HOW THERMAL ANALYSIS MEETS THE CHALLENGES

OF FUTURE IC ENGINE DEVELOPMENT

Even with limited resources and a tight R&D budget

MAY 2023 REALIS SIMULATION, FORMERLY

C RI ARDO SOFTWARE
 INTRODUCTION:
DOING MORE WITH LESS

Nearly all Internal Combustion Engine (ICE)
designers today are under pressure to contain
costs. In fact, many are working with tiny
teams and even tinier budgets, as
manufacturers slash the number of combustion
engine models in their line-ups to free up
resources to invest in electric vehicles. Some
automakers have even gone so far as to say
their days of investing in conventional engines
are over.
Yet ICEs are still the most prevalent
powertrain. Now augmented by electrification,
they have a long life ahead of them in hybrid
and new E-fuel architectures. This means
the challenges associated with ICE design and
development have not gone away, even
if the budget has. In fact, due to the smaller
engine size in the hybrid set up and different
combustion models for hydrogen / E-fuels
CONTENTS driven by the constant pressure on emissions,
they’ve become more acute.
This white paper looks at one way OEMs
can roll out significantly more power ful
IC development at an af fordable cost: by
extending vir tual product development
capabilities with specialised in-cylinder
thermal prediction sof tware that addresses
all of the key challenges of delivering green
IC engines— ef ficiency, per formance and
emissions.
Looking at the limited-capability tools now
being used for thermal analysis, this paper
concludes that OEMs would be wise to consider
investing in the next generation of predictive
tools, as a way to truly do more with less.

4 INTRODUCTION: DOING MORE WITH LESS How can Original Equipment Manufacturers
(OEMs) possibly make resource cuts and
5 ICE: WHERE ARE WE NOW ? overcome ICE design challenges at the same
time?
7 THE CHALLENGES OF DELIVERING MODERN
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES The answer is by doing more virtually, to
create new efficiencies that radically shorten
development times and reduce costs. This
9 THE LIMITATIONS OF CONVENTIONAL TOOLS
current period of transition, where lower-
emission ICEs are competing with hybrids, pure
11  EXTENDING YOUR DESIGN CAPABILITIES WITH
electrics and alternative-fuel vehicles
REALIS SIMULATION SOFTWARE for engineering design resources, is an ideal
time for OEMs to make careful investments in
15 SUMMARY processes that wring better business results
from smaller development budgets.

