals develops this disease, but it is still
important to make sure that our environment remains clean and that pollutants are
removed.
Keywords Science · Science communication · Pollution · Light pollution ·

Pollution consequences · Ecosystem · Artificial light at night · Food chain ·
Nightscape · Urban areas
Apart from having consequences on for example aquatic animals, pollution can also
affect us. For example, heavy metals negatively impact our health. Heavy metals
mainly enter our bodies through medications, contaminated seafood, exposure at
work, environmental pollution, and amalgam fillings in teeth. The toxicity of these
metals disturbs the physical balance in our bodies. This imbalance leads to negative
impacts on the entire body, including the brain. In the brain, neurons are damaged
through for example inflammations.
Another reason heavy metals negatively impact our health is that they can change
our genes and increase the expression of genes that are associated with certain dis-
eases. One of these diseases is Parkinson’s disease. This disease is characterized by
Credit: This chapter is based on the scientific article “Metal elements and pesticides as risk factors
for Parkinson’s disease — A review” by Inam Ullah and colleagues. (Full citations and link avail-
able at the end of the chapter)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34479-4_10
78 10 How Heavy Metal Pollution Can Cause Parkinson Disease
progressive motor symptoms including tremors, slowness of movement, rigidity,

and postural imbalance. It is also characterized by a variety of non-motor symp-
toms, such as sleep and mood disorders. These symptoms become worse when the
disease progresses, making the long-term impact bigger and bigger. Workers who
were exposed to iron, aluminum, and manganese, are twice as likely to develop
Parkinson’s disease. Workers who were exposed for more than 20 years to lead and
copper are 2 to 10 times more likely to develop this disease. This is how heavy met-
als contribute to the development of Parkinson’s disease:
10.1 Iron
The first heavy metal that contributes to Parkinson’s disease is iron. Iron is essential
for human life and is found in red blood cells. Red blood cells carry oxygen-rich
blood to every cell in the body.
Under normal circumstances, iron is stored in the liver, bone marrow, spleen, and
muscles. It is also highly concentrated in the brain because the brain needs iron to
generate energy from nutrients, myelin formation, and the creation of neurotrans-
mitters. Myelin is the whitish insulating substance around nerves that speeds up the
impulses. Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that allow neurons to com-
municate with each other. Although iron is needed, too much iron is harmful to the
brain. This is because iron participates in certain chemical reactions that cause cell
dysfunction and ultimately cell death. The iron level in patients with Parkinson’s
disease is twice as high.
10.2 Copper
The second heavy metal that contributes to Parkinson’s disease is copper. Copper is
a mineral that is found throughout the body. It is needed to make red blood cells and
keeps the immune system and nerve cells healthy. It is also needed to form collagen,
which is an important part of bones and connective tissue. Copper also helps the
body to absorb iron and is an antioxidant. Antioxidants reduce free radicals that can
damage cells and DNA. Free radicals are molecules with an unpaired electron.
Because of the unpaired electron, these molecules want to react with other molecules.
Under normal circumstances, the liver contains the most copper, followed by the
brain. In the brain, different regions contain different amounts of copper. The cop-
per level in patients with Parkinson’s disease is in some areas only half of the usual
amount, for example the brain area that makes simple movements possible. As this
metal plays an important role in tissue degeneration, simple movements become
impaired.
10.3 Manganese 79
As the distribution of copper changes in patients with Parkinson’s disease, other

areas will contain more copper. Here, copper binds to certain proteins, causing these
proteins to clump together. These clumps lead to the production of certain mole-
cules that easily react with other molecules in a cell, leading to cell damage. And
like iron, copper participates in certain chemical reactions that cause DNA damage
in brain cells, cell dysfunction, and ultimately cell death. Also, when copper binds
to certain proteins, the toxicity of copper is triggered, which can damage DNA
as well.
10.3 Manganese
The third heavy metal that contributes to Parkinson’s disease is manganese (see
Fig. 10.1). Manganese is present in tiny amounts in the body: in bones, the liver,
kidneys, and pancreas. It is needed to for example form bones and sex hormones
and plays a role in for example blood sugar regulation. It is also needed for normal
brain and nerve function.
Even though it is necessary for the human body, inhaling too much over a longer
period of time causes it to accumulate in certain areas of the brain. Patients with
Parkinson’s disease have about three times as much manganese in their brains. The
accumulation of manganese causes processes in the brain and spinal cord to get out
of balance and causes this heavy metal to become toxic. This results in dysfunctions
of the brain, spinal cord, and nervous system. Also, manganese can cause inflamma-
tion in the brain, which can damage neurons.
Fig. 10.1 Manganese stones

10.4 Zinc
The fourth heavy metal that contributes to Parkinson’s disease is zinc. Zinc is
important for different body functions, including the immune system, reproduction,
growth, taste, vision, and smell. It also acts as a messenger in the brain, so is impor-
tant for proper brain functioning.
Under normal circumstances, different areas of the brain have different zinc lev-
els. With too much zinc, brain cells are damaged and die. Even though it is unclear
yet how this works exactly, there are three possibilities: zinc causes neurons to
receive an overdose of neurotransmitters, it participates like iron and copper in cer-
tain chemical reactions or causes a lack of energy for cells. This causes cell death,
which makes it more likely to develop Parkinson’s disease.
10.5 Aluminum
The fifth heavy metal that contributes to Parkinson’s disease is aluminum. Unlike
the previous heavy metals, aluminum is not naturally present in our bodies. When it
does enter our body, it is toxic. Patients with Parkinson’s disease have more alumi-
num in certain areas of the brain. Here aluminum molecules participate in certain
chemical reactions that can cause damage to cells and cell death.
10.6 Mercury
The sixth heavy metal that contributes to Parkinson’s disease is mercury (see
Fig. 10.2). Mercury is like aluminum not naturally present in our body. It is very
toxic because its toxicity decreases only slowly over time. Also, it is more toxic than
other heavy metals because it is toxic to our brains in every different form. Mercury
can for example damage nervous tissues by altering protein structures. It can also
disrupt neurobiological processes, such as the communication between two neurons
through over-activating the receptors that regulate for example breathing, learning,
and creating memories. This and other issues, such as inflammations in the brain,
can lead to Parkinson’s disease.
10.7 Lead
The seventh heavy metal that contributes to Parkinson’s disease is lead. Lead is like
aluminum and mercury not naturally present in our body and is toxic. When lead
ends up in the brain, it can lead to reduced amounts of several neurotransmitters,
including dopamine. Dopamine is the neurotransmitter that allows you to feel
Fig. 10.2 Drops of mercury
pleasure, satisfaction, and motivation. Lead can also for example damage the form
of dopamine neurons, so that dopamine ends up outside of the neurons, causing
toxicity in the brain and spinal cord. Also, lead can result in cell breakdown or
cell death.
10.8 Conclusion
So, the negative impact of heavy metal pollution is indirect when causing Parkinson’s
disease. Heavy metals such as iron, copper, manganese, zinc, aluminum, lead, and
mercury affect mechanisms in our bodies that cause this disease to develop over a
relatively long period of time. In our body, these metals for example cause proteins
to clump together, damage our brain, and impair our movements. They can also
cause cells and eventually even the person to die.
Luckily, not everyone who is exposed to high concentrations of heavy metals
develops this disease. But still, it is very important to make sure that our environ-
ment remains clean and that pollutants are removed.
As heavy metal pollution can have long-term and serious health consequences, it is
important to limit heavy metal pollution as much as possible. Here are practical
ideas of what you and I can do to reduce heavy metal pollution:
• Bringing hazardous waste to designated recycling areas
• Avoiding using pesticides and fertilizers
• Avoiding using cosmetics containing heavy metals

• Avoiding excessive amounts of seafood
• Making sure dental fillings are made of harmless substances
Credit
Ullah, I., Zhao, L., Hai, Y., Fahim, M., Alwayli, D., Wang, X., & Li, H. (2021). Metal elements and
pesticides as risk factors for Parkinson’s disease — A review. Toxicology reports, 8, 607–616.
Figure Credits
Fig. 10.1 RHJPhtotos on Shutterstock

Fig. 10.2 MarcelClemens on Shutterstock
Chapter 11
Pollution Solutions: Removing Pollutants
from Soil and Water
Abstract Plastic and heavy metals are substances that pollute our environment, but
many other substances can pollute soil, water, and air as well. These substances
include dyes and chemicals used in agriculture. These different types of pollution
especially build up in soil and water, which are essential for the existence of organ-
isms. To remove pollutants from water and soil, different methods exist. Biological
methods are most environmentally friendly. For example, microorganisms can turn
pollutants into non-dangerous substances like water and carbon dioxide, in a natural
process without the need for chemicals or heat that harm the environment. Also,
plants can use different methods to reduce the negative impact of pollution that is
already harming the environment.
Keywords Science · Science communication · Pollution · Soil pollution · Water

pollution · Pollution solutions · Soil health · Bioremediation · Phytoremediation ·
Microorganisms · Water damage restoration · Oil sludge · Agrochemicals ·
Petroleum · Diesel · Heavy metals · Azo dyes · Microplastics · Phytovolatilization ·
Phytodegradation · Phytostabilization · Phytoextraction · Phytostimulation ·
Phytofiltration · Organic pollutants · Mechanisms · Processes · Soil contamination
While plastic and heavy metals are substances that pollute our environment, many
other substances can pollute soil, water, and air as well. These substances include
dyes, organic compounds, chemicals used in agriculture such as chemical pesticides
and fertilizers, and especially non-degradable organic compounds such as chlori-
nated hydrocarbons. Chlorinated hydrocarbons are solvents that are for example
used to remove grease from metals or remove paint.
The main reason that these pollutants harm the environment is that they are toxic
and stay in nature for a long time, building up over time. Pollution especially builds
up in soil and water, which are essential for the existence of many organisms.
Credit: This chapter is based on seven scientific articles by Farah Eryssa Khalid, Divjot Kour,
Nishita Ojha, Renju Liu, Bismark Asante-Badu, Alexandra D. Solomou, and Shafaqat Ali and their
colleagues. (Full citations and links available at the end of the chapter)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34479-4_11
84 11 Pollution Solutions: Removing Pollutants from Soil and Water
For the health of these organisms, it is important to keep soil and water clean and
non-toxic. When they are already polluted, it is important to remove the pollutants.
To remove pollutants from water and soil, different methods exist. These meth-
ods include physical, chemical, and biological methods. An example of a physical
method is excavation and an example of a chemical method is catalytic degradation.
Catalytic degradation involves using certain chemicals to convert pollutants into
nontoxic materials. The biological method is called bioremediation (see Fig. 11.1).
In bioremediation, organisms are used to remove pollutants through the biodeg-
radation process. In this process, pollutants are biologically degraded into harmless
substances or to such a low concentration that it is accepted by regulations. Based
on the organism involved in the bioremediation process, this is called mycore
mediation when done by fungi only. When done by microorganisms, bacteria, and
fungi it is called microbial bioremediation. When it is done by plants, it is called
phytoremediation.
One advantage of microbial bioremediation is that it is an environmentally
friendly method: it produces only non-dangerous compounds like water and carbon
dioxide, and it is a natural process without the need for chemicals or heat that harm
the environment.
Another advantage of microbial bioremediation is that certain microorganisms,
especially bacteria, can survive extreme environmental conditions such as high tem-
peratures, freezing temperatures, high acidity, and high salinity. So, this method can
be used to remove pollutants from extreme environments, such as polar regions,
thermal vents, and oceans.
Fig. 11.1 The bioremediation process

11 Pollution Solutions: Removing Pollutants from Soil and Water 85
A third advantage of microbial bioremediation is that microorganisms can

remove different types of pollutants. For example, certain microorganisms can
degrade fuel oil compounds, other agricultural chemicals such as chemical fertiliz-
ers and pesticides, and again other non-biodegradable substances like dyes.
Especially using a combination of different species is effective because if one
microbial species partially degrades a pollutant, another species can biodegrade the
rest. To be able to remove pollutants, microorganisms have to convert them into
harmless products.
Apart from microbial bioremediation, phytoremediation by plants for removing
pollutants also has many advantages. These advantages include:
• it is a natural process that is harmless to the environment
• it can be applied at the polluted site without transporting the contaminated soil or
water to another site
• the labor costs and the cost of operation are lower than for physical and chemi-
cal methods
• this method is a simple method that hardly requires equipment, meaning it can be
used with little financial investment
• certain pollutants such as metals can be mined from the plants and be put to
good use
• it is a well-accepted method by the public as it is natural and looks good
• it contributes to solving other environmental problems too, such as soil erosion.
Soil erosion means that soil is carried away by for example water or wind.
These advantages for microbial and phytoremediation can differ though depending
on whether bioremediation processes take place ex-situ or in-situ.
• With ex-situ bioremediation, which is especially applied with polluted soil, the
polluted substance is transferred to another location for treatment. When for
example biopilling is applied, the polluted surface soil layer is removed and
treated with suitable microorganisms. After having transported the soil, the
conditions are made as optimal as possible, for example by adding nutrients
and supplying sufficient oxygen, to encourage microbial activities or plants
to grow.
• With in-situ microbial bioremediation, the polluted substance is treated in the
same place as where the pollution was discovered. Advantages of this method
include that the original structure of the soil is maintained. It also lowers the
costs, as there is no need for excavation or transportation. Soils polluted with
heavy metals and hydrocarbons are remediated using this method. When for
example biosparging is applied to topsoil layers, air is injected to increase micro-
bial biodegradation.
This is how microorganisms and plants can remove pollutants from soil and water:
11.1 Microorganisms
The first way to remove pollutants from water and soil is by using microorganisms.
They use pollutants as nutrients or energy sources to carry out their metabolism.
Sometimes these microorganisms are naturally present in the polluted area, and
sometimes we have to bring them from other places to the polluted area for in-situ
bioremediation.
Microorganisms mainly depend on enzymes to break down pollutants. Enzymes
are proteins that speed up chemical reactions, without being changed by this reac-
tion. Different types of enzymes are responsible for the degradation of different
types of pollutants. For example, some enzymes can break down hydrocarbons.
Hydrocarbons are chemicals made up of only the elements hydrogen (H) and carbon
(C). And sometimes, microorganisms use several enzymes to degrade complex pol-
lutants. For example, the enzymes oxygenases and peroxidases often go together, as
oxygenases increase the available oxygen and peroxidases convert toxic compounds
in water.
For microorganisms to be effective, the conditions for their growth and activity
need to be right. Such factors include:
• Nature and amount of the pollutant
• The ability of the microorganisms to break down pollutants
• Place/location
• Environmental conditions: temperature, pH, moisture content, oxygen content
• Presence of other nutrients such as nitrates
This is how different types of pollutants can be removed from soil and water by
microorganisms:
11.1.1 Oil Sludge
One type of pollutant that can be removed from soil and water by microorganisms
is oil sludge. Oil sludge is a thick and sticky mixture of oil, water, hydrocarbons,
and non-hydrocarbons like sulfur, nitrogen, and nickel, with soil and some other
deposits. This sludge is caused by for example leaking oil pipelines and tanks (see
Fig. 11.2). It is considered pollution because of many reasons: it stays in the soil for
a long time, it does not dissolve in water, the complex molecular structure makes it
hard to decompose naturally, it releases toxins, and it changes characteristics of soil
such as acidity (pH), and moisture and air content. This affects plant growth and can
via the food chain eventually end up in our bodies.
Certain bacteria can naturally degrade hydrocarbons into carbon dioxide and
water. Adding these bacteria to the polluted soil is called bioaugmentation. Their
ability to degrade pollutants can be increased by using genetically modified bacte-
ria. Genetic modification in this context means that new genes are added to their
11.1 Microorganisms 87
Fig. 11.2 Oil sludge is for example caused by leaking tanks
DNA, which triggers the production of enzymes that can degrade the oily sludge.
Their ability can also be improved by adding nutrients to the polluted area that they
need to grow and degrade. This is called biostimulation. It is helpful as oily sludge
does not naturally contain nutrients.
11.1.2 Agrochemicals
Another type of pollutant that can be removed from soil and water by microorgan-
isms is agrochemicals. Agrochemicals are pesticides, herbicides, and chemical fer-
tilizers used to improve the yield in agriculture. They are seen as pollutants because
of many reasons: they decrease soil quality, affect soil fertility, remove soil nutri-
ents, make the soil more acidic, reduce biodiversity, and stay in the soil for a very
long time. When entering the food chain, they affect whole ecosystems. For exam-
ple, DDT, the most widely used pesticide in the 1940s affected fish and birds, even
though they were not targeted. DDT takes about 30 years to degrade.
Many microorganisms including fungi can break down DDT into non-toxic com-
pounds. This requires a few steps as the intermediate compounds produced during
the process are still toxic. When these fungi are in the by DDT-contaminated area,
they release enzymes. To make the DDT completely non-toxic, they first break
down DDT molecules into DDE or DDD and remove chlorine molecules. These
intermediate compounds are still toxic but less toxic than DDT. The second step is
using enzymes to degrade DDE and DDD into non-toxic compounds.
Fig. 11.3 Heavy metals are difficult to remove from soil
11.1.3 Heavy Metals
A third type of pollutant that can be removed from soil and water by microorgan-
isms is heavy metals. Heavy metals such as arsenic, zinc, lead, and mercury are
either naturally present in soil or are released into the environment by humans.
When released by humans, they are seen as pollutants, because they can be toxic
and cause harm to humans and animals (see Fig. 11.3). For example, they cause skin
and nose irritations, cancer, or Parkinson’s disease. As they are non-degradable, it is
difficult to remove them from the soil.
Some microorganisms are metal-resistant and can help certain plants to remove
heavy metals from soil or remove them themselves. Some microorganisms, includ-
ing fungi, do this by absorbing the metals inside the cell or by converting them into
other less toxic compounds.
11.1.4 Petroleum
A fourth type of pollutant that can be removed from soil and water by microorgan-
isms is petroleum. Petroleum is an oily substance that can enter water due to for
example oil spills from pipelines, accidental oil spills from storage tanks, vehicles,
and poor waste disposal. It is seen as a pollutant, because it affects organisms, for
11.1 Microorganisms 89
example in humans causing cancer, disturbing the immunity system, and causing
kidney damage. It is also seen as pollution because it prevents sunlight and oxygen
from entering the water, which causes organisms to die.
Certain microorganisms can break petroleum into less hazardous chemicals,
water, and carbon dioxide. Some of these microorganisms even use petroleum as
their main carbon source for living.
11.1.5 Azo Dyes
A fifth type of pollutant that can be removed from soil and water by microorganisms
is azo dyes. Azo dyes are coloring materials used in the plastic and textile industries
and are an example of xenobiotics. Xenobiotics are artificially produced materials,
such as azo dyes, pesticides, cosmetics, flavorings, and food additives. Azo dyes are
seen as pollutants because they reduce the transparency of water and prevent sun-
light from entering the water. This affects the life in water such as fishes, frogs, and
aquatic plants.
Several species of bacteria can degrade azo dyes into harmless compounds.
Some bacteria remove azo dyes from the environment by absorbing them. This is
called biosorption. The bacterial cell wall has special molecules which help in this
process, to adsorb (stick / attach) azo dye molecules. Even dead bacterial cells
absorb azo dyes.
These bacteria are also able to remove the color from dyes using their enzymes.
The bacterial degradation of azo dyes occurs in two main steps. The first step is
breaking the azo bonds, which are nitrogen molecules bonded in a specific way. The
second step is making another toxic organic compound that is degraded by the bac-
teria into nontoxic compounds.
11.1.6 Microplastics
A sixth type of pollutant that can be removed from soil and water by microorgan-
isms is microplastics. Microplastics function as a nutrient for certain microorgan-
isms. This is possible for biodegradable plastic, but even some plastics that were
considered non-biodegradable can be broken down. For example, polystyrene is
considered non-biodegradable because it contains heavy molecules and has a stable
structure. But several bacteria are able to biodegrade it when it is their only energy
source. They can reduce the amount of polystyrene by between 2.66 and 7.73% in
one month.
11.2 Plants
The second way to remove pollutants from water and soil is by using plants. This is
called phytoremediation. Whether plants can remove pollutants depends on the
plant species and on whether these plants can survive in a polluted environment.
When suitable plant species are found, they can remove pollutants such as petro-
leum, agricultural chemicals, radioactive substances, explosives, and metals. These
are the six ways how plants can remove pollutants from soil and water (see Fig. 11.4):
11.2.1 Phytovolatilization
The first technique plants use to remove pollutants from water and soil is phytovola-
tilation. With phytovolatilation, plants can absorb pollutants from the soil via their
roots and convert them into nontoxic substances. These substances are then
Fig. 11.4 The six ways plants can remove pollutants

