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    Unit 1

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    ONLINE © JAIN Self-Learning Material : MCA tion: All Semester: 1 Course Name: Computer Organization & Architecture Course Code: 21VMCOC105 Unit Name: Basic Structure of Computers and Instruction Set Proprietary content. All rights reserved. Unauthorised use or distribution prohibited. ‘This file is meant for personal use by nandinibj.hp@gmail.com only. ‘Sharing or publishing the contents in part or fulls liable for legal action, Table of Contents UNIT I 1 Overview 1 Objectives 1 Leaming Outcomes 1 Pre-Unit Preparatory Material 2 1.1 Introduction 2 1.2 Computer Types 2 1.3. Functional Unit 3 1.4 Basic Operational Concept 5 15 Bus Structure 5 1.6 Performance 6 1.7 Processor Clock 8 1.8 Basic Performance Equi 8 1.9 Clock Rate 8 1.10 Performance Measurements 9 1.11 Numbers, 22 1.12 Memory Locations and Addresses 10 1.13 Memory Operations W 1.14 Instructions & Instruction Sequencing 12 1.15. Conclusion 12 Glossary 13 References 20 Proprietary content. All rights reserved. Unauthorised use or distribution prohibited. This file is meant for personal use by nandinibj.hp@gmail.com only. Sharing or publishing the contents in part or full is liable for legal action, UNIT 1 BASIC STRUCTURE OF COMPUTERS AND INSTRUCTION SET Computer types, functional unit, basic operational concept, bus performance, performance: processor clock, basic performance equation, clock rate, performance measurement, Machine instruction: numbers, arithmetic operations and characters, memory location and addresses, ‘memory operation, instructions and instruction sequencing, © Overview Computer Architecture over-all covers three aspects of computer design: Computer Organization, Computer Hardware and Instruction set Architecture tronic circuits, displays, magnetic & optical storage media & networking systems are part of the computer hardware, Instruction Architecture is the visual interface for programmer devices, such as instruction set, registers, memory arrangement, and exception handling. The CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer) and RISC are two primary approaches (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) The high-level architecture elements, including the memory system, the bus design and the internal CPU, are part of the machine organization. © Objectives © To analyze the structure, fumetion & characteristics of computer systems © To explore the context of the different device functional units and components. ‘© Identify modem instruction elements and their influence on the design of the processor © To clarify the function of each member of a hierarchy of memory, To define and compare various machine I/O methods. © Learning Outcomes ¥ Demonstrate principles relating to the nature of modern processors, memories, and /Os in computer architecture. Proprietary content. All rights reserved, Unauthorised use or distribution prohibited, This file is meant for personal use by nandinibj.hp@gmail.com only. Sharing or publishing the contents in part or ful is liable for legal action, ¥_ Evaluate the output of computers available commercially. ¥ To build logic for programming assembly languages Pre-Unit Preparatory Material "Computer System Architecture," Mano M Morris Computer Architecture and Organization Paperback ~ 1 July 2017, John Hayes. 1.1 Introduction A computer is an electrical device capable of processing numbers and symbols, gathering, processing, storing, and transmitting data first, under a program-known fixed instruction contol. These hardware components are essential on a general computer, such as a memory, a storage unit (disk drive), an input device (keyboard, mouse, etc.). (CPU). In addition to the specified components, several other components are involved in successfully working together. 1.2 Computer Types ‘An electronic calculator accepting the data digitization process could be described well as a fast- electronic calculator as shown on the list of internally stored commands and generates the results. The instructions list is called programs, and the computer memory is internally stored. The various computer types are 1) Personal Computers The most popular form found in families, businesses and schools. Processor and storage devices are the most common type of desktop computer with different output & input devices. 2) Notebook Computers 3) Enterprise Systems These are used in medium. to large companies for business data processing that needs much more power and storage than workstations, The server-connected Internet has developed a leading global source for all kinds of data, Proprietary content. All rights reserved. Unauthorised use or distribution prohibited. This file is meant for personal use by nandinibj.hp@gmail.com only. Sharing or publishing the contents in part or ful is liable for legal action, 4) Supercomputers They are used in applications such as weather prediction, etc., for extensive numerical calculations. 