3 HOW THERMAL ANALYSIS MEETS THE CHALLENGES OF FUTURE IC ENGINE DEVELOPMENT HOW THERMAL ANALYSIS MEETS THE CHALLENGES OF FUTURE IC ENGINE DEVELOPMENT 4
 ICE: WHERE WE ARE NOW ?
IC engines are smaller, more ef ficient, more
power ful, more reliable, more environmentally
friendly and more af fordable today than at
any point in history. A century of innovation
has brought us here, fuelled by heavy R&D
investments that manufacturers were happy to
make as they could be reasonably assured of
healthy returns.
Against the onslaught of electric, that’s no
longer the case.
A timeline with a hard stop:
2050
Traditional ICEs are power units with a limited
lifespan. Passenger vehicles and vans in the EU
are scheduled to be zero tailpipe emissions by
2035 (1)
. Replaced by electric vehicles, sales are
set to peak soon in most western markets.
Heavy duty long haul and off-highway ICEs will
be around for longer as cleaner alternatives are
more difficult to achieve for these vehicles. But
the industry is planning full electrification by
2050 and/or to convert to other forms of
propulsion like E-fuels, natural gas, hydrogen
combustion and hydrogen fuel cells.
The clock is ticking.
With the industry up against hard deadlines, it’s
no surprise that we’re seeing minimally viable
investments in combustion engine
R&D as suppliers prepare for electrification.
The combination of lower budgets and
subsequent reskilling of the workforce means
ICE development teams are smaller and less
resourced than ever before.
(1) European Parliament : EU ban on the sale of new petrol and diesel cars from 2035 explained, November 2022
(2) Statista: Passenger car registrations in the United Kingdom between 2018 and 2021, by fuel type, April 2022
5 HOW THERMAL ANALYSIS MEETS THE CHALLENGES OF FUTURE IC ENGINE DEVELOPMENT
Caught between a rock and a
hard place
At the same time, petrol and diesel-powered
engines are not done yet. Of all new UK
passenger car registrations in 2021, over 80%
still used petrol or diesel. (2) And hybrid electric
vehicles (HEVs), which combine a petrol or
diesel engine with an electric motor, have made
up at least 60% on average of all electric
passenger vehicles sold since 2015.
This throws up a series of interesting
challenges for IC engineers. HEVs are a
competitive technology because there’s the
possibility of downsizing the IC engine as the
power of the electric motor increases, thus
reducing fuel consumption and emissions
overall. But the smaller engine needs
considerable design changes to fulfil its new
role as a lighter, simpler, range-extending
power train.
The fact that engineers are having to deliver
innovation despite having a very small budget
allocation, is just the latest plot twist in a
century of design improvements for ICEs.
Ever-changing emissions
standards reduce design and
development product cycles
Then there are increasingly restrictive emissions
standards to consider. The new 2025 Euro 7
rules, for example, could see the further
extension of Ultra Low Emissions Zones
regulations which would require hybrid cars
forced to drive in electric-only mode in certain
locations.
THE FACT THAT ENGINEERS ARE HAVING TO
DELIVER IC ENGINE INNOVATION DESPITE HAVING
A LOW BUDGET ALLOCATION IS JUST THE LATEST
PLOT TWIST IN A CENTURY OF DESIGN
IMPROVEMENTS FOR INTERNAL COMBUSTION
But forcing the IC engine to be turned of f ICE design cannot afford to
for long periods leads to higher cold-star t stand still
emissions, which potentially requires a new For OEMs, a fast and proactive design process
approach on how thermal warm up is managed. is not a nice-to-have frill, but an essential
bottom-line function that every manufacturer
According to at least one trade body, Euro should consider carefully.
7 emissions proposals pose an early danger
The brutal fact is, if you do not invest in
to ICEs and could make some of today’s ICE
ICE development, then you’re going to have
power trains economically unviable by 2026
trouble satisfying emissions standards moving
without a huge technical leap to manage the
forward—and you will lose market share.
new emissions standards. (3) Details of Euro 7
History shows that companies that get these
were announced in 2022 and will come into
force on 1st July 2025. It is expected to be
impor tant investment decisions wrong risk
the final European Union emissions standard
going under.
prior to all cars becoming zero-emission at the
The challenge is designing ef ficient, high-
tailpipe in the future.
per formance ICE power cylinders in less time
and with fewer resources, via tools that are
Whatever form they take, it’s clear that global
easier to use by a smaller number of people.
emissions standards are not standing still.
And that means extending vir tual product
Updates come out frequently and this puts
design ( VPD) capabilities to applications
pressure on IC engineers to design and develop
that to date have not been fully suppor ted by
compliant engines faster than ever before.
computer-aided simulations.
(3) Autocar, New rules could make ICE engines unviable by 2026, 28 May 2021.
HOW THERMAL ANALYSIS MEETS THE CHALLENGES OF FUTURE IC ENGINE DEVELOPMENT 6
 THE CHALLENGES OF DELIVERING
MODERN INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
Today, hardly any vehicle goes into production
without at least some of its components
being designed and prototyped in a vir tual
environment. This is even more necessary
today as ICEs are exposed to much greater cost
and time pressure than a few years ago —they
must adapt to new per formance and emissions
standards, and quickly, as we have seen.
Central to ICE per formance is temperature
regulation. There is no escaping the fact
that ICEs get hot and to levels that have a
significant ef fect on both the per formance
of the system and its structural integrity. As
such, the accurate prediction of temperature
distributions throughout a power train structure
is the rock on which many key aspects of engine
design are built.
In par ticular, we can identify three interrelated
challenges that warrant a precise, vir tual
analysis of thermal conditions throughout the
engine:
• Managing thermal warm up
• Minimising friction and oil consumption to
meet ever-challenging emission targets
• Reducing noise, vibration and harshness
(NVH)
Thermal warm up
Reducing the time it takes for an engine to heat
up from cold to optimum conditions is vital for
combustion performance and emissions control.
During the engine warm-up phase, thermal and
brake efficiency is low due to less efficient
combustion. Friction is also higher due to high
viscosity oil at the lower temperatures.
7 HOW THERMAL ANALYSIS MEETS THE CHALLENGES OF FUTURE IC ENGINE DEVELOPMENT
By shor tening the time in which the engine
is operating inef ficiently, more fuel can be
saved, leading to lower amounts of pollutant
emissions. Lubricants per forming at optimum
should also cause less wear; meaning a longer
engine life.
There are a number of strategies and solutions
for shor tening engine warm-up time. However,
selecting the most appropriate solution is not
an easy task. Many factors impact the warm-
up rate, including external temperatures,
environmental conditions, driving terrains,
driver profiles, loads and vehicle speed.
Temperature analysis, per formed at the earliest
point in the concept design, must take account of
every relevant permutation.
Thermal warm-up presents a greater challenge
with HEVs than conventional combustion engines
since the vehicle is running from cold more of ten.
Every time the engine switches from electric to
ICE propulsion is the equivalent of another cold
star t. If future emissions standards do indeed
require HEVs to operate in electric-only mode
in cer tain locations—as the EU is proposing—
there is the very real risk that higher cold-star t
emissions could land the OEM on the wrong side
of regulation.
Thermal maps are essential to predicting the
occurrences of thermal warm-up. Engineers need
the ability to per form transient calculations,
where they can input the drive cycle — electric
driving, ICE taking over, stop-star ts and other
cold-to-hot states—and map them across all
driving profiles to highlight problems.
Friction and oil consumption
Friction between the piston and the ring system
accounts for a major portion of the losses in an
engine. High friction means more wasted energy
and lower performance. Therefore, any effort to
control the clearances to minimise lubrication loss
will have an immediate impact on engine
efficiency and vehicle fuel economy.
Temperature analysis is critical when seeking to
reduce parasitic losses due to friction. Structural
temperatures drive the localised increased
temperature of the oil between the piston and
liner which, when interacting with the sur face
proper ties, can cause scuf fing. In the worst case,
the piston can fail entirely from wearing as the
piston skir t hits the liner.
Advanced 3D simulation package for the design
and analysis of piston assemblies is the preferred
method to understand these phenomena and
HOW THERMAL ANALYSIS MEETS THE CHALLENGES OF FUTURE IC ENGINE DEVELOPMENT
predict ef fects in order to approach the optimum
design. These tools come with various features
but a quality toolset will:
• Simulate the lubrication of the piston-liner
inter face and the wrist pin bearing
• Calculate the forces, torques and secondary
motions of the piston, wrist pin, and
connecting rod as a function of crank angle
over a complete engine cycle
• Save money by reducing the need for
expensive engine tests.
However, while 3D simulation tools can deliver
significant incremental benefits in reducing
parasitic losses due to friction, they do not
deliver in-cylinder thermal predictions with any
degree of accuracy. They are good tools, but
there is a gap in functionality that engineers have
to fill with temperature calculations derived from
other sources.
Noise, Vibration and Harshness
Piston slap is an subjectively unpleasant noise
characteristic that occurs when the piston ‘slaps’
the cylinder liner during a cold start. It is a minor
problem in conventional ICEs since the engine is
warmed up only once at the start of the journey. It
is a far greater problem in HEVs because the
vehicle is running from cold more often.
There is a tradeoff between reducing NVH under
cold conditions and reducing piston friction under
hot running conditions. The first requires tighter
installation clearances to reduce perceivable
NVH levels in the vehicle cabin. However,
reduced clearances have the detrimental ef fect
of going against ef for ts to increase engine
ef ficiency and reduce whole engine friction.
Finding the correct balance for these two
characteristics is a major driver for engine
manufacturers.
8
 THE LIMITATIONS OF CONVENTIONAL What’s the alternative? For tunately there is another option. Table 1