11.2 Plants 91
Fig. 11.5 Indian mustard plants (Brassica Juncea) can remove selenium pollution
evaporated into the atmosphere through stomata. This is similar to when we sweat.
Stomata are tiny openings in plant leaves that are helpful to exchange gases with the
environment.
Plants that can remove pollutants using phytovolatilation are, for example, the
Indian mustard plants (see Fig. 11.5). They can remove selenium.
11.2.2 Phytodegradation
The second technique plants use to remove pollutants from water and soil is photo-
degradation. With photodegradation, which is also called phytotransformation,
plants remove organic pollutants by capturing them and transforming them inside
the cells into harmless substances using enzymes. Energy for this transformation is
provided by sunlight.
Plants that can remove pollutants using photodegradation are for example Poplar
plants (see Fig. 11.6). They can remove pesticides, herbicides, chlorinated solvents,
and explosives.
11.2.3 Phytostabilization
The third technique plants use to remove pollutants from water and soil is phytosta-
bilization. With phytostabilization, plants cannot remove pollutants completely, as
they only prevent them from going somewhere else. This is why it is also called
phytoimmobilization. With heavy metals such as arsenic, copper, lead, zinc, cad-
mium, and chromium this is done by excreting substances that make the metals
Fig. 11.6 The Black poplar (Popular nigra) can remove arsenic pollution
insoluble. The advantage of this is that the pollutant stays in the same place and
cannot reach groundwater or contaminate neighboring areas.
Plants that can remove pollutants using phytostabilization are for example
Buckwheat (see Fig. 11.7). They can remove lead.
11.2.4 Phytoextraction
The fourth technique plants use to remove pollutants from water and soil is phyto-
extraction. With phytoextraction, plants remove pollutants by absorbing them
through their roots and storing them both below and above the ground. This method
is also called phytoaccumulation. It can be used to clean water and soil polluted
with for example metals and salts. When metals are removed, they can be mined by
burning the plant. This not only generates energy but also generates ash with
these metals.
Plants that can remove pollutants using phytoextraction are for example hemp
plants (see Fig. 11.8). They can remove heavy metals such as cadmium.
11.2.5 Phytostimulation
The fifth technique used by plants to remove pollutants is phytostimulation. With

phytostimulation, plants remove pollutants by absorbing them and decomposing
them with the help of microorganisms, including fungi and bacteria. As especially
rhizosphere microorganisms do this job, this is also called rhizodegradation. Rhizo
11.2 Plants 93
Fig. 11.7 The Buckwheat plant (Fagopyrum esculentum) can remove lead pollution
Fig. 11.8 Hemp leaf.

(Cannabis sativa)
Fig. 11.9 The pigeon pea plant (Cajanus cajan) can remove petroleum pollution
means root and the rhizosphere is the root surface and the soil around the roots. This
means that microorganisms work together with the plant to restore the soil. And not
only does the plant benefit from the microorganisms but microorganisms also ben-
efit from the plant, especially through its root secretions.
Plants that can remove pollutants using phytostimulation are for example Pigeon
pea plants (see Fig. 11.9). They can remove petroleum pollution.
11.2.6 Phytofiltration
The sixth technique plants use to remove pollutants from water and soil is phytofil-
tration. With phytofiltration, plants remove pollutants by absorbing them with their
roots. That is why it is also called rhizofiltration. Metals including copper, nickel,
and radioactive substances including uranium and strontium can settle when the soil
acidity changes and because of fluids secreted by the roots. After the plant has
absorbed the pollutants, they should be harvested and safely disposed of.
Plants that can remove pollutants using phytofiltration are for example sunflow-
ers (see Fig. 11.10). They can remove radioactive contaminants.
11.3 Conclusion
So, even though it is better to prevent pollution in the first place, the negative impact
of pollution that is already harming the environment can be reduced by using micro-
organisms and plants to clean pollutants up from soil and water. In both cases,
cleaning up can either be done on the polluted site itself or in a different location.
Fig. 11.10 Sunflower plants (Helianthus annuus) can remove radioactive pollution
When using microorganisms, different types of pollutants are broken down into
non-toxic substances such as carbon dioxide and water. This is possible because
microorganisms absorb pollutants and use them as nutrients or energy sources.
When using plants, different types of pollutants are removed using different
methods. These methods involve capturing and storing pollutants or breaking
them down into non-toxic substances. Sometimes, plants work together with
microorganisms.
As pollution in soil and water causes problems for whole ecosystems and we won’t
be spared, it is important to limit pollution as much as possible or remove pollutants
from soil and water when they are already contaminated. Here are practical ideas of
what you and I can do to reduce pollution in soil and water:
• Bringing toxic waste to a special waste disposal instead of putting it in the bin
• Unclogging drain without using chemicals
• Preventing pollution by repairing an oil-leaking car as soon as possible
• Eating organic food to prevent the use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers
• Growing plants in your garden that can remove pollutants
• Contributing to research by taking part in citizen science projects about remov-
ing soil pollution with plants
• Preventing littering
Credit
Microorganisms:
Khalid, F. E., Lim, Z. S., Sabri, S., Gomez-Fuentes, C., Zulkharnain, A., & Ahmad, S. A. (2021).
Bioremediation of diesel contaminated marine water by bacteria: A review and bibliometric
analysis. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 9(2), 155.
Kour, D., et al. (2021). Beneficial microbiomes for bioremediation of diverse contaminated envi-
ronments for environmental sustainability: present status and future challenges. Environmental
Science and Pollution Research, 28(20), 24917–24939.
Liu, R., Zhao, S., Zhang, B., Li, G., Fu, X., Yan, P., & Shao, Z. (2023). Biodegradation of poly-
styrene (PS) by marine bacteria in mangrove ecosystem. Journal of Hazardous Materials,
442, 130056.
Ojha, N., Karn, R., Abbas, S., & Bhugra, S. (2021, June). Bioremediation of Industrial Wastewater:
A Review. In IOP conference series: Earth and environmental science (Vol. 796, no. 1,
p. 012012). IOP Publishing.
Plants:
Ali, S., et al. (2020). Application of floating aquatic plants in phytoremediation of heavy metals
polluted water: a review. Sustainability, 12(5), 1927.
Asante-Badu, B., Kgorutla, L. E., Li, S. S., Danso, P. O., Xue, Z., & Qiang, G. (2020).
Phytoremediation of organic and inorganic compounds in a natural and an agricultural environ-
ment: A review. Applied Ecology and Environmental Research, 18(5), 6875–6904.
Solomou, A. D., et al. (2022). Utilizing mediterranean plants to remove contaminants from the soil
environment: A short review. Agriculture, 12(2), 238.
Figure Credits

Fig. 11.2 Conmongt on Pixabay
Fig. 11.3 Univega on Shutterstock
Fig. 11.5 Scisetti Alfio on Shutterstock
Fig. 11.6 Nahhana on Shutterstock
Fig. 11.7 Smereka on Shutterstock
Fig. 11.8 “Cannabis sativa leaf” by Dominik Matus is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cannabis_sativa_leaf.jpg
Author: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Dominikmatus
License: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en
Fig. 11.9 Tukaram Karve on Shutterstock
Fig. 11.10 Mykhailo Baidala on Shutterstock
Chapter 12
Pollution Solutions: Removing Pollutants
from Air
Abstract As air pollution can affect our health, reducing exposure to this type of
pollution is important. The most effective way to reduce exposure to air pollution is
by preventing pollution. But this is rarely achieved due to cities expanding over
larger areas. The sub-optimal alternative is counteracting pollution, which involves
removing pollutants from the air. Cities can use plants and buildings to improve air
quality. Plants can improve air quality by increasing the distance between traffic and
pedestrians, making sure pollutants settle, and decomposing organic molecules,
microorganisms, and nitric oxide pollutants into harmless molecules. Buildings can
be used to filter or absorb pollutants so that fewer particles float around.
Keywords Science · Science communication · Pollution · Air pollution · Pollution

solutions · Smog · Urban planning · Air quality · Green air barriers · Green walls ·
Green oasis · Green roofs · Blue-green roofs · Nano-additives · Anti-smog tower ·
Activated carbon · Green infrastructure · Urban environment · Environment ·
Health · Public health · Gas emission · Policy · Sustainable development
While pollution in soil and water can harm us through for example drinking con-
taminated water, air pollution can harm us when breathing polluted air. As polluted
air often occurs in cities in which we live, we breathe polluted air all the time. This
is why reducing exposure to air pollution in cities is important.
The most effective way to reduce exposure to air pollution is by preventing air
pollution. As this is effective, many authorities set goals to improve air quality by
controlling emissions. Unfortunately, these goals are rarely achieved. This is
because over time, cities typically expand over larger areas resulting in more cars,
driving longer distances, causing even more air pollution.
Credit: This chapter is based on four scientific articles by Ioannis Manisalidis, C. Nick Hewitt,
Elżbieta Stanaszek-Tomal, Elena Cristiano and their colleagues. (Full citations and link available
at the end of the chapter)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34479-4_12
98 12 Pollution Solutions: Removing Pollutants from Air
Fig. 12.1 Air barrier between street and pavement
A less but still effective way to reduce exposure to air pollution is counteracting
pollution. Counteracting means removing pollutants from the air. This is how cities
can use plants and buildings to improve air quality:
12.1 Plants
12.1.1 Green Air Barriers
The first way cities can use plants to improve air quality is by creating green air bar-
riers between people and cars. Hedges and other tall rows of durable plants can be
used as air barriers. When they are planted between traffic and pedestrians, for
example, they mix polluted air with cleaner air and cause the air to flow upward,
away from pedestrians. This reduces the amount of pollutants pedestrians inhale.
Also, hedges and other rows of durable plants reduce the exposure to pollutants
by increasing the distance between traffic and pedestrians (see Fig. 12.1). This
increased distance reduces the concentration of pollutants on the pavement, side-
walks, and other pedestrian areas near roads because the pollutants are forced to
travel up and around the plant barriers. This causes the pollution to be carried away
to areas with lower concentrations. A 1 m (3 ft) high barrier can reduce the pollutant
concentration by an average of 52%.
12.1.2 Green Walls
The second way cities can use plants to improve air quality is by creating green
walls — walls with plants (see Fig. 12.2). This can be done by growing plants up the
walls of buildings but also on free-standing structures, such as trellises or arches.
12.1 Plants 99
Fig. 12.2 Houses with green walls
Some even have an automated watering system placed horizontally through the
facade. Living walls are similar to green facades, but have a growing medium
attached to them so that the plants can grow from the wall directly.
Green and living walls replace smooth surfaces, which absorb minimal amounts
of pollutants. Instead, plants provide a lot more surface for pollution to settle, espe-
cially when they have a lot of leaf surface, have leaves that transpire more, and have
leaves all year long.
The advantage of settled pollutants is that they are removed from the air, instead
of just being mixed into smaller concentrations. This means that the long-term
exposure of inhabitants to pollution is reduced. Long-term exposure is especially
dangerous for the respiratory system and our health.
12.1.3 Green Oasis
The third way cities can use plants to improve air quality is by creating green oases.
A green oasis is an area with slow-moving air and without polluters, which contains
or is surrounded by plants (see Fig. 12.3). For example, a bench surrounded by high
hedges located away from any major roads or other polluting sources is a small
green oasis. A large green oasis is for example a city park, with many trees and
protective greenery. A creative example is converting a street canyon into a pedes-
trian zone with many plants.
Not only the absence of polluters improves the air quality in green oases, also the
ability of plant surfaces to remove pollutants from the air contributes to this effect.
Fig. 12.3 A green oasis
This also means that the positive impact of green oases is larger when they contain
more plants.
12.1.4 (Blue-)Green Roofs
The fourth way cities can use plants to improve air quality is by promoting (blue-)
green roofs. A green roof is a roof with a layer of plants, rooted in soil (see Fig. 12.4).
It includes a layer of plants, a layer of soil, a fabric that filters water, a drainage
layer, and a protective covering for the building. The thickness of the soil layer lim-
its the root length and consequently determines which type of plants can be grown.
A blue-green roof is the same as a green roof, apart from a water reservoir that is
added to store water. Thanks to this water, a wider range of plants can be grown than
on a green roof. Both types of roofs are helpful to improve air quality, as pollutants
can for example settle on leaves.
12.2 Buildings 101
Fig. 12.4 The layers of a green roof
12.2 Buildings
12.2.1 Nano-additives
The first way cities can use buildings to improve air quality is by using nano-
additives. Nano-additives are nano-particles added to another material to improve
its properties. Nano-particles are particles smaller than 100 nm in size. To compare,
a human hair is between 800 and 1000 times as wide.
One of the most commonly used nano-additives is nano titanium dioxide or
nano-TiO2. Nano-TiO2 molecules can absorb ultraviolet radiation from the sun to
decompose organic molecules, microorganisms, and nitric oxide pollutants. The
result of this decomposition is harmless molecules such as water (H2O) and carbon
dioxide (CO2).
Example applications of nano-TiO2 on buildings are:
• Nano-TiO2 Coatings These coatings can be used to cover the surfaces of many
buildings and structures. As ultraviolet light needs to be able to reach the nano-
TiO2, very thin coating layers are sufficient to remove air pollution. Already
many buildings around the world use such coating. For example the Jubilee
Church in Rome, Italy (see Fig. 12.5), The Commodore building in Ostend,
Belgium, and the Manuel Gea Gonzalez Hospital in Mexico City. The 2,500 m2
(about 27,000 square ft) facade of the Manuel Gea Gonzalez Hospital can remove
smog from 1,000 cars per day, and the concrete blocks of the Jubilee Church
cannot only remove pollution but also clean themselves.
Fig. 12.5 The Jubilee Church in Rome
• Cement-Based Plasters With Nano-TiO2 These plasters can be used in build-

ings that require a thinner material for coatings. For example, such plaster was
used to coat the inside of the Umberto I tunnel in Rome. Together with lamps that
provide visible light for traffic and ultraviolet light, it can remove 20–70% of the
air pollution particles.
• Paints with Nano-TiO2 These paints can be used for wall paintings. Apart from
cleaning itself and removing air pollution, this paint also removes unpleasant
odors from the air and has an antibacterial effect.
12.2.2 Anti-smog Towers
The second way cities can use buildings to improve air quality is by building anti-
smog towers. Anti-smog towers are buildings with the purpose of removing pollu-
tion particles by sucking in polluted air at the top and releasing clean air at the
bottom. They are for example built in Xi’an, China, and New Delhi, India (see
Fig. 12.6). The tower in Xi’an is with a height of 100 m (328 ft) the largest anti-
smog tower in the world. It can purify 10 million m3 (2.64 billion gallons) of air per
day. That is about the same amount of air 2,283 people breathe in one year. Air is
filtered using vegetation and several filters.
12.2.3 Activated Carbon
The third way cities can use buildings to improve air quality is by using activated
carbon such as activated charcoal. Activated means that the charcoal can adsorb
more because it has been treated. Activated charcoal can be added to concrete and
Fig. 12.6 Anti-smog tower in New Delhi, India
is for example helpful in tunnels and underground car parks. As this material is very
porous and has a large surface, it can filter a lot of pollutants, up to 20–25%.
12.3 Conclusion
So, when prevention as the best way to deal with air pollution is not possible, air
quality in cities can be improved by for example plants and buildings. This is impor-
tant as air pollution has a large negative impact on our health.
Plants can improve air quality by increasing the distance between traffic and pedes-
trians. This increased distance reduces the concentration of pollutants in the air. Also,
plants can make sure pollutants settle, so that fewer particles are present in the air.
Buildings can improve air quality by decomposing organic molecules, microor-
ganisms, and nitric oxide pollutants into harmless molecules. And they can be used
to filter or absorb pollutants from the air so that fewer particles float around.
As air pollution is already causing health problems and many premature deaths, it is
important to limit pollution as much as possible or remove pollutants from the air
when prevention is currently not possible. Here are practical ideas of what you and
I can do to reduce air pollution using plants:
• Replacing stone gardens by gardens with greenery

