Educ 204 Facilating Learner Centered Teaching 1

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Unit 1: Focus on the 21st Century Learner

Estimated Duration for Study:
A. Major Schools of Thought Related to Learners’ Development
Introduction
In this unit, you will consider a construct which is central to your life as a future
educator to 21st century learners – learning, teaching, and the relationship between them.
Learning and teaching are commonly encountered words, both within and beyond
education – so common indeed that it is easy to take their meaning for granted, both
individually and in combination.
In this unit, we introduce significant theories of learning related to learners’
development which will help you understand the concepts behind how learners learn. We
hope you will use them to challenge what is considered normal about learning as you
work through the rest of this module.
Unit Objectives
At the end of this lesson, students must have:
1. demonstrated understanding on what is meant by learning and a learning theory;

2. explained the salient concepts and principles of the major theories;
3. developed and refined your own personal theory of learning;
4. applied these theories to teaching and learning situations.
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What is Learning?
Before we dive into understanding the relevant science behind the
learning process, let’s ground ourselves in a definition of learning below
that is drawn from research. Which aspects resonate most with
you and why?
Learning is a process that:
1. is active - process of engaging and manipulating objects, experiences, and

conversations in order to build mental models of the world (Dewey, 1938; Piaget,
1964; Vygotsky, 1986). Learners build knowledge as they explore the world around
them, observe and interact with phenomena, converse and engage with others,
and make connections between new ideas and prior understandings.
2. builds on prior knowledge - and involves enriching, building on, and changing
existing understanding, where “one’s knowledge base is a scaffold that supports
the construction of all future learning” (Alexander, 1996).
3. occurs in a complex social environment - and thus should not be limited to

being examined or perceived as something that happens on an individual level.
Instead, it is necessary to think of learning as a social activity involving people,
the things they use, the words they speak, the cultural context they’re in, and the
actions they take (Bransford, et al., 2006; Rogoff, 1998), and that knowledge is
built by members in the activity (Scardamalia & Bereiter, 2006).
4. is situated in an authentic context - provides learners with the opportunity to

engage with specific ideas and concepts on a need-to-know or want-to-know basis
(Greeno, 2006; Kolodner, 2006).
5. requires learners’ motivation and cognitive engagement to be sustained

when learning complex ideas, because considerable mental effort and persistence
are necessary.
The conditions for inputs to learning are clear, but the process is incomplete
without making sense of what outputs constitute learning has taken place. At the core,
learning is a process that results in a change in knowledge or behavior as a result of
experience. Understanding what it takes to get that knowledge in and out (or promote
behavioral change of a specific kind) can help optimize learning.
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In this extract, a Japanese student of English language reflects on

what have been, for her, the least and most effective forms of
learning.
My most enjoyable language learning experience has been conversation. Conversation is fun for
me. When I talk to someone, my brain works actively. When I try to talk about something, I'm very
happy to feel myself forming words. When I go to English conversation classes, I really enjoy speaking
aloud with others.
My least enjoyable language learning experience has been reading silently. I usually translate
from English into Japanese when I do so. When I read aloud, I can translate and understand more
speedily than when I'm reading silently. Reading aloud and repetition are very valuable forms of
learning English. I can memorize the sentences and understand their structure when I read aloud again
and again. Reading aloud stimulates my own ears and brain.
If it is possible, I try to think in English when I read the language. To improve my English skill,
I need to speak to many people and read aloud and listen to English seriously. I want to get involved in
English as many times and in as many ways as possible. This is because I am an active learner and
believe that the English language can be learned best through active means. Passive learning is much
less helpful for me because it does not stimulate my brain, my thinking or my mind.
Write about helpful and unhelpful approaches to learning during your

own education from pre-school up to the present.
How did you learn?