TOOLS
As engineers are trying to optimise systems
before testing, they obviously cannot rely on
costly physical development to produce the
thermal measurements required. Rather, they
will use predictive methods to successfully
capture thermal ef fects early in the design
phase.
Any at tempt to derive the temperature
distribution analy tically relies heavily on the
accuracy of the boundary conditions used.
And the key dif ficulty for obtaining boundary
conditions comes from predicting the heat flux
compares the three conventional tools with a
If empirical equations are not robust enough, 1D
new solution from Realis Simulation that can
gas dynamic simulation is not accurate enough,
be used easily, with limited data, in timescales
and CFD is not fast enough, what other choice is
appropriate for real engineering development,
there?
Empirical equations and and which delivers results that are discrete
databases: not robust enough enough for conclusive structural investigations.
The empirical equations and database method
of measuring the heat flux in the cylinder uses
test-bed data from other engineering
TABLE 1
developments to make predictions for the next
generation of engines. It is a fast and simple
method that can yield accurate results, but it Databases 1D CFD Realis Solution
relies heavily on the past experience of engines
Speed Fast Fast Time consuming High speed
of a similar family. As such, the method is not calculation of
robust for novel engine design or suppliers who heat prediction
don’t have access to OEM test data.
Predictive No Yes Yes Yes