• Turning your garden into a green oasis
• Converting a wall into a green wall
• Installing a green air barrier between the road and your house
• Growing plants on the balcony
Here are further practical ideas of what you and I can do to reduce air pollution:
• Using paint with nano-additives when painting outside walls
• Using a coating with nano-additives on outside building walls
• Using public transport instead of traveling by car
• Driving an electric car or hydrogen-powered car instead of a car based on
fossil fuels
Credit
Plants:
Cristiano, E., Deidda, R., & Viola, F. (2021). The role of green roofs in urban Water-Energy-Food-
Ecosystem nexus: A review. Science of the Total Environment, 756, 143876.
Hewitt, C. N., Ashworth, K., & MacKenzie, A. R. (2020). Using green infrastructure to improve
urban air quality (GI4AQ). Ambio, 49(1), 62–73.
Manisalidis, I., Stavropoulou, E., Stavropoulos, A., & Bezirtzoglou, E. (2020). Environmental and
health impacts of air pollution: A review. Frontiers in Public Health, 8, 14.
Buildings:
Stanaszek-Tomal, E. (2021). Anti-smog building and civil engineering structures. Processes,

9(8), 1446.
Figure Credits
Fig. 12.1 Photoongraphy on Shutterstock

Fig. 12.2 sommart sombutwanitkul on Shutterstock
Fig. 12.3 Tom Fisk on Pexels
Fig. 12.4 Golden Sikorka on Shutterstock
Fig. 12.5 EyeSeeMicrostock on Shutterstock
Fig. 12.6 PradeepGaurs on Shutterstock
Part III
Biodiversity
Biodiversity as the third planetary crisis is currently a hot topic because many
species are close to becoming extinct or have already gone extinct. And this is not a
recent observation. For example, in 2010, scientists spoke about the “The Sixth
Extinction Crisis” concerning the loss of animal populations and species.
As this is the sixth extinction crisis, our planet had to deal with five previous
biodiversity crises before. During these five crises, also many species were lost. But
there are important differences between the previous crises and the current crisis.
One of the differences with the current crisis is that it is – just like anthropogenic
climate change – caused by humans, whereas previous episodes were natural events.
One of the reasons humans cause biodiversity loss is the rapidly growing human
population. Because of the growing number of people and our hunger for more land,
natural ecosystems are destructed: more than 50% of available land on earth has
been changed so that we can use it. For example for cities and agriculture. As a
consequence, the current biodiversity crisis progresses much more rapidly and is
way more devastating than the previous ones.
The rapidly progressing biodiversity loss is a huge problem for us and our planet
because when ecosystems get out of balance, this has far-reaching consequences.
This is because an imbalance not only has direct and short-term consequences;
inter-dependencies between living and non-living parts in ecosystems are so far-
reaching that it also has indirect and long-term consequences. Both living and non-
living parts play an important role in each ecosystem by having different functions
and contributing to the ecosystem in different ways (see Fig. 1).
106 III Biodiversity
Fig. 1 Example ecosystem consisting of many different living and non-living components
Figure Credit
Fig. 1 Kazakova Maryia on Shutterstock

Chapter 13
How Biodiversity Impacts Our Health
Abstract The importance of biodiversity is often overlooked, even though it is

essential for human health. It is essential for human health because biodiversity can
influence our health in many ways, such as reducing harm through medical drugs,
nutritious food, clean water, clean air, and coolness in hot areas. It also restores our
capacities by providing visual complexity and redirecting our attention. It also
builds capacities by inviting us to do physical activities, bond with others, reflect,
and make us feel at home. This shows how important it is to take the biodiversity
crisis seriously, not only for the environment but also for ourselves and future
generations.
Keywords Science · Science communication · Biodiversity · Biodiversity loss

consequences · Health · Mental health · Physical health · Psychological processes ·
Biophysical processes · Ecosystem services · Nature · Mediation · Public health ·
Human well-being
Although the importance of biodiversity is often stressed, we may not fully realize
how important it is. This can happen when it is unclear to us how biodiversity influ-
ences human health and what the consequences are when biodiversity reduces, for
example because the influence of biodiversity on human health is diverse.
The influence of biodiversity on human health is diverse because it can happen
through psychological, social, and biophysical processes. Influences through psy-
chological processes means that biodiversity loss changes our behavior, emotions,
and thoughts. Influences through social processes means biodiversity loss changes
our society. And influences through biophysical process means biodiversity loss
changes systems on an atomic or molecular level.
This is how biodiversity benefits our health and what is affected when biodiver-
sity reduces:
Credit: This chapter is based on the scientific article “Pathways linking biodiversity to human
health: A conceptual framework” by Melissa R. Marselle and colleagues. (Full citation and link
available at the end of the chapter)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34479-4_13
108 13 How Biodiversity Impacts Our Health
13.1 Reducing Harm
The first way biodiversity benefits our health is by reducing harm. This means that
biodiversity loss makes it more likely that we are harmed or lose what is most
important in our lives, namely our health:
• We take medicines made from plants with medical properties. A large variety of
plants makes it possible to benefit in different ways. For example, ginger can be
used to prevent inflammations.
• We eat to make sure that our body can function well and stays healthy. Different
plants and animals make sure we can eat well-balanced, nutritious meals. For
example, nuts are considered a superfood, meaning they provide a lot of nutrients
and are important for health and well-being.
• We breathe air that is preferably free from air pollutants. Tree diversity is for
example good for the air quality in cities.
• We enjoy coolness in hot areas. Different plants are helpful to reduce heat. For
example, a while ago, I watched a documentary about a German city (Speier),
which has a large plastered area in the city center. Without much biodiversity, the
city has become too hot. Their solution is to recreate green areas.
• We drink water that needs to be clean. Different microorganisms purify water
and for example, some wetland plants can remove heavy metals. For example,
cyperus sedge or hop sedge (Carex pseudocyperus; see Fig. 13.1) can remove
cadmium, copper, lead, and zinc from water.
Fig. 13.1 The cyperus sedge or hop sedge (Carex pseudocyperus) can remove several heavy met-
als from water
13.2 Restoring Capacities 109
13.2 Restoring Capacities
The second way biodiversity benefits our health is by helping us to recover from
demands in daily life. If biodiversity is lost and we can’t recover from these
demands, we can become mentally and physically ill over time:
• We feel more pleasant and calm when our environment has moderate to high
visual complexity. Biodiversity contributes to this complexity. For example, a
forest with different plants and animals is more pleasant to look at than a blank
wall in a city. The reason forests are calming is because of the repeating patterns,
such as branches with leaves and smaller branches with smaller leaves, etc.
• We feel more relaxed and refreshed when we direct our attention somewhere
else. When enjoying nature, we can for example be fascinated and away from
everyday tasks and demands (see Fig. 13.2). And even when we don’t focus our
attention it can be beneficial because trees excrete substances called phytoncides
that keep them healthy, but when we breathe them in, we benefit from them too.
They are good for our immune system and mood.
Fig. 13.2 After visiting a forest, we often feel relaxed and refreshed
110 13 How Biodiversity Impacts Our Health
13.3 Building Capacities
The third way biodiversity benefits our health is by strengthening us for daily life.
This is the opposite of restoring capacities (see previous section):
• We tend to spend more time on outdoor sports in biodiverse areas. Physical activ-
ity is important for both physical and mental well-being. And this benefit is larger
than when doing sports in urban areas or inside.
• We tend to bond more with others from our neighborhood when we live in a
biodiverse area. This leads to more social cohesion, which is good for our health.
Social cohesion refers to norms and values we share, having positive and friendly
relationships, and feeling accepted and being part of the group.
• We reflect more, are more in awe, and feel more humility when we hear different
sounds and can enjoy different sights. When we are in awe, we have strong emo-
tions of amazement and wonder. Also, it inspires us to reflect on daily life. This
means thinking about our life, goals, and priorities. It can even cause transcen-
dent experiences. A transcendent experience is a feeling of being outside of our-
selves and being part of a larger life or existence. These feelings and experiences
contribute to well-being.
• We feel more at ease, more at home in biodiverse areas. This is because we emo-
tionally bond more easily to biodiverse environments. This is good for psycho-
logical well-being.
13.4 Conclusion
So, although at first, we may not be able to come up with many ways how biodiver-
sity benefits us – even though they are closely related to our daily lives – biodiver-
sity can influence human health in many different ways.
Biodiversity benefits our health in daily life by reducing harm through medical
drugs, nutritious food, clean water, clean air, and coolness in hot areas. It also
restores our capacities by providing us with visual complexity and redirecting our
attention. And it not only restores but also builds capacities by inviting us to do
physical activities, bond with others, reflect, and by making us feel at home. That is
why it is important to take the biodiversity crisis seriously. Not only for the environ-
ment but also for ourselves and future generations.
As biodiversity is so important for our health, it is helpful to support and increase

biodiversity as much as possible. Here are practical ideas of what you and I can do
to support biodiversity in urban areas:
Credit 111
• Growing plants on the roof of your home

• Turning walls into green walls
• Growing plants on your balcony
• Turning (part of a) lawn into an area with many different plants
• Reducing the size of paved areas in your garden
• Turning unused public patches into tiny public gardens
Here are practical ideas of what you and I can do to benefit from biodiversity in
urban areas:
• Visiting parks and other green areas in and around the city
• Doing sports outside in a green area instead of outside in a built area or inside
• Taking plant-based instead of chemical medicines whenever possible
• Eating plant-based meals
Credit
Marselle, M. R., et al. (2021). Pathways linking biodiversity to human health: A conceptual frame-
work. Environment International, 150, 106420.
Figure Credits
Fig. 13.1 Victoria Tucholka on Shutterstock

Fig. 13.2 Michal Vrba at Unsplash
Chapter 14
How Soil Biodiversity Impacts the Health
of Our Planet
Abstract Soil biodiversity is essential for our health and the health of our planet,
as it is the main component of many ecosystems. It is essential for soil fertility,
which is critical for plants to grow, and for regulating climate, pests, ill-making
microorganisms, and invasive species. It is also essential for regulating the well-
being of both plants and animals. This is because many animals living in soil are a
food source for animals living above the ground and soil biodiversity improves
water quality and availability. This way, healthy soil has a huge direct and indirect
positive impact on us and our planet.

consequences · Soil Biodiversity · Health · Environment · Food production · Pests ·
Pathogens · Water quality · Invasive species · Climate · Carbon storage ·
Belowground · Diversity · Climate change
While biodiversity, in general, is very important for our health, also soil biodiver-
sity, in particular, is essential. This is because the main component of many ecosys-
tems is soil. Soil is a non-living part but provides a space to live for many different
living parts. In fact, more than ¼ of the species we know live in soil, for example
bacteria, fungi, earthworms, and moles. Also, it is the basis for many other ecosys-
tems such as forests, agricultural fields, and grasslands. As a consequence, healthy
soil has a huge direct and indirect positive impact on us and our planet.
Even though soil is extremely important and supports biodiversity a lot, its real
importance is often underestimated and neglected. That is why we often mistreat
soil. For example, by allowing it to get polluted. This bad treatment can cause soil
to lose its biodiversity, which has far-reaching long-term consequences. This is how
soil biodiversity contributes to our health and the health of our planet:
Credit: This chapter is based on the scientific article “Soil Biodiversity Integrates Solutions for a
Sustainable Future” by Elizabeth M. Bach, Kelly S. Ramirez, Tandra D. Fraser, and Diana H. Wall.
(Full citation and link available at the end of the chapter)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34479-4_14
114 14 How Soil Biodiversity Impacts the Health of Our Planet
14.1 Supporting Food Production
The first way soil biodiversity contributes to our health and a healthy planet is by
providing food. Many plants we eat ourselves or use to feed livestock grow in soil.
As the human population is expected to be 8.6 billion by 2030, high yields with
many nutrients are important to be able to feed everyone. To achieve these high
yields with many nutrients, plants need to be able to grow properly and be healthy.
Soil biodiversity plays a crucial role in plant growth and plants’ health because it
improves the soil’s fertility.
Soil fertility is improved by organisms living in the soil, such as insects and
earthworms, and microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi. These animals make a
nutrient cycle possible: they take care of animal and plant leftovers by decomposing
them, resulting in nutrients. These nutrients make the soil fertile so that plants can
grow. At some point, these plants again produce leftovers that can be degraded, etc.
So, these organisms help us with producing high-quality and enough food.
For example, in China, fish live in rice fields, eating microorganisms that decom-
pose the dead plant leaves. While they feed themselves, the soil is loosened so that
more oxygen can get mixed into the soil. This oxygen supply stimulates microor-
ganisms to decompose organic matter and release nutrients into the soil. These
nutrients can then be used by rice plants. The video in Fig. 14.1 shows fish living in
rice fields
Apart from organisms, plant roots are also part of soil biodiversity and are impor-
tant for soil quality. This is because certain plant roots such as legumes contain
bacteria that can trap nitrogen, making the soil nitrogen-rich. As nitrogen is a fertil-
izer, these roots are like a nutrient reservoir for crops, leading to healthy plants and
higher yields.
14.2 Regulating Pests and Pathogens
The second way soil biodiversity contributes to our health and a healthy planet is by
regulating pests and pathogens. Pathogens are microorganisms that cause diseases
in other organisms. Soil biodiversity reduces the number of disease-causing micro-
organisms, as some of the soil organisms act as competitors or predators.
Fig. 14.1
14.3 Supporting Animal Life Above the Ground 115
Also, most soil microorganisms produce substances that work against other
microorganisms. These are called antibiotics. For example, penicillin, an antibiotic
that is produced by a soil fungus called Penicillium chrysogenum kills bacteria that
make humans ill. Due to soil biodiversity, different soil microorganisms can be used
to produce new antibiotics to kill microorganisms that cannot be controlled by exist-
ing antibiotics. This reduces the chance that pests and pathogens affect the well-
being of crops and humans.
14.3 Supporting Animal Life Above the Ground
The third way soil biodiversity contributes to our health and a healthy planet is by
making life above the ground possible. This is because different animals living or
nesting below the ground are diverse food sources for above-ground organisms. For
example:
• worms live below the ground and are eaten by birds,
• larvae of ground-nesting bees grow up in holes in the soil and are eaten by blister
beetles,
• microorganisms stick together in a biofilm and are eaten by smaller shore-
birds, and
• rabbits build burrows as their homes and are eaten by eagles and hawks (see
Fig. 14.2).
Fig. 14.2 Rabbits build burrows as their homes

14.4 Improving Water Quality and Availability
The fourth way soil biodiversity contributes to our health and a healthy planet is by
improving water quality and availability.
Water quality is improved by soil biodiversity through filtering the water: when
water flows through the soil, dirt and other pollutants in the water are removed by
biological and chemical interactions. Biological interactions occur when microor-
ganisms degrade pollutants into nontoxic materials such as CO2 and water. Chemical
reactions occur when soil particles attract and hold pollutant particles. This is pos-
sible because most soils have a slight chemical charge with which they can attract
chemicals with opposite charges. For example, clay particles are negatively charged
and can attract chemical pollutants with positive charges such as ammonium.
Water availability is improved by soil biodiversity through physical and chemical
interactions. For example, organisms that create burrows, such as ground beetles,
and earthworms, dig pores in the soil. These pores make it easier for the water to
enter the soil. When water infiltration is easier, flooding and soil erosion become
less likely. It also makes it easier for plants and soil organisms to use available nutri-
ents so that fewer nutrients end up in the surface or groundwater.
When more nutrients stay in the soil, this also has a positive effect on public
waters such as lakes, as it prevents eutrophication. Eutrophication means that too
many nutrients are available in the public water, causing overly dense plant life (see
Fig. 14.3). This causes environmental issues, as it reduces the water quality and
available oxygen in these waters.
Fig. 14.3 Eutrophicated water, pollution due to excessive growth of algae

14.5 Controlling Invasive Species
The fifth way soil biodiversity contributes to our health and a healthy planet is by
controlling invasive species. Invasive species are species that are introduced into a
new environment. In this new environment, they cause economic or environmental
harm or harm to human health because they use up too many nutrients, space, or
habitats and become a threat to native species. Soil organisms can contribute to
controlling invasive species. For example, a flatworm (Obama ladislavii) in Brazil
controls an invasive snail species.
14.6 Regulating Climate
The sixth way soil biodiversity contributes to our health and a healthy planet is by
regulating climate. This is because the soil can store carbon that is captured by liv-
ing plants from CO2. CO2 is used for photosynthesis and growing stems, roots, and
leaves. Carbon is moved below the ground by living plants as roots and secreted
substances. These substances can be absorbed by microorganisms. When carbon
storage remains in the soil, it helps in mitigating climate change. That is why farm-
ing methods are changed to increase carbon storage in agricultural soils.
14.7 Conclusion
So, while biodiversity is in general important to our health and the health of our
planet, soil biodiversity is in particular essential. This is because soil biodiversity is
critical for soil fertility, which in turn is critical for plants to grow. As, for example,
many different animals directly depend on plants for food and meat-eating animals
indirectly depend on plants, soil biodiversity is essential for our survival.
Also, soil biodiversity is essential for regulating climate, pests, ill-making micro-
organisms, and invasive species. This regulation benefits the well-being of both
plants and animals. And as many animals living in soil are a food source for animals
living above the ground, healthy soil provides healthy food.
As soil biodiversity is so important for our health and the health of our planet, it is
important that we all do as much as we can to keep soil healthy. Here are practical
ideas of what you and I can do to support or improve soil biodiversity:
• Protecting natural areas by leaving wildlife alone
• Eating organic food to support farming without the use of chemical pesticides
and fertilizers
• Using compost as fertilizer in private garden