When did you learn best?
What prevented you from learning?
What motivated you to learn?
How did this vary, depending on time, place and teacher?
What was positive about those approaches?
Did they reflect or express any particular theories of learning?
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Abstraction
Learning Theories
Formal theories of learning have their origins in psychology. Like informal

theories, they are concerned with answering the question 'How do people learn?' Over
time, consideration of this question by psychologists and others has resulted in the
development of a number of formal learning theories, some of which you will encounter
in this module.
One of the main differences between formal and informal learning theories is
that formal learning theories are the result of considered thought by psychologists and,
very often, research. Formal theories have been written down and made available for
others to consider and, where they disagree, to dispute and offer alternatives. Thus,
formal learning theories are, unlike informal theories, scientific.
Most of these formal theories are unknown to people outside education,

psychology and related fields, yet we as education professionals need them if we are to
have informed discussions about learning, how it happens, and how best to support it.
A. Behaviorism
Behaviorism is a branch of formal learning theory. It is often associated with,

among others, the American psychologist B. F.
Skinner. The essence of the behaviorist point of
view is that learning cannot be observed directly –
instead it must be inferred to have taken place,
from an observed behavioral response to a
stimulus. For instance, if a question (stimulus) is
'Which group of fruit do lemons and limes belong
to?' and the answer (response) 'Citrus' is given,
then from behaviorist point of view learning has
taken place in order for the correct response to the
stimulus to have been given.
Behavioral theories of learning stress observable

changes in behaviors, skills, and habits. Attention is clearly on behavior. Learning is seen
as a change in behavior brought about by experience, with virtually no concern for the
mental or internal processes of thinking (Woolfolk Hoy, Davis and Anderman, 2013).
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Read this brief article below, which provides some basic explanation of
'the behaviorist orientation to learning'.
The Behaviorist Orientation to Learning
The behaviorist movement in psychology has looked to the use of experimental procedures
to study behavior in relation to the environment. John B. Watson, who is generally credited as the
first behaviorist, argued that the inner experiences that were the focus of psychology could not be
properly studied as they were not observable. Instead he turned to laboratory experimentation. The
result was the generation of the stimulus-response model. In this the environment is seen as
providing stimuli to which individuals develop responses.
In essence three key assumptions underpin this view:
Observable behavior rather than internal thought processes are the focus of study. In
particular, learning is manifested by a change in behavior.
The environment shapes one’s behavior; what one learns is determined by the elements in
the environment, not by the individual learner.
The principles of contiguity (how close in time two events must be for a bond to be formed)
and reinforcement (any means of increasing the likelihood that an event will be repeated) are
central to explaining the learning process (Merriam and Caffarella, 1991).
Researchers like Edward L. Thorndike build upon these foundations and, in particular,
developed a S-R (stimulus-response) theory of learning. He noted that that responses (or behaviors)
were strengthened or weakened by the consequences of behavior. This notion was refined by
Skinner and is perhaps better known as operant conditioning – reinforcing what you want people to
do again; ignoring or punish what you want people to stop doing.
In terms of learning, according to James Hartley (1998) four key principles come to the
fore:
Activity is important. Learning is better when the learner is active rather than passive.
(‘Learning by doing’ is to be applauded).
Repetition, generalization and discrimination are important notions. Frequent
practice – and practice in varied contexts – is necessary for learning to take place. Skills are not
acquired without frequent practice.
Reinforcement is the cardinal motivator. Positive reinforcers like rewards and
successes are preferable to negative events like punishments and failures.
Learning is helped when objectives are clear. Those who look to behaviorism in
teaching will generally frame their activities by behavioral objectives e.g. ‘By the end of this session
participants will be able to…’. With this comes a concern with competencies and product approaches
to curriculum.
References
Hartley, J. (1998) Learning and studying. A research perspective, London: Routledge.

Hergenhahn, B. R. and Olson, M. H. (1997) An introduction to theories of learning 5e, Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Merriam, S. and Caffarella (1991, 1998) Learning in adulthood. A comprehensive guide, San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Skinner, B. F. (1973) Beyond freedom and dignity, London: Penguin.
Tennant, M. (1988, 1997) Psychology and adult learning, London: Routledge.
Watson, J. B. (1913) ‘Psychology as the behavourist views it’, Psychological review 20: 158.
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Think of some instances from your own experience in education which

would fit with the behavioral view of learning. Make some notes about those
instances and how they fit with the behavioral view.
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B. Information Processing
Information Processing Theory is a cognitive theory that focuses on how

information is encoded into our memory. The theory describes how our brains filter
information, from what we are paying attention to in the present moment, to what gets
stored in our short-term or working memory and ultimately into our long-term memory.
The premise of Information Processing Theory is that creating a long-term memory