1.3 Functional Unit A computer has five key inputs, memory, Alu, output, and control units, which are running independently. Input ALU y/o Memory Processor Sutpat Control Unit Figure 1: Functional Unit As a source program, i.c., high language, the input device accepts the coded information, Either the processor is stored in its memory or used to instantly execute the necessary operations. The memory software specifies the steps of processing. Basically, an object is converted into one source program in the language of the computer Finally, the output computer sends the data to the outside world. The contol unit coordinates all these operations. ‘© Input Unit: The most common type of program/coded information/data source/high- level data is supplied to computers by input devices. Other input devices include joysticks, trackballs, mouse, scanners, ete. @ Memory Unit: It works for storing software and records It consists essentially of 2 kinds Proprietary content. All rights reserved. Unauthorised use or distribution prohibited. This file is meant for personal use by nandinibj.hp@gmail.com only. Sharing or publishing the contents in part or ful is liable for legal action, 1) Primary Memory ‘The programs must be saved in this memory when the processors are strictly connected and are running at electronic speed. A large number of semi-conductive cells are contained in the memory. Everyone can store abit of data, They are processed in a fixed website category known as the term. Any word location is connected to a different address to provide accessibility to a word in the memory. Addresses are memory location numbers. In each word, the number of bits is called the machine word length. During execution, programs must stay in the memory. The memory can be entered in instructions or read by the processor. The time to reach a word in the memory access time. The user-readable memory, whose contents cannot be changed, is called the read-only memory (ROM). The caches ae the small rapid RAM unit attached to the processor and dist IC chip to a high output level. Primary storage is essential but also costly. uted by the same 2) Secondary Memory Iti utilized to stor larg quantities of data & programs, particularly inaccessible information © Arithmetic logic unit (ALU): The frequently performed ALU machine operators are stored in high-speed register components, including addition, subtraction, splitting, ‘multiplication, ete. The procedure is then performed in the appropriate sequence according to the instructions. The ALU and the controller are much quicker than other computer=connected gadgets. Therefore, one processor can monitor several external devices including displays, magnets, keyboards & , sensors, optical drives, and many others. © Output unit: these are input device elements. The fundamental function is to submit the results processed outside the world. Instances: -onitor, Printer speakers et. © Control unit: It is also the nerve center that sends signals to other units and feels their state, The control unit generates the actual timing signals for data transmission from the input unit, processor, memory, and output unit Proprietary content. All rights reserved. Unauthorised use or distribution prohibited. This file is meant for personal use by nandinibj.hp@gmail.com only. ‘Sharing or publishing the contents in part or full is liable for legal action, 1.4 Basic Operational Concept 1) A computer system's primary funetion is to run a program and the instructional sequence. These instructions are saved in the memory of the computer. 2) These instructions are executed so that specific input devices can already process data loaded in the computer memory. 3) The result will either be stored in the memory for further use or sent through an output port after data processing to the external world. 4) Apart from the arithmetic logic units and control units, the processor includes a variety of registers used for temporary data storage and some special function registers for instruction execution. 5) Special registers of functions include Program Counters (PCs), Instruction Registers (IRs), Registers for memory and memory data (MDR). 6) The counter is one of the CPU's most critical registers. 7) The counter of the program monitors instructions. It tracks the instructions and what will be the next instruction. 8) To maintain the instructions curently being exeouted; the IR instruction register is use, 1.5 Bus Structure The easiest & most used way to connect different computer parts, To achieve acceptable operational speed, a machine must be organized to make all the units handle the correct words of data at a certain time. |’ multi-device por group of lines is‘considered to be/a/bus. The bus must have lines in combination with the lines carrying data for address & control purposes. The best way to connect is by using an individual bus, as demonstrated INPUT MEMORY PROCESSOR | | OUTPUT Figure 2: Single Bus Structure Proprietary content. All rights reserved. Unauthorised use or distribution prohibited. This file is meant for personal use by nandinibj.hp@gmail.com only. Sharing or publishing the contents in part or fli liable for legal action, Because the bus is only used for one switch at a time, the bus can be effectively used by only two units at any particular time, To arbitrate multiple bus request The composition of a single bus: © Very versatile for peripheral devices connection © Low cost Certainly, the numerous bus layouts improve efficiency and cost considerably. Not all interconnected devices have the same speed and time, and this leads to some trouble. This can be overcome by cache registers (ie, buffer registers). These buffers constitute small electronic speed records compared to the actual memory. These buffers are filled with the instructions from the processor at once, and then data is transferred at a rapid rate. 1.6 Performance The key indicator of a computer’ efficiency is how fast programs are performed. A computer's hardware architecture affects the speed at which the program is performed, The compiles, the system instruction, and hardware must be planned in a synchronized way to best results, The time taken to run the program is an indicator of the efficiency of the whole computer system. The processor, disk, and printer speed are affected. The processor time is named for the time taken to execute an instruction, The course of action depends on the hardware used to execute the particular machine instructions, and also on all computer systems the