• Making as many corners in a city green
• Using mulch as ground cover instead of rock or asphalt
• Rotating crops in allotment or community garden to keep soil healthy
Credit
Bach, E. M., Ramirez, K. S., Fraser, T. D., & Wall, D. H. (2020). Soil biodiversity integrates solu-
tions for a sustainable future. Sustainability, 12(7), 2662.
Figure Credits
Fig. 14.2 ibom on Shutterstock

Fig. 14.3 Manishankar Patra on Shutterstock
Chapter 15
How Beavers Impact Their Ecosystem
Abstract Human activities can have far-reaching consequences, such as beaver

populations shrinking due to hunting. Beavers have a large impact on the ecosys-
tems they live in, such as a watershed, which is an area that drains rainwater or
melted snow to streams, lakes, or wetlands. This is because beavers impact streams’
shape and structure, water movement and storage, water quality, and plant and ani-
mal life in their watershed. As watersheds are complex ecosystems with many inter-
actions between climate, how the land is covered, and the shape of the landscape,
each ecosystem responds differently to environmental changes by beavers. But as
beavers always play an important role in their watershed, it is important to conserve
biodiversity in general and beavers in particular, as their positive influence other-
wise gets lost.

consequences · Beavers · Ecosystems · Watershed · Water movement · Water
storage · Water quality · Castor canadensis · Castor fiber · Beaver dam · Habitat
modification · Ecosystem engineer · Watershed restoration
Although other environmental issues such as climate change and pollution contrib-
ute to biodiversity loss, also human activities can cause animal populations to
reduce. Losing an animal species such as beavers (see Fig. 15.1) shouldn’t be taken
lightly, as this can have far-reaching consequences.
One reason human activities have far-reaching consequences is that beaver popu-
lations shrank a lot due to intense pelt hunting between the 1600s and 1900s. Before
Europeans colonized North America, between 100 and 200 million beavers lived in
this area; today, this is only 15 million beavers. In other areas, such as Scotland,
Sweden, and Romania, they went extinct due to hunting.
Credit: This chapter is based on two scientific articles by Bartosz P. Grudzinski and Sean
M. Johnson-Bice and their colleagues. (Full citation and link available at the end of the chapter)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34479-4_15
120 15 How Beavers Impact Their Ecosystem
Fig. 15.1 Beavers were hunted for their pelt. They have orange teeth because they contain iron,
which makes them extra strong
Another reason human activities have far-reaching consequences is that beavers

have a large positive impact on the ecosystems they live in. That is why they are also
called ecosystem engineers. This ecosystem is usually a watershed. A watershed is
an area that drains rainwater or melted snow to streams, lakes, or wetlands (see
Fig. 15.2).
Watersheds are complex ecosystems with many interactions for example between
climate, how the land is covered, how the land is used, and the shape of the land-
scape. These many factors affect the physical, chemical, and biological processes on
land and in streams, causing each ecosystem to respond differently to environmental
changes by beavers. This means that when beaver populations reduce, this impacts
the watershed, including other organisms, as well.
As beavers play such an important role in their watersheds (see Fig. 15.3), bea-
vers luckily haven’t gone extinct completely as initiatives such as conservation
efforts stopped beaver hunting. As a result, beaver populations are growing and
spreading again. Today, beavers can be found throughout Europe, Asia, and North
America. They are inhabiting their former range and even expanding into new terri-
tory, including the tip of South America and the Arctic. This means that beavers are
no longer considered an endangered species. It is important to conserve biodiversity
in general and beavers in particular, as their positive influence otherwise gets lost.
This is how beavers impact their watershed:
15.1 Stream Shape and Structure 121
Fig. 15.2 Beavers usually live in watersheds
Fig. 15.3
15.1 Stream Shape and Structure
The first way beavers affect their watershed is by changing the shape and structure
of the stream and the area around it. The shape and structure are changed because
beaver dams change the flow of water:
• Water forms a pool before the dam, which makes the stream wider and some-
times causes multiple streams.
Fig. 15.4
• In this pool, dirt, sand, and rocks sink to the bottom. This is called sediment. The
amount of sediment depends on the depth of the stream, the height of the beaver
dam, and whether the dam only covers the stream or extends beyond it.
• Beavers dig side-channels on the floodplains. A floodplain is the area around the
stream that is mainly formed by sediment and easily floods. Those canals erode
over time and connect during floods, which further increases the complexity of
the water flow. Whether these changes persist differs: after breaching a dam,
streams sometimes go back to a single channel, and sometimes the multi-channel
system continues to exist.
• Further downstream, behind the dam, the stream often narrows back into a single
stream. Sometimes, the stream erodes here, for example leaving scour pools and
head cuts. Scour pools are caves that are hollowed by water under pressure. Head
cuts are abrupt elevation changes on land. The video in Fig. 15.4 explains head
cuts in detail, how they form, and what we can do to prevent them from
progressing.
Beavers can also dig channels in dykes, which makes them less strong. This doesn’t
harm a natural ecosystem but is an issue in The Netherlands as dykes are essential
to prevent the country from flooding.
15.2 Water Movement and Storage
The second way beavers affect their watersheds is by changing the movement and
storage of water from melted snow and rain. This is because beaver dams cause
water to flow slower both before and after the dam. Also, beaver canals in the flood-
plains above the dam slow the water flow (see Fig. 15.5). When water flows slower,
rainwater or water from melted snow has the chance to spread in the channels across
the floodplain and be absorbed and stored by the soil. Also, with slower water flows,
the length of the path water takes to sink into the sediment and return to the stream
becomes longer.
The advantage of slower flows and increased absorption is that groundwater sup-
plies are replenished more quickly and more water is stored. This helps the water-
shed and wetlands to survive during times of little or no rainfall.
15.4 Plant and Animal Life 123
Fig. 15.5 Beaver dams slow water down
15.3 Water Quality
The third way beavers affect their watersheds is by changing water quality, both
upstream and downstream (see Fig. 15.6):
• Upstream, the water slows and pools, so that more heat from the sun can be
stored. Warm, slow-moving water speeds up the decomposition of organic mate-
rial and the growth of microorganisms in the water. This causes the water in the
beaver pond to contain more nitrates and more dissolved organic carbon.
Dissolved organic carbons are sugars, proteins, and other large molecules.
• Downstream, the water contains more methylmercury, dissolved organic carbon,
and ammonium.
How much the water quality is changed both upstream and downstream of a beaver
dam varies throughout the seasons. This is for example because more decomposed
organic material and solids can be washed over the dam in seasons with high
water levels.
15.4 Plant and Animal Life
The fourth way beavers affect their watershed is by changing – and in many cases
increasing – plant and animal life. Which plants and animals can grow and live in
the watershed changes because the different flow and water retention provide habi-
tats for other species.
Fig. 15.6 Water quality differs before and after the dam
For example, animal life changes, as certain fish species benefit from a dam
whereas others don’t. Especially species that prefer to live in standing water benefit
because they have a larger area to live in; species that require moving water have
less space. Also, fish that migrate to the ocean are limited in their movements by a
dam, so are likely to move away, whereas animals that don’t migrate can stay.
In many cases, plant and animal life not only changes but also improves. For
example, most reptiles and amphibians species benefit from beaver dams, indepen-
dent of whether they live in a forest, wetland, or dry climate. This is because they
often thrive in the warmer water behind the beaver dam and can use the land around
the dam. As they have more space to live, more different reptile and amphibian spe-
cies find their home in these areas.
In the video in Fig. 15.7, you can see what life around a beaver dam looks like
below the surface.
15.5 Consequences Over Space and Time
While beavers impact their watershed in many different ways during their lives,
their influence has a legacy effect. The legacy effect means that their impact lasts
even after they died. For example, when beavers abandon the pools that formed
before their dams, these dams continue to store a lot of surface water. And as
Fig. 15.7
beavers continue to build new ponds, the number of pools in a watershed increases
over time. As more and more water is stored in these pools, this means descendant
beavers have no choice than building their dams at sites that store less water, so that
the pools get smaller. Together, this means that the longer beavers occupy a water-
shed, the larger the ecological impact becomes.
15.6 Conclusion
So, human activities can have far-reaching consequences for biodiversity. This is for
example because activities can directly impact animals. And as these animals impact
their ecosystems, human activities have many indirect consequences as well.
For example, beaver populations reduced dramatically due to intense pelt
hunting. This reduced the number of beavers in hunting areas and even caused
them to go extinct in some regions. As beavers impact streams’ shape and structure,
water movement and storage, water quality, and plant and animal life in the
watershed ecosystem they live in, their reduced populations impact these aspects
as well.
As biodiversity can get lost due to human activities, it is helpful to limit harmful
activities as much as possible. Here are practical ideas of what you and I can do to
support beavers:
• Calling a wildlife rescue center when encountering an injured beaver
• Preventing pesticides from reaching waterways and wetlands, as they can harm
organisms in these ecosystems including beavers
• Educating children about beavers and their roles as ecosystem engineers when
coming across a tree that has been nagged by a beaver
• Advocating for local protections for beavers
Credit
Grudzinski, B., Fritz, K., Golden, H., Newcomer-Johnson, T., Rech, J. A., Levy, J., Fain, J.,
McCarty, J. L., Johnson, B., Vang, T. K., & Maurer, K. (2022). A global review of beaver dam
impacts: Stream conservation implications across biomes. Global Ecology and Conservation,
37, e02163.
Johnson-Bice, S. M., Gable, T. D., Windels, S. K., & Host, G. E. (2022). Relics of beavers
past: Time and population density drive scale-dependent patterns of ecosystem engineering.
Ecography, 2022(2).
Figure Credits
Fig. 15.1 Vlad G on Shutterstock

Fig. 15.5 Chase Dekker on Shutterstock
Fig. 15.6 SGeneralov on Shutterstock
Chapter 16
How Urbanization Impacts Pollinator
Behavior
Abstract Biodiversity loss has many consequences, including behavioral changes

in animals. One type of animal that has to adapt to the new ecosystems in urban
areas is pollinators, which take pollen from the male parts of flowers to the female
flower parts of other flowers to fertilize them. Pollinators’ behavior in urban areas
changes as they visit flowers longer and are more likely to visit the same plant spe-
cies. This can be helpful for plants, but can also be harmful when plants depend on
pollen from other plants that are only available in small numbers. Also, pollinators
in urban areas prefer to visit exotic species, making it easier for invasive species to
spread and cause harm.

consequences · Urbanization · Pollinators · Pollination · Environment · Short-term
specialization · Long-term specialization · Invasive species · Exotic species ·
Visiting time · Foraging · Frequency-dependent · Habitat fragments · Invasive plant
· Pollen · Specialization
While biodiversity loss affects whole ecosystems, it also has more subtle conse-
quences. One of these subtle consequences is behavioral changes in animals. As
more natural ecosystems have been destructed to make way for urban areas, animal
populations have decreased a lot. And those animals who survive need to adapt their
behavior to these new urban ecosystems because the number of plants and the num-
ber of different plants is a lot lower than in rural areas.
One type of animal that has to adapt to the new ecosystems in urban areas is pol-
linators. Pollinators are animals that take pollen from the male parts of flowers to
the female flower parts of other flowers to fertilize them. Examples are bees, birds,
butterflies, hoverflies, and bats. The video in Fig. 16.1 explains in an easy way how
pollination works (0:12–3:47).
Credit: This chapter is based on the scientific article “Urbanization increases floral specialization
of pollinators” by Sevan Suni and colleagues. (Full citation and link available at the end of the
chapter)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34479-4_16
128 16 How Urbanization Impacts Pollinator Behavior
Fig. 16.1
Fig. 16.2
Apart from pollinators decreasing in numbers, also their behavior changes due to
urbanization. These behavioral changes in turn have consequences as well. This is
how urbanization and the resulting biodiversity loss change the pollinating behav-
iors of pollinators:
16.1 Higher Short-Term Specialization
The first change in pollinators’ pollinating behavior caused by urbanization is their

short-term specialization. Short-term specialization is a common behavior of polli-
nators in rural areas. It means that the pollinator focuses on one particular plant
species during one trip in search of food. The advantage is that the chance is larger
that flowers receive the correct type of pollen.
Although short-term specialization is a common behavior, pollinators are even
more short-term specialized in urban areas. A possible reason could be that in urban
areas often fewer different types of plants grow than in rural areas. This means that
pollinators have fewer choices. As a consequence, flowers are more likely to receive
the right pollen. This is only helpful though, when the pollen benefit the plant: when
plants are self-incompatible, a smaller number of flowers can affect instead of ben-
efit plant health. Self-incompatible means that a plant cannot produce seeds unless
it has received pollen from a different plant of the same species.
In the video in Fig. 16.2, you can see how a pollinator visits the same flower
species within one trip.
16.3 Preferring Invasive and/or Exotic Plants 129
16.2 Higher Long-Term Specialization
The second change in pollinators’ pollinating behavior caused by urbanization is

their higher long-term specialization. Specialization within visits is normal behav-
ior, but in urban areas, pollinators also specialize more between visits. In rural areas,
this happens when different pollinators compete for the same flowers. But in urban
areas, this also happens even without many different types of pollinators. This
means that other factors, such as competition between pollinators of the same spe-
cies and the abundance of food resources influence pollinator flower choices as
well. As a consequence, pollinators depend on fewer types of flowers and may
choose less-desirable food resources.
16.3 Preferring Invasive and/or Exotic Plants
The third change in pollinators’ pollinating behavior due to urbanization is their

preference for visiting invasive and exotic instead of native plants. Invasive plants
are non-native plants that cause harm to the environment, economy, or human, ani-
mal, or plant health. Exotic plants are harmless non-native plants. In natural sites,
pollinators prefer native species. In contrast, as invasive plants are common in urban
areas, pollinators in urban areas visit native plants less often (see Fig. 16.3). As a
consequence, it is easier for invasive or exotic plants to spread.
Fig. 16.3 Bee in a Mexican waterlily, which is an invasive species in Africa and Europe. It grows
quickly and can be weedy in for example ponds
130 16 How Urbanization Impacts Pollinator Behavior
16.4 Longer Visiting Times
The fourth change in pollinators’ pollinating behavior due to urbanization is that

pollinators have longer visiting times. This means that they spend more time on the
same flower. Pollinators spend more time on a flower when it provides more or
higher quality nectar. In urban areas, the reward is higher when fewer pollinators are
around or the ecological conditions, such as moisture levels, make it possible for
flowers to produce more nectar. As a consequence, they cannot only find more food
in these flowers but they also gather more pollen.
16.5 Conclusion
So, while biodiversity loss has many consequences on different ecosystems, they
also cause subtle changes. For example, the increasing number of urban areas with
reduced biodiversity changes the number of plants and pollinators, and pollinators’
behavior.
Pollinators’ behavior changes as they visit flowers longer and are more likely to
visit the same plant species. Both within a trip and between trips. This can be help-
ful for plants as they are more likely to receive the correct type of pollen. But it can
also be harmful when plants depend on pollen from other plants, which are only
available in small numbers.
And although these changes in behavior are more subtle, the consequences can
nevertheless be far-reaching. For example, pollinators in urban areas prefer to visit
exotic species. This preference makes it easier for invasive species to spread and
cause even more harm.
As biodiversity is lost due to urbanization, it is helpful to support biodiversity in

urban areas as much as possible. Here are practical ideas of what you and I can do
to support pollinators in urban areas:
• planting native plants in garden instead of exotic ones
• growing flowers on balconies
• growing native plants that provide more nectar, for example hibiscus, sunflow-
ers, and torch lilies
• refraining from using pesticides and other chemicals that harm pollinators
• turning a flat roof into a green roof
Credit 131
Credit
Suni, S., Hall, E., Bahu, E., & Hayes, H. (2022). Urbanization increases floral specialization of
pollinators. Ecology and Evolution, 12(3), e8619.
Figure Credit
Fig. 16.3 WH_Pics on Shutterstock

Chapter 17
Biodiversity Solutions: Saving Wildlife
Abstract As the current biodiversity crisis is developing rapidly and is caused by

humans, we must change our behavior to reduce biodiversity loss. This includes
saving wildlife, which is more likely to experience a catastrophe due to climate
change and man-made disasters. Also, the habitat of more and more wildlife is
being limited by human activities, such as taking over land, building infrastructure,
and causing environmental pollution. To help wildlife, we can rescue injured and
orphaned animals in wildlife rehabilitation centers, and limit contact between
humans and wildlife by placing well-placed fences. These fences protect them from
illegal hunters, protect their habitat, and protect them from revenge and preventive
killing.