as a result of the combustion which acts on

1D gas dynamic simulation: not capacity

the cylinder liner, the flame face, the intake

accurate enough Data Relies on similar Requires key Needs detailed Works with
and exhaust valves and por ts, and the piston 1D gas dynamic simulation tools are popular requirements past experiences engine data not data which may minimal inputs
assembly. methods for engine system optimisation and available to most not be available
virtual calibration, and are often capable suppliers at the concept
of performing exhaust warm-up transient stage
Acquiring this data is a big challenge,
especially since none of the three analy tical analysis. Speed is their advantage, and the tools Accuracy Limited; not Limited Accurate Accurate under
only require parameters associated with the robust for novel multiple full and
methods most of ten used for it— databases,
current design. However, although the engine design part load
1D gas dynamic simulation and full in-cylinder
calculation of total heat flux in the cylinder can conditions, both
CFD combustion analysis—are truly up to the
as a steady state
task. be very accurate, there is poor spatial
and transient
resolution. The method does not provide a
distribution good enough for accurate thermal Summary Not equipped Does not provide Highly complex Fast, easy and
analysis. to deal with a distribution analysis ef fective
fast-changing good enough for
CFD: not fast enough requirements accurate thermal
Full in-cylinder Computational Fluid Dynamics such as emission analysis
(CFD) is a fully predictive method that can standards
provide precise information with discrete
enough spatial resolution for useful thermal
prediction. However, it is a complex study
requiring a good understanding of spray and
combustion modelling. The significant weeks
and months of engineering time required
OEMS ARE CRYING OUT FOR A GAME-CHANGING
for this analysis means you’re more likely to use
it in research than general engineering
ALTERNATIVE TO THE TRADITIONAL WAYS OF
development.
CONDUCTING THERMAL ANALYSIS.