is something that happens in stages; first we perceive something through our sensory
memory, which is everything we can see, hear, feel or taste in a given moment; our short-
term memory is what we use to remember things for very short periods, like a phone
number; and long-term memory is stored permanently in our brains.
Basic Assumptions
The information processing approach is based on a number of assumptions,

including:
1. Information made available by the environment is processed by a series of

processing systems (e.g. attention, perception, short-term memory);
2. These processing systems transform or alter the information in systematic ways;
3. The aim of research is to specify the processes and structures that underlie
cognitive performance;
4. Information processing in humans resembles that in computers.
Computer Analogy
Developed by American psychologists including George Miller in the 1950s,
Information Processing Theory has in recent years compared the human brain to a
computer. The computer gave cognitive psychologists a metaphor, or analogy, to which
they could compare human mental processing. The use of the computer as a tool for
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thinking how the human mind handles information is known as the computer analogy.
The ‘input’ is the information we give to the computer - or to our brains - while the CPU
is likened to our short-term memory, and the hard-drive is our long-term memory.
Our cognitive processes filter information, deciding what is important enough to
‘save’ from our sensory memory to our short-term memory, and ultimately to encode into
our long-term memory. Our cognitive processes include thinking, perception,
remembering, recognition, logical reasoning, imagining, problem-solving, our sense of
judgment, and planning.
Figure 1. Information Processing Model
Essentially, computer codes (i.e., changes) information, stores information, uses

information, and produces an output (retrieves info). The idea of information processing
was adopted by cognitive psychologists as a model of how human thought works.
For example, the eye receives visual information and codes information into electric neural
activity which is fed back to the brain where it is “stored” and “coded”. This information
is can be used by other parts of the brain relating to mental activities such as memory,
perception and attention. The output (i.e. behavior) might be, for example, to read what
you can see on a printed page.
Hence the information processing approach characterizes thinking as the
environment providing input of data, which is then transformed by our senses. The
information can be stored, retrieved and transformed using “mental programs”, with the
results being behavioral responses.
Cognitive psychology has influenced and integrated with many other approaches
and areas of study to produce, for example, social learning theory, cognitive
neuropsychology and artificial intelligence (AI).
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USING THE INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH IN THE CLASSROOM

Principle Example
1. Gain the students' • Use cues to signal when you are ready to
attention. begin.
• Move around the room and use voice
inflections.
2. Bring to mind relevant • Review previous day's lesson.

prior learning. • Have a discussion about previously covered
content.
3. Point out important • Provide handouts.

information. • Write on the board or use transparencies.
4. Present information in an • Show a logical sequence to concepts and

organized manner. skills.
• Go from simple to complex when presenting
new material.
5. Show students how to • Present information in categories.

categorize (chunk) related • Teach inductive reasoning.
information.
6. Provide opportunities for • Connect new information to something
students to elaborate on new already known.
information. • Look for similarities and differences among
concepts.
7. Show students how to use • Make up silly sentence with first letter of each
coding when memorizing word in the list.
lists. • Use mental imagery techniques such as the
keyword method.
8. Provide for repetition of • State important principles several times in

learning. different ways during presentation of
information (STM).
• Have items on each day's lesson from
previous lesson (LTM).
• Schedule periodic reviews of previously
learned concepts and skills (LTM).
9. Provide opportunities for • Use daily drills for arithmetic facts.

overlearning of fundamental • Play form of trivial pursuit with content
concepts and skills. related to class.
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would fit with the information processing view of learning. Make some notes
about those instances and how they fit with the information processing view.
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C. Humanistic
Humanistic Learning Theory, often called Humanism, focuses on the specific