solutions · Wildlife · Wildlife rehabilitation · Elephants · Lions · Wildlife
conservation · Rehabilitation center · Trophy hunting · Fences · Facilities · Staff ·
Procedures · Release · Illegal hunting · Territory · Preventive killing
As the current biodiversity crisis is developing relatively fast, is even more devastat-
ing than extinction crises in the past, and is caused by humans, we must change our
behavior. As climate change and pollution affect biodiversity, the solutions men-
tioned in previous parts will also contribute to reducing biodiversity loss.
While this is an indirect way to support different species, it is also possible to
directly contribute to reducing biodiversity loss. This is for example possible by
saving wildlife. This is helpful because wildlife is more likely to experience a catas-
trophe caused by extreme weather events such as floods and wildfires due to climate
change. But also due to man-made disasters, such as oil spills. And because of
urbanization, they are more likely to bump into a human structure, such as a fence
or car. As a consequence, many animals including birds, mammals, and even rep-
tiles are injured or orphaned because of these catastrophes.
Credit: This chapter is based on three scientific articles by Dr. Holly Cope, Enrico De Minin, and
Kristoffer T. Everatt and their colleagues. (Full citation and link available at the end of the
chapter)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34479-4_17
134 17 Biodiversity Solutions: Saving Wildlife
Also, the habitat of more and more wildlife is being limited by human activities.
For example, elephants and lions are normally walking around freely. But with
more people and commercial farming, elephants, lions, and humans have to share
the same land more often. This can cause conflicts, usually not ending well for the
elephants and lions.
Luckily, we not only inflict harm on animals, we can also help them. This is how
we can prevent wildlife from dying:
17.1 Wildlife Rehabilitation Centers
One example of what we can do to prevent wildlife from dying is wildlife rehabilita-
tion. Wildlife rehabilitation means providing short-term care for injured, sick, or
orphaned wildlife, with the goal of returning them to the wild. This rehabilitation is
done in wildlife rehabilitation centers. In these centers, wildlife experts can help
millions of injured or orphaned animals each year.
To be able to help as many animals as possible, it is important to follow best
practices based on science. This is what is important for rehabilitation centers to
help injured and orphaned animals survive:
17.1.1 Facilities
The first aspect that is important for wildlife rehabilitation centers to help injured
and orphaned animals survive is having adequate facilities. Adequate facilities mean
that the facilities exist and have the equipment and medication needed to treat the
animals. Facilities these rehabilitation centers need include:
• first aid materials, such as bandages
• medication, such as anti-inflammatory drugs and antibiotics
• pain killers, such as opioids
• additional nutritional support, such as vitamin B12 or honey
• supporting devices, such as oxygen supply devices
• imaging technology, such as cameras and x-ray devices
• housing, such as cages
In the video in Fig. 17.1, you can see how an owl that got entangled in a barbed wire
fence gets treated and which facilities are used (2:28–3:47).
17.1.2 Staff
The second aspect that is important for wildlife rehabilitation centers to help injured
and orphaned animals survive is having expert staff. Having expert staff means hir-
ing trained professionals such as veterinarians. It also means hiring the right number
of trained people.
17.1 Wildlife Rehabilitation Centers 135
Fig. 17.1
Having enough expert staff members to care for these animals is important to be
able to help as many animals as possible. Often, volunteers support the profession-
als with rescuing, feeding, cleaning, and releasing the animals. Other tasks require
veterinarians or wildlife rehabilitation experts. For example, operations require spe-
cialized knowledge and can only be done by veterinarians. Also, veterinarians
assess the animals before release. They check their physical fitness, their recovery
from injuries or illness, and their independence to make it as likely as possible that
they will survive.
17.1.3 Procedures
The third aspect that is important for wildlife rehabilitation centers to help injured
and orphaned animals survive is working with science-based procedures. Especially
procedures for healthcare treatments, feeding, and skill development to help more
animals survive rehabilitation:
• Healthcare Treatments Healthcare treatments are more effective when they are
performed based on diagnostic tests rather than observations. Just like in our
hospitals, in rehabilitation centers, it is important to make an accurate diagnosis
so that the right treatment and the right dose of medication can be given. Clear
procedures help prevent errors and save lives.
• Feeding Feeding injured or orphaned animals with the right food is very impor-
tant. Also, the right amount is important, as animals with more body fat tend to
do the best after release. And how the animals are fed can make a difference too.
For example, juvenile mammals that are fed by hand with an artificial milk
replacer survive more often than when being fed with fish.
• Skill Development Critical for helping an animal survive after releasing it to the
wild is teaching them the right skills. These skills include hunting, foraging, and
social interactions. For example, baby deer need a mentor to replace the mother-
fawn relationship. In the video in Fig. 17.2, you can see an eagle’s flight training
(0:00–0:45).
During rehabilitation, it is important to limit the interaction with humans. They
should keep a healthy distance so that they also keep this distance when released in
the wild.
Fig. 17.2
17.1.4 Release
The fourth aspect that is important for wildlife rehabilitation centers to help injured
and orphaned animals survive is knowledge about appropriate release back into the
wild. These factors make the difference between a successful and unsuccessful
release:
• Hard Release Versus Soft Release Some animals are more likely to survive
with a soft release, other animals with a hard release. A soft release means that
animals are familiarized with the area before being released. A hard release
means animals are released without familiarizing themselves with the areas first.
For example, Asiatic black bears prefer a soft release whereas kangaroos prefer
a hard release.
• Habitat Quality Apart from how animals are released, it is important where they
are released. The area where they are released should be appropriate, which
includes providing enough food and shelter. For example, koalas must be released
in an area with eucalyptus trees to be able to survive. In case the area is not opti-
mal, it is also possible to prepare the area, for example by building fences.
• Human Interactions Also important is whether many humans are present in
their new habitat. Most animals are more likely to survive when released in areas
with limited human contact. For example, bears need to be released far away
from people to limit the number of bears being killed by local residents.
In the video in Fig. 17.3, you can see a monkey troop being released. I got tears in
my eye watching this beautiful moment.
17.2 Fences to Protect Wildlife
Another example of what we can do to prevent wildlife from dying is building

fences. As fences can injure animals as well, they need to be well-placed for them
to be beneficial. In places where elephants and lions are protected by well-placed
fences, their populations are slowly growing. This is why fences are in this case
beneficial to elephants and lions:
17.2 Fences to Protect Wildlife 137
Fig. 17.3
17.2.1 Protection from Illegal Hunters
One advantage of well-placed fences around protected areas, such as parks and
refuges, is that they reduce access for illegal hunters. Illegal hunters are for example
after elephant ivory and lion fur. And sometimes their initial target was bushmeat.
For example, in the Lampopo National Park in Kenya, one out of six lions was
hunted by bushmeat poachers. With fewer hunters in their territory, more elephants
and lions survive.
17.2.2 Protection of Their Territory
Another advantage is that well-placed fences protect the animals’ territory, by pre-
serving resources like food and shelter. When people get water and hunt bushmeat
in their territory, less is available for the elephants and lions. And bushmeat hunting
can be dangerous when snares and traps stay well hidden in their territory, even
when the hunters are gone.
Also, people living near protected areas gather firewood, plant crops, and even
build houses in these areas. This causes elephants and lions to have less shelter. So,
fences prevent people from eating their food, and from turning trees and grasslands
into farming land.
17.2.3 Protection from Revenge and Preventive Killing
Well-placed fences also protect elephants and lions by reducing conflicts with peo-
ple. Such conflicts occur when elephants and lions enter our villages (see Fig. 17.4).
Elephants, for example, cause problems when they eat and stand on crops, or when
they knock down houses and other buildings. Lions, for example, cause problems
when they eat cattle and other livestock, or even people. Fences prevent elephants
and lions from entering and being killed out of revenge or fear of future damage.
Fig. 17.4 Elephants and lions sometimes visit villages
17.3 Conclusion
So, wildlife is being threatened by humans as we are taking over land, building
infrastructure, causing environmental pollution, etc. That is why it is important for
their survival to also help them whenever they get injured, their populations are
rapidly shrinking, or are close to going extinct.
One way to help wildlife is by rescuing injured and orphaned animals in wildlife
rehabilitation centers. When these rehabilitation centers have adequate facilities,
enough expert staff, and apply the right procedures and release methods, they can
help millions of injured or orphaned animals each year.
Another way to help wildlife is by limiting contact between humans and wildlife.
For example, elephants and lions can be protected from humans by well-placed
fences. These fences protect them from illegal hunters, protect their habitat so that
they have enough food and shelter, and protect them from revenge and preventive
killing.
As in certain situations, wildlife depends on us for their survival, we can support

wildlife to maintain and increase biodiversity. Here are practical ideas of what you
and I can do to help wildlife survive:
• Shooting wildlife only with a camera, not with a gun
• Contacting wildlife authorities immediately when seeing an injured or
orphaned animal
Credit 139
• Donating money to a wildlife rehabilitation center

• Volunteering at a wildlife rehabilitation center
• Adopting injured animals whenever possible and safe
• Refraining from buying products that are made from hunted animals
• Preventing littering so that waste can’t harm animals
• Avoiding attractions that harm animals such as riding elephants
Credit
Cope, H. R., McArthur, C., Dickman, C. R., Newsome, T. M., Gray, R., & Herbert, C. A. (2022). A
systematic review of factors affecting wildlife survival during rehabilitation and release. PloS
One, 17(3), e0265514.
Di Minin, E., Slotow, R., Fink, C., Bauer, H., & Packer, C. (2021). A pan-African spatial assess-
ment of human conflicts with lions and elephants. Nature Communications, 12(1), 1–10.
Everatt, K. T., Moore, J. F., & Kerley, G. I. (2019). Africa’s apex predator, the lion, is limited
by interference and exploitative competition with humans. Global Ecology and Conservation,
20, e00758.
Figure Credit
Fig. 17.4 Everett Collection on Shutterstock

Chapter 18
Biodiversity Solutions: Sustainable
Agriculture
Abstract We can contribute to solving the biodiversity crisis in many different

ways, for example by supporting sustainable agriculture. Sustainable agriculture
means agriculture is economically viable, keeps human needs into account, and
protects the environment. This type of agriculture can be implemented in different
ways, such as by applying organic as opposed to conventional farming and imple-
menting integrated systems. Organic farming can support biodiversity most when
growing different crops on one field, having smaller fields, growing different plants
in border strips, diversifying and extending crop rotations, and priming seeds. When
implementing integrated systems, trees, livestock, and forage share the same land,
which benefits animals, plants, and the environment.

solutions · Sustainable agriculture · Organic farming · Seed priming · Integrated
systems · Agriculture · Mixed crop fields · Border strips · Semi-natural landscapes
· Crop rotation · Technology · Microorganisms · Seed germination · Plant growth ·
Abiotic stress tolerance · Sustainable farming · Duck-rice system · Silvopasture ·
Regenerative agriculture · Rice · Duck farming · Weed control efficiency · Insect
pests · Beneficiary insects · Silvopastoral · Forest grazing · Agroforestry · Climate
smart agriculture
Apart from supporting wildlife, we can make a big positive difference to biodiver-
sity by supporting sustainable agriculture. Sustainable agriculture means agricul-
ture that is economically viable, keeps human needs into account, and makes sure
that the health of the environment is protected. This is important, to make sure that
not only the current generations have enough to eat but also future generations.
Sustainable agriculture can be implemented in many different ways. Here are
examples of how agriculture can be made more sustainable.
Credit: This chapter is based on eight scientific article by Teja Tscharntke, Durai Singh, N U
Vipriyanti, and Matthew M. Smith and colleagues. (Full citations and links available at the end of
the chapter)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34479-4_18
142 18 Biodiversity Solutions: Sustainable Agriculture
18.1 Organic Farming
One way farming can be made more sustainable is by applying organic farming as
opposed to conventional farming. Conventional farming focuses on feeding more
people by increasing the number of crop plants, using chemicals, planting only one
crop in one area, and making fields alike. Organic farming is a more environmen-
tally friendly farming practice because no synthetic chemicals like fertilizers and
pesticides are used. Instead, organic farmers improve soil fertility by using organic
fertilizers like manure, without adding chemicals.
By refraining from using synthetic chemicals, organic farming supports the num-
ber of plants, birds, bees, and other insects on and around the farmland and increases
biodiversity by one-third. The disadvantage though is that yield reduces at the same
time. This means that more land is needed to produce the same amount of food,
which negatively affects biodiversity. That is why organic farming should be further
improved, so that not only biodiversity increases but also the yield. This is how
biodiversity can be supported even further:
18.1.1 Improving Organic Farming
The first way to support biodiversity while keeping high yields with organic farming
is by improving organic farming practices even futher so that these practices are
even more environmentally friendly. This can be done in several ways:
18.1.1.1 Mixed Crop Fields
One way to make organic farming even more environmentally friendly is by plant-
ing mixed crop fields (see Fig. 18.1). On mixed crop fields, more than one type of
plant grows at the same time. These plants can all be food plants but also can include
grasses or trees to help crop plants.
Mixed crops provide a habitat for more helpful insects and bees. A conventional
field (e.g., a cornfield) has only one type of plant, so it only supports a few types of
insects and bees. Adding more types of plants, either native grasses or other crops,
not only improves biodiversity, but also the number of flowers that are pollinated,
and pest control improves. Pest control means keeping unwanted creatures under
control. And on top of these advantages, mixed crop fields also produce a similar
amount of food as fields with only one type of plant.
18.1 Organic Farming 143
Fig. 18.1 Different crops are grown on the same field
Fig. 18.2 An example of many small fields, showing the increase in field edges
18.1.1.2 Smaller Fields
Another way to make organic farming even more environmentally friendly is by

decreasing the size of fields (see Fig. 18.2). When a landscape is divided into smaller
fields, more field edges exist, which provide living space for insects and bees. This
has a positive effect on the number of wild bees, increases the number of fruits on
fruit trees, and reduces pest infestations.
Unfortunately, this increase in biodiversity comes at a cost: it costs twice as
much to produce grain on a three-hectare farm than a twenty-hectare one. Extra
costs come from the extra labor involved in turning machinery more often and the
resulting increase in plant damage.
The good news: changing the shape of the fields to long narrow rectangles mini-
mizes this extra cost while maintaining the increase in diversity. This is because
long rectangles also have more field edges and pollinators, like bees and butterflies,
can live closer to the crops. Also, the number of predators and parasitoids, insects
that eat harmful insects, increases, so that pest outbreaks become less likely.
18.1.1.3 Border Strips and Semi-natural Landscapes
A third way to make organic farming even more environmentally friendly is by

creating larger border strips and more semi-natural areas in the landscape. Border
strips are the edges of fields, the margins of land between fields. Semi-natural land-
scapes include wildflower patches, native grasses, hedgerows, and trees. These off-
field measures improve biodiversity more than twice as much compared to organic
farming alone.
Adding semi-natural landscapes increases how many different types of animals
can live there. For example, increasing the length of the hedgerow in the border strip
by 250 m (820 ft) per field increases the number of bird species living there 12-fold.
This in turn increases the amount of fruit yield in nearby fields and orchards.
Wildflower patches are also important for increasing biodiversity. For each addi-
tional flower species in the border strip, an additional pollinator, like bees and but-
terflies, can live there and pollinate the field (see Fig. 18.3). Wide border strips with
patches of native flowers can be a habitat for 10 times more pollinators than normal
strips. There is a similar increase in insect predators that damage crops, like the pol-
len beetle, raising the amount of food raised in the adjacent smaller field.
18.1.1.4 Diversified and Extended Crop Rotations
A fourth way to make organic farming even more environmentally friendly is by

diversifying and extending crop rotations. Diversifying means planting different
crops on the same field in subsequent years. Extending crop rotations means extend-
ing the time before a crop is planted on the same field again.
Diversifying is important when farmers plant the same crop over and over, for
example, wheat after wheat or corn after corn. When they grow the same plant, the
same nutrients in the soil are used every year, making plants weaker and more sus-
ceptible to pests. When diversifying by planting wheat, barley, and oil-seed rape in
three subsequent years, the soil is depleted less and pests can be kept under control
more easily. This in turn improves the field’s yield.
Fig. 18.3 Wildflower patches are important for increasing biodiversity
Although planting three different crops in three subsequent years is an improve-

ment compared to planting only one crop, it is helpful to extend crop rotations as
well. For example, wheat is planted again seven instead of three years later. This
gives the soil and insects more time to recover, which increases biodiversity.
18.1.2 Seed Priming
The second way to support biodiversity while keeping high yields with organic
farming is by priming seeds. Priming means exposing seeds to mild stress before
they are planted so that they are more resistant to stronger physical and biological
stresses during germination. A promising technology that can be used for such treat-
ment is cold plasma-mediated priming. This technology uses cold plasma to prepare
seeds. Plasma is a state of matter; other states you’re more familiar with are solid,
liquid, and gas (see Fig. 18.4). It is an electrically charged gas consisting of posi-
tively charged particles, negatively charged particles, and uncharged particles.
Treating seeds with this technology makes seeds more resistant so less or no
pesticides are needed. This is why treating seeds with cold plasma makes them more
resistant:
Fig. 18.4 The density of uncharged atoms (blue) and the presence of electrons (red) define differ-
ent states of matter
18.1.2.1 Removing Disease-Causing Microorganisms
One reason why cold plasma treatment can make seeds more resistant is that it
removes disease-causing microorganisms from seeds. These microorganisms are
called pathogenic microorganisms and are mainly fungi and bacteria (see Fig. 18.5).
They are harmful because they not only interfere with seed germination, growth,
and development of seedlings but also with the growth and development of the
plant. This interference eventually causes the crop yield to be smaller and the qual-
ity of the crop to be lower, causing food security issues.
Cold plasma technology can remove microorganisms by killing those who live
on the seed’s surface. This is called seed decontamination or sterilization. They are
killed because proteins in their membrane of cells are destroyed, so the membrane
doesn’t work properly anymore and their cells including DNA get damaged. A
membrane is a thin sheet of cells that act as a boundary, in this case with the outside
world, like skin. When the cell gets damaged, the cell contents can leak.
The advantage of using cold plasma to remove harmful microorganisms is that it
is effective and non-toxic, and many different pathogens can be killed. Also, genes
in the plant responsible for protecting against harmful microorganisms are trig-
gered, meaning that the plant becomes more resistant in the future.
18.1.2.2 Boosting Seed Germination and Plant Growth
The second reason why cold plasma treatment can make seeds more resistant is that
it boosts seed germination and plant growth. This is because not only the microor-
ganisms on the seed’s surface are killed, but also the physical and chemical
Fig. 18.5 Example of