9 HOW THERMAL ANALYSIS MEETS THE CHALLENGES OF FUTURE IC ENGINE DEVELOPMENT HOW THERMAL ANALYSIS MEETS THE CHALLENGES OF FUTURE IC ENGINE DEVELOPMENT 10
 EXTENDING YOUR DESIGN CAPABILITIES
WITH REALIS SIMULATION
FE ARCE-Vulcan is Realis Simulation’s fully
predictive simulation tool for the iterative
calculation of engine thermal boundary
conditions. Easy to use by resource-limited
engineering teams, it creates accurate high-
fidelity predictions of temperatures for all
key engine components at an early stage of
engine design. The tool runs incredibly quickly
compared to computational tools like CFD;
delivering the accuracy of the full 3D approach,
but in timescales that enable engineers to use
it at the concept and prototype phases.
In fact, it can provide return-on-investment
metrics in just days or weeks.
There is nothing else on the market like this
unique product.
Save Time ﹥Save Effort ﹥ Save Money
The benefits of using an
integrated toolset
This thermal analysis capability is the latest
member of an end-to-end, fully integrated
automated toolset, delivering solutions for
design challenges including:
• Per formance and combustion development
• Durability
• Thermal maps for real time vir tual
calibration
• Minimising friction and NVH
Feeding accurate thermal calculations
across the rest of the tool suite suppor ts a
higher fidelity across the rest of the analysis
work, improving quality and delivering new
capabilities in a cost-ef fective way.
11 HOW THERMAL ANALYSIS MEETS THE CHALLENGES OF FUTURE IC ENGINE DEVELOPMENT
Any gap in your VPD capabilities, where Using FEARCE-Vulcan as par t of an integrated
engineers go back to mathematical models, toolsuite will lower the chances of issues being
trial-and-retrial processes and computational found at the production line, accelerating time
tools that aren’t quite up to the task, causes a to market for new engine developments. This is
bot tleneck. The estimated cost of production really essential in a rapidly changing market.
The toolchain works on distributed line downtime is £24,000 per minute.
computations, so that dif ferent use cases (for
example, dif ferent speed and load conditions)
can be run on dif ferent computers—providing
an ultra-fast turnaround of results.
REALIS SIMULATION’S
In simple terms: you get a far bet ter output for
less time, effort and money.
THERMAL ANALYSIS TOOL
Better analysis in less time:
reduce time and cost to market
CFD may take four or five days to perform one
thermal simulation and you may need to run
300 such simulations over the course of
a concept design. FEARCE-Vulcan is faster
SOLUTION SPEED REDUCE TIME TO MARKET
by orders of magnitude, running thousands of
variables in time periods that support real-life • High-speed calculation of heat • Mature prototype from analysis.
prediction. • Reduce reliance on physical testing.
engineering analysis.
• Faster by order then CFD method. • Saves time and money on the
The typical benchmark for realistic analysis development.
times is in the region of 15 hours, so engineers
can initiate runs at close of business and have a
clear set of results by morning. FEARCE-Vulcan
provides these results in minutes.
The calculated temperatures are then used
to predict piston secondary motion and ring
dynamics, and to bet ter predict friction, wear
and oil consumption of the cylinder and the
PREDICTIVE TOOL MORE ANALYSIS REALIS TECH
structural durability of the components.
This allows dif ferent design variants to be • Allows to study the IN LESS TIME KNOWHOW
assessed incredibly quickly at a large number ef fect of detailed
• Solution speed and • Combination of Realis’s
of operating conditions. design parameters on
possibillity to per form original theoretical
component temperatures.
quick design studies model and quasi-
• Ideal for concept design
For an industry that is driving a significantly adds significant value empirical method.
development,
shor tened development cycle, this is game- to the client. Successfully used on
changing. many projects
HOW THERMAL ANALYSIS MEETS THE CHALLENGES OF FUTURE IC ENGINE DEVELOPMENT 12
 Bar-raising accuracy; make rapid as far as possible. This works very well for Once the first build is delivered into production, Ideally, the model should be constructed as
process improvements with low-fidelity tools which run very quickly there invariably is a re-alignment to resolve an infinite feedback loop, where calculations
fewer resources and have small data packets that can easily problems, make adjustments and improve the made at the concept level can be continuously
move between the cloud and a local desktop. engine based on feedback gained from real-life updated and refined as the engine is
Uniquely, FEARCE-Vulcan is a thermal analysis
However, moving higher-fidelity tools to the conditions. designed—avoiding overengineering and
tool which is able to consider all the heat flows
cloud is unrealistic as these applications create excessive costs.
in and out of the cylinder. Currently, it
gigaby tes—and sometimes teraby tes— of data.
is common for engineers to run temperature
calculations where they take combustion CFD DIGITAL ENGINEERING COVERS THE FULL DEVELOPMENT CYCLE, LEVERAGING DATA TO
Another benefit of using an integrated toolsuite
and apply it to the structure. But they won’t OPTIMISE CURRENT AND FUTURE PRODUCT
is that it allows engineers to use the cloud in
necessarily include the interactions of the
a more ef ficient way. All the lower-fidelity
pistons and the liner in that calculation—or, if
they do, it would not be a coupled simulation.
tools in the toolsuite are in the cloud. This new 1 2 3 6
tool is the cement between these dif ferent Digital Backbone UX Based Virtual Product Fleet Management
The capability offers a bar-raising level of
products; it allows as many calculations as Centralised Specification Development Defining predic tive
accuracy as it captures all heat transfer paths ecosystem to connec t
Bringing the user System Optimisation / prescriptive
possible to be run in the cloud before the teams across the
experience to the forefront and Vir tual Calibration maintenance to improve
in detail, and considers all heat inputs and produc t lifecycle.
results are fed into the higher-fidelity system. Authoritative source
of the development Leveraging connec ted, produc t per formance
outputs together in a coupled simulation. For programme to create a state of the ar t modelling and reduce warrant y
This reduces the need for on-premise hardware of truth for produc t in
more compelling produc t. tools to reduce claims.
the first time, engineers have data that allows development and use.
development time and cost
solutions which has an obvious cost benefit.
investigation into the ef fects of detailed Automated Data
design parameters on component temperatures Insight S IG N
AND AN AL
YS I TI CS 6
What is more, the days when OEMs had near- DE S- OS
RI GN
(cooling jet targeting, cooling jet flow, gallery Supplying auto- 2 GH
T PR
O
per fect visibility into every par t of the engine curated, validated, FI
RS
volumes, engine operating conditions, etc). and up to date data T
design are long gone. Today, it is common for TI
M
through interac tive
VIRTUAL 3