human capabilities including creativity, personal growth, and choice. Humanists believe
people are good and noble. Maslow’s research into hierarchical needs is a major concept
in this learning theory, especially Self-Actualization, as it is only at this level the student
can truly experience growth.
Humanistic Learning Theory can be summarized this way:
1. Learners can be trusted to find their own goals and should have some options or
choices in what they learn at school.
2. Students should set their standards and should evaluate their work.
3. The school experience should help students to develop positive relations with their
peers
The Role of the Learner
Ideally, learning should be an active process, where the student is engaged with
the learning activities to acquire the knowledge specific to their situation. Since a major
theme is the learner being the source of authority, the learner determines what learning
materials are used, and how they will learn the material. They could choose to read, listen
to speeches, watch movies or practice what they have learned through social interactions
or by producing a specific output.
The learner also establishes the quantity of learning, as in how much do I need to
learn about a specific subject. But making the correct or incorrect choice in their learning
decisions rests with the student and not the teacher. This reinforces the student as the
source of authority.
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The Role of the Teacher
Just because the learner is the source of authority and makes the decision about
what and how they will learn something, does not negate the need for the teacher.
The teacher assumes the role of a coach or facilitator to assist the student in
establishing and using their learning strategy to achieve their goal. Doing this means the
teacher must be aware of the student’s unique needs, to be effective at supporting the
student in acquiring the desired knowledge.
By understanding the student’s unique needs, the teacher can assist in designing
the strategy to support the individual student’s intellectual and emotional development.
Creating a non-threatening and supportive environment is important to this development.
While the student identifies the learning methods and materials, the teacher needs
to ensure the learning activities are related to actual life experience, so the student can
apply the learning to their daily living, which is a key concept in Roger’s Experiential
Learning Theory.
How Does Learning Take Place
Bugental (2003) proposed learning occurs through meaningful living and studied
the explicit and visible behaviors resulting from the subjective internal processes occurring
in the learner. A key point is emphasizing the differences between individual learners.
Rogers viewed every individual experience is a logical event and different for every
individual. From this individual viewpoint, the learner is encouraged to form their
perspective and meaning through their experiences and beliefs. This makes each
experience unique to the learner. Rogers also emphasized the importance of acquiring
experience and knowledge from the environment, allowing the learner to form both
positive and negative self-concepts about specific situations.
Read this short article, which provides some further explanation of 'the
humanistic orientation to learning'.
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Humanistic Orientations to Learning
In this framework the basic concern is for human growth. We look to the work of Maslow
and Rogers as expressions of this approach.
A great deal of the theoretical writing about adult education in the 1970s and 1980s drew
on humanistic psychology. In this orientation the basic concern is for the human potential for
growth. As Tennant notes, the concern with ‘self’ is ‘a hallmark of humanistic psychology’ (1997:
12). There was a reaction against ‘scientific’ reductionism – people being treated as objects and
rationalism. Instead the affective and subjective world was to be reaffirmed. Personal freedom,
choice, motivations and feelings had to have their place.
Perhaps the best known example is Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of motivation. At the
lowest level are physiological needs, at the highest self-actualization. Only when the lower needs
are met is it possible to fully move on to the next level. A motive at the lower level is always
stronger than those at higher levels. Tennant (1997) summarizes these as follows:
Level one: Physiological needs such as hunger, thirst, sex, sleep, relaxation and bodily
integrity must be satisfied before the next level comes into play.
Level two: Safety needs call for a predictable and orderly world. If these are not satisfied
people will look to organize their worlds to provide for the greatest degree of safety and security. If
satisfied, people will come under the force of level three.
Level three: Love and belongingness needs cause people to seek warm and friendly
relationships.
Level four: Self-esteem needs involve the desire for strength, achievement, adequacy,
mastery and competence. They also involve confidence, independence, reputation and prestige.
Level five: Self-actualization is the full use and expression of talents, capacities and
potentialities.
Self actualizers are able to submit to social regulation without losing their own integrity or
personal independence; that is they may follow a social norm without their horizons being bounded
in the sense that they fail to see or consider other possibilities. They may on occasion transcend the
socially prescribed ways of acting. Achieving this level may mean developing to the full stature of
which they are capable (Tennant, 1997).
Learning can, thus, be seen as a form of self-actualization, it contributes to psychological