harmful organisms
(Bipolaris) which can live
on seeds and be killed by
cold plasma
properties of the seed’s surface are changed by cold plasma. They are changed by
reactive molecules in the cold plasma penetrating through the pores of the seed coat.
This makes the membrane more permeable so that gases can be exchanged more
easily and more water can be absorbed. Absorbing water is essential for breaking
seed dormancy and starting seed germination. The more cold plasma is applied, the
more permeable the membrane becomes.
Also, seed germination and plant growth are boosted as phytohormone and
enzyme levels in the seed change after applying cold plasma. Phytohormones are
plant hormones that are produced to regulate the plant’s growth, development,
reproductive processes, longevity, and death. For example, the phytohormone
abscisic acid is important in stress reactions. And, for example, the enzyme amylase
is activated, which speeds up germination.
Furthermore, root growth improves because the level of the phytohormone auxin
increases after cold plasma treatment. More root growth means roots develop more
branches, grow thicker, and root tissue can take up more water and nutrients.
When seed germination and plant growth are boosted, this means more plants
survive, and more flowers and fruits are produced. And fruits weigh more, meaning
cold plasma treatment increases yield. For example, oil seed rape plants grown
using cold plasma-treated seeds produce 13.8% more pods and 8.2% more weight.
Fig. 18.6 Difference between biotic and abiotic stress
18.1.2.3 Improving Abiotic Stress Tolerance
A third reason why cold plasma treatment can make seeds more resistant is that it
improves abiotic stress tolerance. Abiotic stress is stress caused by non-living fac-
tors (see Fig. 18.6). Plants for example may have to deal with too much or too little
water, high or low temperature, high salt concentration in soil, and heavy metal
toxicity. Cold plasma treatment is helpful because it:
• changes the seed coat structure so that salt can’t enter
• reduces the acidity (pH) level in the seed, which helps to detoxify for example
the heavy metal cadmium
• it increases the production of a plant hormone that is important for plant tissue in
response to for example drought, salinity, and low temperature. This improves
germination and plant growth
18.1.2.4 Enhancing Seed Metabolism
A fourth reason why cold plasma treatment can make seeds more resistant is that it
enhances seed metabolism. Seed metabolism involves the chemical processes that
keep it alive. One of these processes is anaerobic respiration. Anaerobic respiration
means that energy can be created without oxygen. This is necessary for germination
as this often takes place underground without oxygen. So, when anaerobic respira-
tion is improved, this allows better germination and healthier seedlings.
18.2 Integrated Systems 149
Also, cold plasma treatment causes soluble sugar levels to increase. This is help-
ful because soluble sugars are very sensitive to environmental stresses. Having more
of these sugars makes the plant more likely to survive. And also protein levels
increase, which is helpful because they provide nutrients for germination.
18.2 Integrated Systems
Another way farming can be made more sustainable is by applying an integrated

system. An integrated system means that two different components are brought
together into one system. Examples of integrated systems are combining rice fields
with ducks and applying silvopasture. Silvopasture involves combining trees, live-
stock, and forage on the same piece of land. This is why duck-rice and silvopasture
integrated systems are beneficial to biodiversity:
18.2.1 Duck-Rice Integrated System
One reason why integrating ducks and rice fields is beneficial to biodiversity is that
ducks reduce the need for pesticides and herbicides. This is because when ducks
walk around a rice field looking for food, they can find weeds, insects, and snails
(see Fig. 18.7); exactly what a farmer wants to get rid of. That’s why ducks make it
possible to grow rice without using chemical pesticides and herbicides. And the
good thing is: they are even better at this job.
Fig. 18.7 Ducks on rice fields

Another reason why integrating ducks and rice fields is beneficial to biodiversity
is that ducks improve soil fertility. This is because they poop when walking around
and enjoying delicious snacks. By pooping on the rice field, their feces are a fertil-
izer for the soil. But also, by paddling, trampling, and foraging, they bring more air
into the soil and change the physical structure. This improves soil fertility. This
means that farmers don’t need to use chemical fertilizers that would reduce
biodiversity.
A third reason why integrating ducks and rice fields is beneficial to biodiversity
is that ducks increase the number of species that can live on rice fields. When no
ducks are roaming the rice fields, a mono-culture is created. Mono means single or
one: only rice grows on these fields. When inviting ducks and refraining from using
chemicals, also other plants and animals can find a place to live here.
18.2.2 Silvopasture
One reason why integrating trees, livestock, and forage on the same piece of land is
beneficial to biodiversity is that this has many benefits for animals. These benefits
include:
• The trees provide shade for the animals, which will become more and more
important with increasing temperatures due to climate change and the larger
number of very hot days. This is important because higher temperatures limit
livestock to gain weight, produce milk, become pregnant, and impacts their over-
all health.
• The trees provide for example cows a safer place to have their calves during sum-
mer than an open field.
• Wildlife habitat is increased, as the areas used for silvopasture can become natu-
ral refugees for other animals as well. And in winter it provides shelter.
• Silvopasture improves livestock health, for example because they can walk
around freely (see Fig. 18.8).
Another reason why integrating trees, livestock, and forage on the same piece of
land is beneficial to biodiversity is that this has many benefits for plants. These
benefits include:
• Trees are protected to make the silvopasture work. This can be done by protect-
ing individual trees or by putting a fence around the area.
• There are many positive interactions taking place in the system, which benefits
forage and tree growth.
• Wildlife habitat for plants is increased, as the areas can also become a home for
other plants than crops and trees.
Another reason why integrating trees, livestock, and forage on the same piece of
land is beneficial to biodiversity is that this has many benefits for the environment.
These benefits include:
18.3 Conclusion 151
Fig. 18.8 Many different combinations of plants and animals are possible in silvopasture; in any
combination, animals can walk around freely
• The plants protect the soil from wind and water erosion.
• Silvopasture can improve water quality and soil health, for example because
fewer or no chemical pesticides and fertilizers are needed.
• It can be used to restore for example oak rangelands. Or to restore a savanna
when it has developed into a desert area.
• It can be used to control invasive species. Invasive means that these species are
not naturally living in these areas. They often harm the environment as they often
grow fast and are difficult to control.
This means silvopasture has many environmental advantages at once. For example,
when silvopasture is used in orchards, it contributes to fertilizing trees, grass man-
agement, feeding livestock, and reducing the rodent habitat. Reducing rodent habi-
tat is important as rodents can significantly damage orchard trees. Especially young
trees are easily damaged or killed: during winter time when other food is scarce,
they eat away the bark from trees up to the snow line.
Another example is shown in the video in Fig. 18.9 concerning a farmer in Brazil
who uses silvopasture because he has the planet at heart (0:46–7:08).
18.3 Conclusion
So, biodiversity can be improved by applying sustainable agriculture. This can be

done by implementing organic as opposed to conventional farming and by imple-
menting integrated systems.
Fig. 18.9
When implementing organic farming, it is important that typical organic farming

is improved even further. This is because biodiversity is increased through organic
farming but yields are reduced. This can be achieved by growing different crops on
one field, having smaller fields, growing different plants in border strips, and diver-
sifying and extending crop rotations. Also, it is possible to apply seed priming as
this makes seeds more robust and increases the yield while reducing the need for
harmful chemicals.
When implementing integrated systems, animals live on the farming land. For
example, biodiversity is improved when ducks live on rice fields. And animals,
plants, and the environment benefit when trees, livestock, and forage share the
same land.
As agriculture is essential to grow enough food for the over eight billion people in
this world, it is important to increase yield while keeping the environment healthy.
Here are practical ideas of what you and I can do to make agriculture more
sustainable:
• Using organic fertilizers for plants
• Using natural insecticides such as plant extracts
• Using water-efficient irrigation systems
• Turning part of your garden into a forest and letting animals live there
• Converting conventional farmland into a silvopasture area
• Buying products from a silvopasture farm
Credit
Organic Farming:
Tscharntke, T., Grass, I., Wanger, T. C., Westphal, C., & Batáry, P. (2021). Beyond organic farm-
ing–harnessing biodiversity-friendly landscapes. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 36(10),
919–930.
Credit 153
Cold Plasma Seed Priming:
Adhikari, B., Adhikari, M., & Park, G. (2020). The effects of plasma on plant growth, develop-
ment, and sustainability. Applied Sciences, 10(17), 6045.
Pańka, D., Jeske, M., Łukanowski, A., Baturo-Cieśniewska, A., Prus, P., Maitah, M., Maitah,
K., Malec, K., Rymarz, D., Muhire, J. de D, & Szwarc, K. (2022). Can cold plasma be used
for boosting plant growth and plant protection in sustainable plant production? Agronomy,
12(4), 841.
Shelar, A., Vikram Singh, A., Dietrich, P., Singh Maharjan, R., Thissen, A. N., Didwal, P., Shinde,
M., Laux, P., Luch, A., Mathe, V., Jahnke, T., Chaskar, M., & Patil, R. (2022). Emerging cold
plasma treatment and machine learning prospects for seed priming: A step towards sustainable
food production. RSC Advances, 12(17), 10467–10488.
Waskow, A., Howling, A., & Furno, I. (2021). Mechanisms of plasma-seed treatments as a poten-
tial seed processing technology. Frontiers in Physics, 174.
Duck-Rice Integrated System:
Singh, R. D., Hussainy, S. A. H., Paulpandi, V. K., Raveena, R., Ariraman, R., & Mohankumar,
M. P. (2021). Optimizing duck (Anas platyrhynchos) release for weed and insect pest control
under integrated rice (Oryza sativa) based farming system. Research on Crops, 22(3), 466–469.
Vipriyanti, N. U., Lyulianti, S. P., Puspawati, D. A., Handayani, M. E., Tariningsih, D., & Malung,
Y. U. (2021, November). The efficiency of duck rice integrated system for sustainable farming.
In IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science (Vol. 892, №1, p. 012008). IOP
Publishing.
Silvopasture:
Smith, M. M., Bentrup, G., Kellerman, T., MacFarland, K., Straight, R., Ameyaw, L., & Stein,
S. (2022). Silvopasture in the USA: A systematic review of natural resource professional and
producer-reported benefits, challenges, and management activities. Agriculture, Ecosystems &
Environment, 326, 107818.
Figure Credits
Fig. 18.1 David A Litman on Shutterstock

Fig. 18.2 Tom Fisk on Pexels
Fig. 18.3 Roverhate on Pixabay
Fig. 18.4 Designua on Shutterstock
Fig. 18.5 Pisut KEAWMANEE on Shutterstock
Fig. 18.6 BigBearCamera on Shutterstock
Fig. 18.7 neconion on Shutterstock
Fig. 18.8 Deborah Lee Rossiter on Shutterstock
Part IV
Conclusion
As the three planetary crises have a broad range of far-reaching consequences, and
often more far-reaching than we realize, it is essential to take action. This is not only
essential but it is also very doable because the broad range of consequences also
allows for a broad range of measures that let us move in the right direction. So, an
important question is “why are we not doing more yet?”.
One of the reasons for our reluctance to implement essential measures is our
psychology. Psychology involves the human mind and its functions, especially
functions that influence our behavior. In practice, this means our mindset, beliefs,
emotions, feelings, perceptions, motivation, etc. It is a main success factor in many
fields: in general, to be successful, 80% is about psychology or mindset and only
20% about skills. So, to be able to apply skills toward a healthier planet, psychologi-
cal aspects need to be taken into account too.
Chapter 19
Psychological Aspects
Abstract Psychological aspects related to adopting more environmentally friendly

behavior need to be addressed urgently, as neglecting them hinders the successful
implementation of measures toward a healthier planet. These psychological aspects
include beliefs about ourselves, independent of whether they are true or not. Also, it
is important to set positively formulated goals and ensure we are intrinsically moti-
vated as they define our focus and influence whether we make an effort to live more
sustainably. Moreover, the cost of change needs to be addressed, fear of failure
needs to be taken seriously, and the experienced pains and gains of environmentally
friendly behavior need to be addressed, as they can hold us back from adopting new
behavior. Finally, enabling consistency over time is essential for ensuring long-
lasting positive change.
Keywords Psychology · Mindset · Environmental psychology · Behavioral

change · Fear of failure · Empowering beliefs · Limiting beliefs · Goal-setting ·
Intrinsic motivation · Extrinsic motivation · Consistency
Psychological aspects related to adopting more environmentally friendly behavior

need to be addressed urgently because neglecting them hinders the successful
implementation of measures toward a healthier planet. Even though it may feel
more comfortable to neglect them, we cannot afford to do so as the health of our
planet and our health are already at risk. Before being able to overcome them, we
need to recognize them. Here are psychological aspects that are often neglected:
19.1 Beliefs About Ourselves
The first psychological aspect that needs to be taken into account in our efforts
toward a healthier planet is our beliefs about ourselves. Beliefs about ourselves can
support us achieve things. But beliefs can also hinder us. Supporting beliefs are also
called empowering beliefs and hindering beliefs are also called limiting beliefs. And
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34479-4_19
158 19 Psychological Aspects
Fig. 19.1 Changing our

beliefs leads to different
results: different beliefs
cause different thoughts,
which change our feelings,
which in turn change our
actions, which cause
different results
whether they support or hinder us is independent of whether what we believe is

true or not.
One example is related to beliefs about ability. When we believe “I can contrib-
ute toward a healthier planet”, we are more likely to try and adopt new, more envi-
ronmentally friendly behavior. And we are more likely to keep trying and eventually
indeed make a positive difference, confirming our belief that we can contribute
toward a healthier planet. Alternatively, when we would believe the opposite “I can-
not contribute toward a healthier planet”, we wouldn’t even try different behavior or
would give up fairly quickly, confirming our belief that we can’t make a positive
difference. Henry Ford stated this as “Whether you think you can, or you think you
can’t, you’re right”.
Another example is related to beliefs about responsibility. When we believe “I
am responsible for my actions towards a healthier planet” or “a better world starts
with myself”, we are likely to adopt more environmentally friendly behavior. When
we believe the opposite, “others are responsible for my actions” or “others need to
go first”, we are more likely to lean back and keep behavior up that harms the
environment.
To prevent ourselves and others from being held back by limiting beliefs and
instead focus on or adopt empowering beliefs, it is important to reflect on our
thoughts (see Fig. 19.1). This starts with identifying what we think, then asking
whether each of these thoughts is helpful or not, and if necessary adopting new,
more constructive thoughts. We can identify what we think by ourselves, for exam-
ple by writing our thoughts down. And we can identify what we think with the help
of others, for example by talking to others about our thoughts concerning environ-
mental issues and solutions. When we adopt new thoughts, we will have different
feelings, which lead to different actions, and as a consequence different results.
19.2 Goal-Setting
The second psychological aspect that needs to be taken into account in our efforts
toward a healthier planet is goal-setting. Goal-setting is important because goals
influence where we are heading. While humans tend to focus intensely on nega-
tively formulated goals about what we don’t want and where we don’t want to go, it
is more helpful to focus on positively formulated goals about what we do want and
19.3 Intrinsic Motivation 159
where we do want to go. This is an important distinction, as our goals define our
focus, our focus defines where our energy goes, and where our energy goes influ-
ences where we end up.
For example, when a fast-driving car on a countryside road starts getting out of
control, the driver can choose between the negatively formulated goal “I don’t want
to hit that tree” or the positively formulated goal “I want to stay on the road”. With
the negatively formulated goal, the driver starts looking at the tree they want to
avoid and because of this focus steers in that direction. This makes it way more
likely to bump into that tree. If the driver chooses the positively formulated goal,
they would keep looking at the road and automatically steer in that direction.
Probably missing any trees.
As it makes a big difference whether a goal is formulated positively or nega-
tively, it is essential to create a vision with positively formulated goals. After doing
so, our efforts will automatically focus on going in that direction and changing our
behavior accordingly.
19.3 Intrinsic Motivation
The third psychological aspect that needs to be taken into account in our efforts
toward a healthier planet is intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is motivation
that comes from within, for example because we enjoy doing something. This is
opposed to extrinsic motivation, which comes from external factors, such as grants,
fees, and legislation. When we are intrinsically motivated to adopt environmentally
friendly behavior, our motivation is usually stronger and lasts longer, because we
want to do it, instead of feeling that we have to do it (see Fig. 19.2). So, to inspire
ourselves and others to make more environmentally friendly decisions, it is helpful
to trigger intrinsic motivation.
Intrinsic motivation to adopt more environmentally friendly behavior can be trig-
gered in many different ways. What is appealing can vary between people, in differ-
ent situations, and at different times. Example benefits are:
• being able to buy our lover flowers from money saved by drying clothes on a
laundry rack instead of using the drier
• having less hassle when disposing of biological waste in a compost bin than a bin
that goes to landfill
• being able to use time more efficiently caused by fewer waiting times when trav-
eling by train instead of airplane
• having a good feeling about making a positive difference when picking up litter
and putting it in a bin
• being part of a group by adopting the norm of a more environmentally friendly
lifestyle
To successfully trigger intrinsic motivation either in ourselves or in others, it is
important to know our/their motivations at that moment and in that particular
Fig. 19.2 If we want to, we are intrinsically motivated; if we have to, we are extrinsically motivated
situation. When we know this, we can focus on and point out benefits of environ-
mentally friendly behavior that are relevant for us/them. Once these benefits are
recognized, we are more likely to integrate new behavior into our daily life.
19.4 Cost of Change
The fourth psychological aspect that needs to be taken into account in our efforts
toward a healthier planet is the cost of change. The cost of change means the effort
needed to change our behavior and make different decisions. This effort can be on
different levels such as time, money, and energy.
The cost of change can hold us back from changing our habits. Habits are impor-
tant for humans as they make daily life easier. This is because having to make
behavioral decisions again and again would require too much time and cognitive
resources. But this also means that changing a habit or making different decisions
requires effort. Humans tend to only change their habits and make different deci-
sions when the cost of keeping a habit is (much) larger than the cost/effort of chang-
ing their behavior (see Fig. 19.3).
But to make sure our efforts toward a healthier planet are successful and we can
speed our progress up, we need to change our habits. To make changing our habits
more likely, we can either reduce the cost of change by making it easier to adopt
more environmentally friendly habits or increase the pain of not-changing by mak-
ing it harder to keep environmentally unfriendly habits.
Examples of reducing the cost of change by making it easier to adopt more envi-
ronmentally friendly habits are:
19.5 Fear of Failure 161
Fig. 19.3 Change