TE
DA
E
some design elements, such as piston design, dashboards to enable

UP
Thermal maps showing temperatures at timely and ef fec tive

\SERVICE
to be outsourced. Frustratingly, the piston
dif ferent loads and speeds can quickly be fed
decision making.
1 DIGITAL BACKBONE DIGITAL TWIN 5
supplier may have only sketchy knowledge of
into the per formance simulation, so engineers
PHYSICAL

TA
the OEMs data as the OEM will not share it.

O
can see how the engine is behaving transiently
This means that the supplier cannot do all the
in real time in a real drive-cycle environment.
calculations it needs to do. 4 SM
ART N
From there, you can predict emissions V IR VA LI DATI O
7 T UA
L C A LI B R ATI O N
significantly bet ter than with any other
FEARCE-Vulcan has very low requirements
toolchain. It’s expected that future iterations
for input data and so is ideal for clean-sheet
of the tool will be able to make real-time
design or for suppliers without access to 7 4 5
predictions of emissions in a real drive system. Feedback loop Prototype Phase Manufacturing
detailed engine information. Looking forward,
Leveraging in-field Deletion Insight
we anticipate a shif t towards using data data insights to enable
And, since every thing in the toolsuite is Smar t Validation Enabling Leveraging insight
encryption so that OEMs can seamlessly share continuous improvement
systems validation from manufac turing
in both current and
integrated and streamlined, there is next-to- using plant models in data to drive
data throughsof tware tools. The industry is not future produc t
collaboration with physical produc tion qualit y.
no learning curve to achieve these benefits for components to reduce
there yet with safe data collaboration—but it is
time-strapped engineers. development cost .
coming.

Move to the cloud; slash
hardware costs
Designing an IC engine has many costs and one
of those costs is computer hardware. Hence,
there is an industry-wide drive to use lower-
cost cloud-based computing for VPD activities
Future-proofed for an uncertain
future
The problem with a conventional systems
engineering approach is that it assumes the
engine design process ends when you go to
production. In reality, this is not the case.
As you can see, VPD is an essential par t of a The result is a compelling business case:
digital engineering approach, enabling more shor ter time to market, higher design quality
robust designs, more agile response to events, and a more competitive product, enabling IC
flexible collaboration, and the ability to make engine designers to stay ahead—no mat ter
tradeof fs to select the best design solution what the road ahead.
from an array of possible outcomes.

13 HOW THERMAL ANALYSIS MEETS THE CHALLENGES OF FUTURE IC ENGINE DEVELOPMENT HOW THERMAL ANALYSIS MEETS THE CHALLENGES OF FUTURE IC ENGINE DEVELOPMENT 14
 SUMMARY

New industry regulations such as Euro 7 and

the drive to zero tailpipe emissions from cars
and vans by 2035 mean that OEMs need better
tools that deliver quicker design responses as
emissions standards are demanding changes to
propulsion unit design. Although electric will
replace many applications, Internal Combustion
Engines (ICE) still form the backbone for hybrid
systems as well as hydrogen and E-fuel
combustion solutions, requiring manufacturers to
deliver more innovation with less ICE engineering
resources than ever.

Enhancing virtual product development to

include fast and accurate thermal analysis will
help ICE engineers to compress development
schedules, increase throughput, and deliver
better engines that respond to all the key
challenges of performance, efficiency and
emissions.

Realis Simulation offers a unique software

capability with FEARCE-Vulcan that solves the
virtual thermal analysis problem. Manufacturers
working with IC Engines can use it to save time,
money and effort, and truly help them to “do
more with less.”

PUBLISHED BY

REALIS SIMULATION LTD

(FORMERLY RICARDO SOFTWARE)
SHOREHAM TECHNICAL CENTRE
SHOREHAM-BY-SEA
WEST SUSSEX
BN43 5FG, UNITED KINGDOM

E: CONTACT@REALIS-SIMULATION.COM
W: WWW.REALIS-SIMULATION.COM

15 HOW THERMAL ANALYSIS MEETS THE CHALLENGES OF FUTURE IC ENGINE DEVELOPMENT