lag time needed to execute a program. This hardware includes the processor and memory normally attached to the bus in figure c. Proprietary content. All rights reserved. Unauthorised use or distribution prohibited This file is meant for personal use by nandinibj.hp>@gmail.com only. Sharing or publishing the contents in part or full is liable for legal action, Cache Memory Processor Memory Figure 3: The Processor Cache The related parts of fig. ¢ are repeated in fig. d, which comprises the cache memory as part of the processor unit. Observe the flow between the memory & processor of the program instructions & data, The program instructions & necessary data are stored in the machine memory at the start of the operation. As the operation continues, instructions are obtained from the bus, one after the other, and later copied to the cache if a second request is needed or a data item is read from the cache directly. The data is then read from the cache, On a single IC chip can be created the processor and relatively limited cache memory. The basic ‘chip training steps internal speed is much higher and much faster than that at which the control and information from the device storage can be accessed. Ifthe transfer of instructions & data from the system memory to the processor is limited, the program is executed faster and accomplished through the cache For example: = Suppose there are repeated instructions, such as in a software circuit, within a short time. The cache can easily be retrieved during repeated use when the instructions are given. The same applies to the data repeatedly used. 1.7 Processor Clock ‘A timing signal called a clock is used to monitor the processor circuit clock cycles daily. To carry out the devi the clock builder calls instructions, the processor divides the operation into Proprietary content. All rights reserved. Unauthorised use or distribution prohibited. This file is meant for personal use by nandinibj.hp@gmail.com only. Sharing or publishing the contents in part or ful is liable for legal action, critical steps that can be carried out in a one-time cycle per step. One clock cyele's Length P is a significant parameter for the output of the processor, The clock rate ranges froin hundreds to more that one billion eyeles per Second in the exiting personal computer and workstation 1.8 Basic Performance Equation We now concentrate on the time portion of the processor for the entire time spent, Let 'T’ be the time needed for a high-level program to run. The compiler produces an object program in the machine language that fits the source program. Assume that N machine cycle language instructions need incomplete execution of the program. N is the real number, and the number of the loop instruction in the object program is not necessarily equivalent. A certain instruction may be performed more than once and, depending on the input data used, may not be carried out in case of instruetions within a program loop. 1.9 Clock Rate It usually concerns the frequency at which a clock generator generates pulses that are used to synchronize its component operations & is used as a speed indicator for the processor. There are two ways to increase the 'R' clock rate. 1) The improvement of IC technology speeds up the logical circuit, reducing the time needed for implementing fundamental steps. This decreases the time frame P and increases the clock rate R. 2) Reducing the processing time carried out in one fundamental step often enables the clock cycle P to be decreased. But if the behavior to be taken by an instruction remains the same, there could be an increase in the number of simple steps required. 1.10 Performance Measurements It is very significant for computer designers to use performance tests to evaluate innovative capabilities’ functionality to access the machine's output, The preceding statement implies that the performance time T for the program of interest indicates a machine's output. Proprietary content. All rights reserved. Unauthorised use or distribution prohibited. This file is meant for personal use by nandinibj.hp@gmail.com only. Sharing or publishing the contents in part or ful is liable for legal action, Furthermore, clock speed parameters and different architectural features are not accurate performance metrics. Therefore, computer performance tests are conducted with the use of benchmark programs to permit comparisons. The performance calculation is the time needed for the computer to perform a given benchmark. At first, there were several attempts to build artificial programs that could be used as benchmarks. However, the success achieved with real apps programs is not predicted correctly by synthetic programs, The chosen software varies from game playing, parser, and database applications to astrophysics & quantum chemistry numerically intensive programs. The software is compiled under test in each case, & the runtime on an actual machine is calculated. It also compiles the same program and runs it on one machine chosen for comparison. 111 Numbers, Arithmetic Operations, & Characters Computers are designed using logical circuits, which are assisted by two-valtie electrical data. We mark the two values as 0 & 1, and we describe as a bit of information the sum of information expressed by such a signal, where bit stands for binary digit. A sequence of bits, known as binaries, is the most common way to define a computer system number. A bits string known as character code can also represent a text character. First, on these numbers, we will describe binary numbers and arithmetic operations; then, we will describe character representations © Representation of Number Take an n bit vector B= bryos -biby Here, bj =0 or I for 0

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