becomes likely when the
costs to change a habit are
smaller than the costs of
keeping the habit
• supermarkets that stop offering single-use plastic bags to carry home vegetables
• energy providers increasing the amount of renewable energy
• restaurants using gentle nudges to inspire us to choose more environmentally
friendly meals
• installing a water-saving shower head at home to make sure we use less water
during showering
Examples of increasing the pain of not-changing by making it harder to keep envi-
ronmentally unfriendly habits are:
• using car-sharing instead of having our own car as it inspires us to only use a car
when really necessary
• raising CO2 taxes to make it more expensive to continue environmentally
unfriendly habits
• making meat more expensive than vegetarian alternatives
To get started in daily life by changing our habits, we can begin with adapting
behavior with a low cost of change. This means behavior that we can change easily.
19.5 Fear of Failure
The fifth psychological aspect that needs to be taken into account in our efforts
toward a healthier planet is fear of failure. Fear of failure means irrational anxiety
about not being able to achieve standards and goals set by ourselves or others. When
feeling this anxiety, we are less likely to adopt or even try new behavior.
For example, when being used to renting a fossil-fuel-based car, fear of failure
caused by not knowing how to operate an electric vehicle and recharge on time can
hold us back from renting an e-car. Or when wanting to use renewable energy, fear
of failure caused by worrying about not making the best choice can hold us back
from choosing a new energy provider. Or when being convinced that digitalization
is helpful to become more energy efficient, fear of failure caused by missing skills
can hold us back from adopting new technology.
To overcome any fear of failure, it is helpful to adopt the point of view that even
when it doesn’t work out, we learned something. This is depicted in the never-fail-
cycle (see Fig. 19.4): when doing something differently (acting), and afterward
Fig. 19.4 The

never-fail-cycle
looking at whether this worked out (reflecting), it is possible to learn from it (learn-
ing), and decide to do it differently or in the same way in the future (planning). This
shows that it is impossible to fail as long as we continue the cycle.
19.6 Experienced Pains and Gains
The sixth psychological aspect that needs to be taken into account in our efforts
toward a healthier planet is the experienced pains and gains of environmentally
friendly behavior. Experienced pains and gains are important as they are the two
main driving forces in decision-making: people either make a decision to move
away from pain or towards pleasure. Which driving force is preferred differs
between people and situations.
The first driving force of experienced pains can trigger us to make environmen-
tally friendly decisions. For example, we can decide to:
• install solar panels to prevent higher costs for electricity based on fossil fuels due
to CO2 taxes
• shop second-hand clothes because we can’t bear the thought of contributing to
the huge landfills in other countries
• switch off lights when leaving the room because we want to reduce the hassle of
replacing broken lights
The second driving force of experienced gains can also trigger us to make environ-
mentally friendly decisions. For example, we can decide to:
• install solar panels to contribute to the transition from burning fossil fuels to
renewable energy
• shop second-hand clothes because they remind us of having contributed to a
healthier planet each time we wear them
• switch off lights when leaving the room because it cuts the electricity bill so we
can treat ourselves with a massage
To trigger environmentally friendly behavior, these pains and gains should be taken
into account. For example, governments can increase experienced pains by imple-
menting regulations that force citizens and companies to make more environmen-
tally friendly decisions and raising fees if these are not put into practice. At the same
19.7 Consistency 163
time, governments can increase experienced gains by implementing incentives that

invite citizens and companies to make more environmentally friendly decisions.
Similarly, companies can do the same for their employees, cities for their inhabit-
ants, schools for their students, etc. When the right driving force is available for the
right person at the right time, they are more likely to make environmentally friendly
decisions.
19.7 Consistency
The seventh psychological aspect that needs to be taken into account in our efforts
toward a healthier planet is consistency. Consistency means that we keep environ-
mentally friendly behavior up over a longer period of time. Keeping this behavior
up is helpful because many small actions toward a healthier planet add up; by apply-
ing them consistently, we ensure that the positive impact keeps growing. We can
achieve this by for example adopting a new habit, such as taking shorter showers or
making a commitment, such as doing a weekly cleanup with friends.
As discipline or a strong intrinsic motivation is required for humans to be consis-
tent over a long period of time, it is also helpful when these actions are performed
automatically. This can be done in several ways, for example:
• using digitalization, such as sensors that automatically switch off the lights when
no one is in the room
• not offering the option, such as removing meat dishes from the menu in a restau-
rant or canteen
• using an alternative product, such as LED lights instead of light bulbs to
save energy
Figure Credits

Fig. 19.2 adapted from WindNight on Shutterstock
Chapter 20
How We Can Take Action
After having recognized how these psychological aspects hold us back from adopt-
ing more environmentally friendly behavior, it is essential to overcome them. Here
are exercises that help you enter the never-fail-cycle by supporting the reflecting,
learning, and planning steps (Tables 20.1, 20.2, 20.3, 20.4, 20.5, 20.6, and 20.7):
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34479-4_20
166 20 How We Can Take Action
Table 20.1 Exercise concerning beliefs about ourselves

Instructions Example solution
1. Choose a topic related to living more Topic: Waste in my bin:
environmentally friendly and write down for I found empty crisps bags in my bin. I finished
5 min every thought that comes to mind. the bag with my friend when she visited last
Make sure you don’t stop writing. And don’t weekend. We had a great time playing board
worry about the quality of the text, spelling, games. She always brings a bag and we always
punctuation etc., this is not important. If you finish it. I don’t think I will be able to get rid
want to know more about this type of writing of this next time. I finished the other one with
and how it works, it is clearly explained in my partner while watching TV.
the video in Fig. 20.1. I also found the plastic in which I brought
bread from the supermarket home. I don’t
know how yet, but I’m sure I’ll be able to find
a way to do this differently.
2. Go through your text and mark your I found empty crisps bags in my bin. I finished
beliefs. Use different colors for empowering the bag with my friend when she visited last
and limiting beliefs. weekend. We had a great time playing board
games. She always brings a bag and we always
finish it. I don’t think I will be able to get rid of
this next time. I finished the other one with my
partner while watching TV.
I also found the plastic in which I brought bread
from the supermarket home. I don’t know how
yet, but I’m sure I’ll be able to find a way to do
this differently.
3. For each belief, ask yourself whether this I don’t think I will be able to get rid of this next
is true or whether you can come up with time:
examples that show the opposite. Examples that show the opposite are:
on holiday, I don’t discard crisp bags
when I feel relaxed, there are fewer crisp
bags in the bin
when my partner is on a work trip, there are
fewer crisp bags in the bin
I also have a fun evening without eating
crisps
I used an inside-out crisp bag as gift
wrapping
I’m sure I’ll be able to find a way to do this
differently:
I’m creative
4. If the belief is not true and therefore As I believe I can’t get rid of these crisp bags,
limiting, write down what the consequences they keep ending up in my bin and I keep eating
of the belief are in your life. crisps, which not only causes more waste, it has
also caused me to gain weight.
5. Create a new belief that is more I can find ways to make sure crisp bags don’t end
constructive. up in my bin anymore
6. Think of three things you would do when Getting the latest crisp bag out of the bin to use it
believing this new, constructive belief. Make as gift wrapping (see Fig. 20.2)
sure these three things only take 3–5 min to Replacing crisps from the shopping list
do. Put them into practice immediately or Typing in my favorite search engine “how to
schedule in your calendar when you will put reuse crisp bag” to look for further creative ideas
them into practice. on how to reuse crisp bags
20 How We Can Take Action 167
Fig. 20.1
Fig. 20.2 An inside-out crisp bag used as gift wrapping
Table 20.2 Exercises concerning goal-setting

1. Write down the goal(s) you set for yourself − I want to reduce the number of crisp bags in
related to living more environmentally my bin from 5 to 1 a week
friendly. If you don’t have any of these goals, − I don’t want to discard any crisp bags
choose (an)other goal(s) that you set for anymore
yourself.
2. For each goal, add a plus in front when it is + I want to reduce the number of crisp bags in
a positively formulated goal and a minus my bin from 5 to 1 a week
when it is a negatively formulated goal. − I don’t want to discard any crisp bags
anymore
(continued)
Table 20.2 (continued)

3. For the negatively formulated goals, − I don’t want to discard any crisp bags
rephrase the goal so that it is positively anymore → I want to make sure to send no
formulated. more crisp bags to landfill
4. Read your negatively formulated goal and − I don’t want to discard any crisp bags
notice how you feel. Do the same for the anymore → I feel neutral, this is a brainy
positively formulated goal. Do you feel a decision
difference? − I want to make sure to send no more crisp
bags to landfill → this feels better, it feels
empowering
Table 20.3 Exercises concerning intrinsic motivation

1. Go back to the goals you wrote down in the I want to reduce the number of crisp bags in
previous exercise. Replace each negatively my bin from 5 to 1 a week
formulated goal with the positively formulated I want to make sure to send no more crisp
equivalent. bags to landfill
2. Add a number between 1 and 10 indicating I want to reduce the number of crisp bags in
how eager you are to achieve this goal (1 is my bin from 5 to 1 a week – 8
“I’m not eager at all” and 10 is “I’m extremely I want to make sure to send no more crisp
eager”). bags to landfill – 6
3. For each goal, write down all your reasons I want to reduce the number of crisp bags in
why you want to achieve this goal. my bin from 5 to 1 a week:
I want to contribute to solving the waste crisis
I want to lose weight
I want to be a good example to my children
I want future generations to be able to enjoy
our planet as much as we do
I like feeling good when I contribute to a
healthier planet
I want to save money
I want to make sure to send no more crisp
bags to landfill:
My partner wants us to go zero-waste
The city council only allows a certain
number of waste bags per year
4. For each reason, mark whether this is an I want to contribute to solving the waste crisis
intrinsic reason because you want this or an → intrinsic
extrinsic reason because someone else wants I want to lose weight → intrinsic
this. I want to be a good example to my children →
intrinsic
I want future generations to be able to enjoy
our planet as much as we do → intrinsic
I like feeling good when I contributed to a
healthier planet → intrinsic
I want to save money → intrinsic
My partner wants us to go zero-waste →
extrinsic
The city council only allows a certain number
of waste bags per year → extrinsic
(continued)
Table 20.3 (continued)

5. For each goal with more extrinsic than My partner wants us to go zero-waste → I
intrinsic reasons, think of further reasons why want this as well
you want to achieve this goal. The city council only allows a certain number
of waste bags per year → it saves me a lot of
money when I send fewer bags to landfill,
which I can then use to buy healthier, organic
food
6. When you have finished, again rate your I want to make sure to send no more crisp
eagerness on achieving the goal by adding a bags to landfill → 7, yes, I want this even
number between 1 and 10. Do you notice a more!
difference? Are you more motivated to achieve
these goals?
Table 20.4 Exercises concerning cost of change

1. Write down any behavior you changed in the I reduced the number of crisp bags from 5 to 1
past to live more environmentally friendly. a week
I started using multi-use bamboo instead of
single-use plastic razors
2. For each behavioral change, write down the I reduced the number of crisp bags from 5 to 1
reasons that made it possible for you to change. a week:
I realized I want to go zero-waste as well
I started using these bags to wrap gifts for
children’s birthday parties
I started using multi-use bamboo instead of
single-use plastic razors:
The bamboo razors were on offer
3. Write down any behavior concerning I’m still driving to work
contributing toward a healthier planet you feel
you should change, but haven’t changed yet.
4. For each behavior, write down what is I don’t like to get wet when I cycle to work
holding you back from changing this behavior. and it rains
I worry about my colleagues laughing at me
when they see me in wet clothes
5. Brainstorm what you can do differently so I can buy a proper rain suit
that you don’t feel held back. Be creative and I can leave a dry set of clothes at work just in
don’t evaluate your ideas yet. case I get wet
I can always cycle to work and only go by car
when it rains
6. Mark all ideas that you can implement. I can buy a proper rain suit
I can leave a dry set of clothes at work just in
case I get wet
I can always cycle to work and only go by car
when it rains
7. Choose one to three ideas and put them into I will bring a set of clothes to work tomorrow
practice. Ask for help if necessary. I will ask for a rain suit as my birthday present
Table 20.5 Exercises concerning fear of failure

1. In the previous exercise, you wrote down I don’t like to get wet when I cycle to work
what is holding you back from changing certain and it rains
behaviors. Go back to this list and mark all I worry about my colleagues laughing at me
reasons that are related to fear and anxiety. when they see me in wet clothes
2. For each of these reasons, ask yourself what The worst thing that could happen is that my
the worst thing is that could happen when you colleagues indeed laugh at me but it is very
change your behavior anyway. How likely is unlikely that they will do so
this to happen?
3. If your fear or anxiety warns you of I can cycle to work on Friday when most
something that is unlikely to happen, say thank people are in home-office
you to your fear or anxiety for trying to protect
you, ignore these feelings, and change your
behavior anyway. Ask for help if necessary.
4. Alternatively, if your fear warns you of I could cycle to work tomorrow and use the
something that could happen, say thank you to back entrance so that I can change my clothes
your fear or anxiety for trying to protect you, before going into the office
and brainstorm what you need so that you feel
more secure and able to put this new behavior
into practice. Be creative and don’t evaluate
your ideas yet.
5. Choose one to three ideas and put them into I will cycle to work on Friday when few
practice. Ask for help if necessary. people are around and will use the back
entrance
Table 20.6 Exercises concerning experienced pains and gains

1. Go back to the ratings you added to your I want to make sure to send no more crisp
goals in the intrinsic motivation exercise. bags to landfill – 7
Choose the goal with the lowest rating.
2. Is this goal formulated to avoid a pain or Avoid pain
reach a gain?
3. If the goal is formulated to avoid a pain, I want to give empty crisp bags a second life
come up with an alternative that focuses on
reaching a gain. Or the other way around.
4. Rate this goal with a number between 1 and I want to give empty crisp bags a second
10 indicating how eager you are to achieve this life – 9
goal. Do you notice a difference? Are you more
motivated to achieve this new goal?
5. Repeat this exercise for the goal with the I want to reduce the number of crisp bags in
second-lowest rating, etc. my bin from 5 to 1 a week – 8
Reach gain
I want to reduce the horrible sight of 5 crisp
bags a week in my bin to 1–8
Equally motivated
Table 20.7 Exercises concerning consistency

1. Go back to the behaviors you changed in the I reduced the number of crisp bags from 5 to 1
past as you wrote down in the cost of change a week – I managed to achieve this half of the
exercise. Rate each behavior on consistency time
between 1 and 10 (1 is “I seldom do this when
I have the opportunity” and 10 is “I do this
every time I have the opportunity”).
2. Take the behavior that you do least My friend brought a crisp bag for our board
consistently. Write down the reasons for doing game evening
this inconsistently. I was feeling very stressed so opened another
bag
3. Brainstorm what you can do differently so I can make sure I don’t have a crisp bag at
that you can do this more consistently. Be home so that I have to go to the shop first if I
creative and don’t evaluate your ideas yet. really want one
I can tell my friend that I eat fewer crisps so
that she doesn’t bring a bag next time
I can look for further ways to reuse these bags
I can make sure these bags are recycled instead
of sent to landfill
4. Mark all ideas that you can implement. I can make sure I don’t have a crisp bag at
home so that I have to go to the shop first if I
really want one
I can tell my friend that I eat fewer crisps so
that she doesn’t bring a bag next time
I can look for further ways to reuse these bags
I can make sure these bags are recycled instead
of sent to landfill
5. Choose one to three ideas and put them into I can tell my friend that I eat fewer crisps so
practice. Ask for help if necessary. that she doesn’t bring a bag next time
6. Repeat this exercise for the behavior with I started using multi-use bamboo instead of
the second-lowest consistency rating, etc. single-use plastic razors
I only use plastic razors when I’m traveling as
these razors are often provided in hotels for
free
I can bring my own razor and leave the free
ones untouched
Figure Credit