health (Sahakian 1984 in Merriam and Caffarella 1991: 133). Yet while self-actualization may be
seen as the primary goal, other goals (linked to the other stages) are also around. These include a
sense of accomplishment and the controlling of impulses (Maslow 1970: 439)
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Much criticism has been levelled at this model. For example,
Do lower needs really have to be satisfied before higher ones come into play? People may
well put physiological needs on one side to satisfy the need for love, for example.
Are we all propelled to the sorts of qualities that Maslow identifies with ‘self-actualization’? To
what extent are these qualities culturally-specific?
The idea of a hierarchy of needs, the identifying of different needs, and the notion of self-
actualization did, however, exert a powerful hold over adult education writers like Malcolm Knowles.
Humanistic psychology’s positive view of people and their ability to control their own destiny, and the
seemingly unlimited possibilities for individual development provided some hope for educators.
Perhaps the most persuasive exploration of a humanistic orientation to learning came from
Carl Rogers. His passion for education that engaged with the whole person and with their experiences
for learning that combines the logical and intuitive, the intellect and feelings found a ready audience.
‘When we learn in that way’, he said, ‘we are whole, utilizing all our masculine and feminine
capacities’ (1983 20). He saw the following elements as being involved in significant or experiential
learning.
It has a quality of personal involvement—the whole person in both feeling and cognitive
aspects being in the learning event.
It is self-initiated. Even when the impetus or stimulus comes from the outside, the sense of
discovers of reaching out, of grasping and comprehending, comes from within.
It is pervasive. It makes a difference in the behaviour, the attitudes, perhaps even the
personality of the learner.
It is evaluated by the learner. She knows whether it is meeting her need, whether it leads
toward what she wants to know, whether it illuminates the dark area of ignorance she is experiencing.
The locus of evaluation, we might say, resides definitely in the learner.
Its essence is meaning. When such learning takes place, the element of meaning to the
learner is built into the whole experience. (Rogers (1983: 20)
References
Kolb, D. A. (1984) Experiential Learning, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.: Prentice Hall.

Maslow, A. (1968) Towards a Psychology of Being 2e, New York: Van Nostrand. See, also, A . Maslow
(1970) Motivation and Personality 2e, New York: Harper and Row.
Merriam, S. and Caffarella (1991, 1998) Learning in Adulthood. A comprehensive guide, San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.
Rogers, C. and Freiberg, H. J. (1993) Freedom to Learn (3rd edn.), New York: Merrill. . See, also, H.
Kirschenbaum and V. L. Henderson (eds.) (1990) The Carl Rogers Reader, London: Constable.
Tennant, M. (1988, 1997) Psychology and Adult Learning, London: Routledge.
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would fit with the humanistic view of learning. Make some notes about those
instances and how they fit with the humanistic view.
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D. Cognitivism /Cognitive Constructivism
The cognitivist branch of learning theory was to some degree born of

dissatisfaction with behaviorism’s strict focus on observable behaviors. However, like
behaviorism, it focuses on the individual. It is associated with, among others, the
psychologist Jean Piaget. The cognitivist approach invokes the idea of mental processes
and attempts to answer the question which behaviorism avoided: 'What is going on in the
mind of the learner?'
Unlike behaviorist learning theory, where learners are thought to be motivated by
extrinsic factors such as rewards and punishment, cognitive learning theory sees
motivation as largely intrinsic. Because it involves significant restructuring of existing
cognitive structures, successful learning requires a major personal investment on the part
of the learner (University of California Berkeley Center for Teaching and Learning, 2019
citing Perry, 1999).
Because this perspective on learning focuses on the mind and its activity when
building (or 'constructing') the 'cognitive structures' referred to in the above quotation,
the word 'constructivism' is sometimes added, and the phrase 'cognitive constructivism' is
used by some writers. Others, however, treat cognitivist and constructivism separately.
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Read the short article that follows, which provides some further
explanation of 'the cognitivist orientation to learning'.
The Cognitive Orientation to Learning
Where behaviorists looked to the environment, those drawing on Gestalt turned to the
individual’s mental processes. In other words, they were concerned with cognition – the act or
process of knowing.
Many psychologists were not happy with behaviorism. There was a belief among some that
there was too much of a focus on single events, stimuli and overt behavior. Such criticism was
especially strong from those who saw themselves as Gestalt psychologists (Gestalt meaning
configuration or pattern in German). For them, perceptions or images should be approached as a
pattern or a whole rather than as a sum of the component parts. Such thinking found its way into
psychoanalysis and into the development of thinking about group functioning (perhaps most
famously in the work of Kurt Lewin). It also had a profound effect on the way that many
psychologists thought of learning. Where behaviorists looked to the environment, those drawing on
Gestalt turned to the individual’s mental processes. In other words, they were concerned with
cognition – the act or process of knowing.
Researchers like Jean Piaget, while recognizing the contribution of environment, explored
changes in internal cognitive structure. He identified four stages of mental growth (sensorimotor,
preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational). Jerome Bruner explored how mental
processes could be linked to teaching (emphasizing, among other things, learning through
discovery). Robert M. Gagné developed a model that highlighted eight different forms of learning –
behaviourists identifying only a fragment of human capabilities.
James Hartley (1998) has usefully drawn out some of the key principles of learning
associated with cognitive psychology. As he puts it: ‘Learning results from inferences, expectations
and making connections. Instead of acquiring habits, learners acquire plans and strategies, and prior
knowledge is important’ (1998: 18). The principles he identifies are:
1. Instruction should be well-organized. Well-organized materials easier to learn and to