Index
A B
Abiotic, 148 Bacteria, 48, 49, 58, 63, 84, 86, 89, 92,
Absorption, 122 113–115, 146
Abutment, 29, 30 Balcony, 104, 111, 130
Acidity, 4, 12, 14, 26, 44, 84, 86, 94, 148 Bamboo, 169, 171
Additive, 65, 89 Barrier, 98, 104
Afforestation, 40–41 Bear, 136, 162
Africa, 129 Beaver, 119–125
Aggression, 22 Bee, 129
Agriculture, 9, 14, 20, 49–51, 83, 87, Beetle, 115, 116, 144
105, 141–152 Bioaugmentation, 86
Agrochemicals, 87 Biochar, 41, 45
Air, 4, 12, 21, 26, 27, 39, 42, 53, 54, 83, 85, Biodegradation, 26, 84, 85
86, 97–104, 108, 110, 150 Biodiesel, 39
Algae, 64, 66, 116 Bioenergy, 40, 45
Alkalinity, 43–44 Biofilm, 115
Aluminum, 78, 80, 81 Biofuels, 39, 45, 46
Amalgam, 77 Biomass, 37, 40–42, 65
America, 119, 120 Biopilling, 85
Ammonium, 116, 123 Bioremediation, 84–86
Amphibians, 124 Biostimulation, 87
Anaerobic, 148 Boron, 4
Anthropogenic, 1, 105 Brain, 77–81
Antibiotics, 115, 134 Bridge, 25–34
Arctic, 48, 120 Buckwheat, 92, 93
Arsenic, 88, 91, 92 Bushfire, 19–20
Asia, 120 Bushland, 19
Asphalt, 27, 54, 118 Bushmeat, 137
Asthma, 54 Butterfly, 127, 144
Atmosphere, 4, 7, 12, 26, 35–37, 39–43, 45,
47, 51, 91
Atom, 37, 38, 43, 45, 146 C
Austria, 13 Cadmium, 55, 91, 92, 108, 148
Avalanche, 28 Cancer, 54, 88, 89
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to 173
Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34479-4
174 Index
Cannabis, 93 E
Carbon dioxide (CO2), xi, xii, 1, 4, 7, 8, 12, Eagle, 135
35–47, 51, 84, 86, 89, 95, 101, 116, Earthquake, 28
117, 161, 162 Economy, 129
Catastrophe, 133 Education, 19
Charcoal, 41, 102 Electron, 78, 146
Chemistry, 1 Elephant, 134, 136–139
Chlorophyll, 66 Emotion, 107, 110, 155
Chromium, 91 Employee, 163
Combustion, 39, 54 Energy-efficient, 34, 161
Community, 18, 118 Enzyme, 86, 87, 89, 91, 147
Compost, 59, 118, 159 Eocene, 4
Consciousness, 54 Equipment, 85, 134
Conservation, 120 Era, 4
Consumption, 8, 14, 34, 64 Erosion, 21, 27, 41, 85, 116, 151
Contaminants, 94 Eruption, 7
Copepods, 65, 66 Eucalyptus, 136
Copper, 78–81, 91, 94, 108 Europe, 10, 13, 120, 129
Corn, 144 Eutrophication, 116
Cornfield, 142 Evaporation, 12
Corrosion, 26 Excavation, 84, 85
Cosmetics, 82, 89 Exhaustion, 41
Council, 168, 169 Exotic, 129–130
Countryside, 159 Expansion, 33, 53
Cow, 49–51, 67, 150 Expert, 134, 135, 138
Cretaceous, 4 Explosive, 90, 91
Crop, 9, 20, 41, 50, 114, 115, Ex-situ, 85
118, 137, 142–146, Extinction, 105, 133
150, 152
Cycling, 8, 34
F
Fabric, 100
D Facade, 99, 101
Daylight, 72, 73 Facility, 134, 138
DDD, 87 Farming, 117, 134, 137, 142–149, 151, 152
DDE, 87 Fear, 21, 137, 161–162, 170
DDT, 87 Female, 127
Decarbonization, 36, 37 Fence, 133–139, 150
Deforestation, 21 Fermentation, 49
Depression, 18, 19, 21, 22 Fertilizer, 41, 50, 81, 83, 85, 87, 95, 114, 117,
Digitalization, 161, 163 118, 142, 150–152
Disaster, 18, 133 Field, 49, 113, 114, 142–144, 149, 150,
Disease, 77–82, 88, 114, 146 152, 155
Disorder, 18, 19, 21, 78 Firefly, 70, 71
DNA, 78, 79, 87, 146 Firewood, 137
Dopamine, 21, 80, 81 Fish, 65, 67, 87, 89, 114, 124, 135
Drought, 12, 18, 20, 148 Fission, 37, 38
Drug, 22, 110, 134 Flatworm, 117
Duck, 149, 150, 152 Flood, 17–19, 29, 31, 122, 133
Durability, 26 Floodplain, 122
Dye, 89 Flower, 72, 127–130, 142, 144, 147, 159
Dyke, 122 Fog, 30, 54
Index 175
Food, 23, 25, 50, 59, 64–67, 70, 73, 86, 87, 89, Infiltration, 116
95, 110, 114, 115, 117, 128–130, Inflammation, 77, 79, 80, 108
135–138, 142, 144, 146, 149, 151, Infrastructure, 25, 31, 138
152, 169 Inhabitant, 19, 99, 163
Forage, 149, 150, 152 Insect, 114, 142–145, 149
Forest, 19, 40, 44, 109, 113, 124, 152 Insecticides, 152
Forestry, 41 In-situ, 85, 86
Frog, 89 Intrinsic, 159–160, 163, 168–170
Fruit, 11, 72, 144, 147 Ion, 43
Fuel, 4, 8, 35–40, 45, 46, 54, 85, 104, 162 Iron, 78–81, 120
Fungus, 42, 58, 84, 87, 88, 92, 113–115, 146 Irrigation, 15, 29, 152
Ivory, 137
G
Genes, 66, 77, 86, 146 J
Geothermal, 37 Jellyfish, 64
Germination, 145–149
Grape, 10–15
Grapevines, 9–14 K
Grass, 49, 50, 142, 144, 151 Kidney, 89
Grassland, 113, 137
Groundwater, 43, 92, 116, 122
L
Laboratory, 59–60
H Landfill, 50, 51, 159, 162, 168–171
Habit, 50, 160, 161, 163 Landslide, 28, 33
Habitat, 58, 117, 123, 134, 136, 138, 142, 144, Lawn, 111
150, 151 Legislation, 159
Hatchling, 71 Legume, 114
Hawk, 72, 115 Lifecycle, 39
Headache, 54 Lifestyle, 159
Health, 17–23, 25, 54, 55, 77, 81, 84, 99, 103, Lime, 44
107–111, 113–118, 128, 129, 141, 150, Limestone, 44
151, 157 Lion, 134, 136–138
Healthcare, 135 Litter, 60, 159
Heat, 18, 27, 29, 35, 37–39, 47, 84, 108, 123 Livestock, 50, 67, 114, 137, 149–152
Hedgerow, 144 Lobster, 65
Hedge, 98, 99 Lung, 54
Hemp, 92, 93
Herbicides, 87, 91, 149
Hormone, 21, 70, 147, 148 M
Hospital, 101, 135 Mammal, 133, 135
Hunter, 137, 138 Manganese, 55, 78, 79, 81
Hurricane, 19 Manure, 50, 51, 142
Hydrocarbon, 83, 85, 86 Meadow, 44
Hydrogen, 86 Medication, 77, 134, 135
Melatonin, 70
Membrane, 146, 147
I Mercury, 80, 81, 88
Ice, 1, 5, 6, 30, 48 Metabolism, 66, 86, 148–149
Illegal, 137, 138 Metal, 27, 55, 63, 66, 77–83, 85, 88, 90–92,
Illness, 21, 135 94, 108, 148
Indigenous, 21 Methane (CH4), 44, 47–51
176 Index
MethaneSat, 49 Parkinson’s disease, 77–81, 88

Methanotroph, 48 Pathogen, 114–115, 146
Microalgae, 39 Peatland, 44
Microorganism, 26 Penguin, 63
Microplastic, 53, 54, 57, 58, 63–66, 89 Penicillin, 115
Migration, 70 Permafrost, 27, 28, 47, 48
Mind, 155, 166 Pest, 114–115, 117, 142, 144
Mindfulness, 23 Pesticide, 66, 81, 83, 85, 87, 89, 91, 95, 117,
Mindset, 155 125, 130, 142, 145, 149, 151
Mono-culture, 150 Petroleum, 88–90, 94
Monoxide, 54 Phagostimulant, 64
Mood, 18, 21, 78, 109 Phenology, 10
Moonlight, 75 Photodegradation, 91
Motivation, 81, 155, 159–160, 163, 168–170 Photosynthesis, 40, 44, 117
Mountain, 13 Phytoaccumulation, 92
Mycoremediation, 84 Phytodegradation, 91
Phytoextraction, 92
Phytofiltration, 94
N Phytohormone, 147
Nano-additives, 101–102, 104 Phytoimmobilization, 91
Nano-particles, 101 Phytoncides, 109
Nanoplastics, 54, 63, 66, 67 Phytoplankton, 42
Nano-TiO2, 101, 102 Phytoremediation, 84, 85, 90
Neuron, 77–81 Phytostabilization, 91–92
Neurotransmitter, 78, 80 Phytostimulation, 92–94
Never-fail-cycle, 161, 162, 165 Phytovolatilation, 90, 91
Nickel, 55, 86, 94 Plankton, 64, 65
Nitrogen, 86, 89, 114 Plasma, 145–149
Nuclear, 37–38, 45 Plastic, 53, 54, 57–61, 63–69, 83, 89, 161,
Nutrient, 40–43, 65, 67, 78, 85–87, 89, 95, 166, 169, 171
108, 114, 116, 117, 144, 147, 149 Pliocene, 4
Pollination, 127
Pollinator, 127–130, 144
O Pollutant, 54, 55, 63, 66, 81, 83–95, 97–104,
Oak, 151 108, 116
Oasis, 99–100, 104 Polyethylene, 65
Ocean, 1, 7, 21, 26, 42–44, 57, 58, 60, 61, 67, Polystyrene, 65, 66, 89
71, 84, 124 Precipitation, 26, 28, 30, 31
Opioid, 134 Predator, 70–72, 114, 144
Organic, 14, 40, 50, 51, 66, 72, 83, 89, 91, 95, Pre-industrial, 7, 48
101, 103, 114, 117, 123, 142–149, 151, Protection, 125, 137–138
152, 169 Protein, 79–81, 86, 123, 146, 149
Organism, 64–66, 84 Psychology, 155
Oxyfuel, 39
Oxygen, 6, 26, 39, 50, 58, 85, 86, 89, 114,
116, 134, 148 R
Oxygenase, 86 Rabbit, 115
Oyster, 66 Radiation, 29, 59, 101
Radicals, 78
Railway, 27
P Rain, 7, 10–12, 18, 26, 27, 29, 30, 122,
Pacific, 21, 57, 58, 63 169, 170
Packaging, 14, 15 Rainfall, 6, 13, 122
Pancreas, 79 Rainwater, 120, 122
Index 177
Reforestation, 40–41, 46 Stomata, 91

Regulation, 51, 70, 72, 79, 84, 117, 162 Storm, 19, 31
Rehabilitation, 134–136, 138, 139 Strawkling, 68
Release, 43, 48, 64, 87, 114, 135, 136, 138 Stress, 18, 19, 21, 29, 145, 147–149
Reliability, 26 Strontium, 94
Reproduction, 66, 70, 80 Subtropics, 6
Reptile, 124, 133 Sugar, 12, 14, 64, 79, 123, 149
Rescue, 125 Suicide, 18, 20
Reservoir, 38, 42, 48, 100, 114 Summer, 59, 150
Restoration, 44 Sun, 38, 71, 101, 123
Restriction, 11, 12, 33, 65 Sunbeam, 71
River, 57, 61 Sunflower, 95, 130
Road, 25, 27, 33, 104, 159 Sunlight, 40, 58, 59, 89, 91
Rodent, 151 Superfood, 108
Roof, 29, 100–101, 111, 130 Supermarket, 161, 166
Superstructure, 26
S
Safety, 25–34, 39 T
Salinity, 84, 148 Timber, 26, 27
Savanna, 151 Tire, 54
Schizophrenia, 21 Tissue, 78, 147, 148
Sea, 4–6, 8, 21, 22, 27, 60, 68, 71 Titanium, 101
Seaweed, 50 Tornado, 18, 19
Security, 20, 25, 146 Tower, 102, 103
Sediment, 122 Toxic, 65–67, 79, 80, 83, 86–89, 95
Seed, 40, 46, 128, 145–149, 152 Toxin, 86
Selenium, 91 Traffic, 33, 54, 74, 98, 102, 103
Sensor, 163 Transport, 8, 104
Sequestration, 41–42 Transportation, 39, 85
Serviceability, 26–27 Trash, 60
Settlement, 28 Travel, 98
Shark, 63 Tropics, 6
Shelter, 136–138, 150 Turtles, 63, 71
Shorebirds, 115
Silvopasture, 149–152
Smog, 54, 101 U
Snail, 117 Ultraviolet, 101, 102
Snow, 26, 28–30, 32, 46, 120, 122, 151 Underground, 103, 148
Society, 107 Underwater, 6, 58, 59
Socio-economic, 4, 18–20 Urbanization, 127–130, 133
Soil, 11, 12, 26–28, 40–42, 53, 60, 83–95, 97,
100, 113–118, 122, 142, 144, 145, 148,
150, 151 V
Solar, 8, 12, 29, 34, 37, 162 Veterinarian, 134, 135
Specialization, 128–129 Vineyard, 11, 15
Species, 7, 40, 63, 65, 70, 72, 85, 89, 90, 105, Vitamin, 134
113, 117, 119, 120, 123, 124, 128–130,
133, 144, 150, 151
Spectrum, 72 W
Stability, 5 Watershed, 120–125
Staff, 134–135, 138 Wetland, 44, 50–51, 108, 120, 122, 124, 125
Status, 18–20 Whale, 63
178 Index
Wildfire, 18–20, 31, 33, 133 Y

Wildlife, 117, 125, 133–139, 141, 150 Yield, 9, 11, 12, 14, 20, 87, 114, 142,
Wind, 8, 18, 29, 33, 37, 54, 85, 151 144–147, 152
Wine, 9–15
Winter, 59, 72, 150, 151
Z
Zero-tillage, 41
X Zero-waste, 168, 169
Xenobiotics, 89 Zinc, 80, 81, 88, 91, 108

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Erlijn van Genuchten

A Guide to a Healthier Planet

ISBN 978-3-031-34478-7 ISBN 978-3-031-34479-4 (eBook)

Paper in this product is recyclable.

I consider myself blessed to have an opportunity to work internationally, including

coworkers, and countless others. It is heartening to witness the growing global

United Nations Development Programme Piyush Verma

We are currently living in unprecedented times, facing a triple planetary crisis.

Table 1 Overview of Part I

Table 2 Overview of Part II

Table 3 Overview of Part III

Fig. 2 Juergen Priewe on Shutterstock

Part I Climate Change

3.3 Conclusion���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 22

Keywords Science · Science communication · Climate change · Climate change

As climate change is expected to have direct, disastrous effects in the future, it is

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 3

Fig. 1.2 Temperatures have changed naturally over millions of years

1.2 Sea Level Rise

1.3 Regional and Seasonal Changes

Fig. 1.5 A computer-generated image of a microscopic foraminifera fossil

While climate change is expected to impact us long-term in many ways, it is also

1.6 How We Can Take Action

As climate change is currently happening fast due to CO2 emissions, it is important

This Chapter Is Based On:

Keywords Science · Science communication · Climate change · Climate change

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 9

Fig. 2.1 Climate change impacts our wine in many ways

2.2 Impact on Plant Growth

2.3 Impact on Product Quality

2.5 Impact on the Existence of Viticultural Areas

2.7 How We Can Take Action

Fig. 2.4 Corks can be

What grape growers can do:

This Chapter Is Based On:

Fig. 2.1 congerdesign on Pixabay

Abstract Climate change has many consequences, including a negative impact on

Keywords Science · Science communication · Climate change · Climate change

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 17

3.1 Impact of Extreme Weather Events

3.1.3 Tornadoes, Hurricanes, and Storms

3.1.4 Wildfires and Bushfires

3.2 Impact of Environmental Changes

3.2.2 Sea Level Rise

3.4 How We Can Take Action

This Chapter Is Based On:

Fig. 3.1 Dreame Walker on Shutterstock

Keywords Science · Science communication · Climate change · Climate change

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 25

Fig. 4.1 Degraded part of the superstructure of a bridge

• Heat-Induced Damage to Pavements and Railways More frequent heat waves

Fig. 4.2 A damaged road impacting the serviceability of the bridge

• Higher Risk of Bridge Side-Slope Failure and Higher Risk of Landslides

4.4 Increased Demand Risks

4.5 Accidental Loads Risks

• Higher Chance of Vehicle Accidents The same circumstances make it more

4.6 Extreme Natural Events Risks

• More Frequent Temporary Bridge Restrictions With increased extreme

4.8 The Interconnection Between Risks

4.10 How We Can Take Action

This Chapter Is Based On:

Fig. 4.1 mykhailo pavlenko on Shutterstock

Abstract Climate change is already having many negative consequences and is

Keywords Science, Science communication · Climate change · Climate change

United Nations Development Programme Piyush Verma

Part I Climate Change

3.3 Conclusion�� 22

1.2 Sea Level Rise

1.3 Regional and Seasonal Changes

1.6 How We Can Take Action

2.2 Impact on Plant Growth

2.3 Impact on Product Quality

2.5 Impact on the Existence of Viticultural Areas

2.7 How We Can Take Action

3.1 Impact of Extreme Weather Events

3.1.3 Tornadoes, Hurricanes, and Storms

3.1.4 Wildfires and Bushfires

3.2 Impact of Environmental Changes

3.2.2 Sea Level Rise

3.4 How We Can Take Action

4.4 Increased Demand Risks

4.5 Accidental Loads Risks

4.6 Extreme Natural Events Risks

4.8 The Interconnection Between Risks

4.10 How We Can Take Action

5.1 Conventional Mitigation Strategies

5.1.3 Carbon Capture and Storage Utilization

5.1.4 Alternative Fuels and Improving Energy Efficiency

5.2 Negative Emission Strategies

5.2.1 Bioenergy Carbon Capture and Storage

5.2.2 Afforestation and Reforestation

5.2.4 Soil Carbon Sequestration

5.2.5 Direct Air Carbon Capture and Storage

5.2.7 Enhanced Terrestrial Weathering

5.2.8 Ocean Alkalinity Enhancement

5.2.9 Wetland Restoration and Construction

5.4 How We Can Take Action

6.6 How We Can Take Action

7.1 Biodegradability Depends on Environmental Factors

7.2 Biodegradability in a Laboratory Versus

7.5 How We Can Take Action

8.1 Affecting Food Intake

8.2 Impacting Growth and Development

8.3 Causing Damage Due to Toxicity

8.4 Entering the Food Chain

8.6 How We Can Take Action