remember.
2. Instruction should be clearly structured. Subject matters are said to have inherent
structures – logical relationships between key ideas and concepts – which link the parts
together.
3. The perceptual features of the task are important. Learners attend selectively to
different aspects of the environment. Thus, the way a problem is displayed is important
if learners are to understand it.
4. Prior knowledge is important. Things must fit with what is already known if it is to be
learnt.
5. Differences between individuals are important as they will affect learning. Differences in
‘cognitive style’ or methods of approach influence learning.
6. Cognitive feedback gives information to learners about their success or failure
concerning the task at hand. Reinforcement can come through giving information – a
‘knowledge of results’ – rather than simply a reward.
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References
Bruner, J. (1960, 1977) The Process of Education, Cambridge Ma.: Harvard University Press.
Gagné, R. M. (1985) The Conditions of Learning 4e, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Hartley, J. (1998) Learning and Studying. A research perspective, London: Routledge.
Merriam, S. and Caffarella (1991, 1998) Learning in Adulthood. A comprehensive guide, San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.
Piaget, J. (1926) The Child’s Conception of the World, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. It is difficult to
know which of Piaget’s 50 or more books to choose here – but this and The Origin of Intelligence
in Children are classic starting points. H. E. Gruber and J. J. Voneche (1977) The Essential Piaget: an
interpretative reference and guide, London is a good collection. See, also, M. A. Boden’s (1979)
Piaget, London: Fontana for a succinct I ntroduction.
Tennant, M. (1988, 1997) Psychology and Adult Learning, London: Routledge.

would fit with the cognitivist view of learning. Make some notes about those
instances and how they fit with the cognitivist view.
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E. Constructivism and Social Constructivism
Constructivism is ‘an approach to learning that holds that people actively

construct or make their own knowledge and that reality is determined by the
experiences of the learner’ (Elliott et al., 2000, p. 256).
In elaborating constructivists’ ideas Arends (1998) states that constructivism

believes in personal construction of meaning by the learner through experience, and that
meaning is influenced by the interaction of prior knowledge and new events.
Both constructivism and social constructivism acknowledge how knowledge is
constructed through an active process in the mind of the knower, but social constructivism
asserts the centrality of social interactions in the process. These social interactions can be
between a parent and child, students and teachers, groups of students and so on. Social
constructivism is often associated with the Russian psychologist Vygotsky, who is seen as
originating many of the ideas. According to social constructivist, the opportunity to interact
and share among learners helps to shape and refine their ideas. Knowledge construction
becomes social, not individual.
Principles of Constructivism
1. Knowledge is constructed, rather than innate, or passively absorbed.

Constructivism's central idea is that human learning is constructed, that learners
build new knowledge upon the foundation of previous learning. This prior
knowledge influences what new or modified knowledge an individual will construct
from new learning experiences (Phillips, 1995).
2. Learning is an active process. The second notion is that learning is an active

rather than a passive process. The passive view of teaching views the learner as
‘an empty vessel’ to be filled with knowledge, whereas constructivism states that
learners construct meaning only
through active engagement
with the world (such as
experiments or real-world
problem solving). Information
may be passively received, but
understanding cannot be, for it
must come from making
meaningful connections
between prior knowledge, new
knowledge, and the processes
involved in learning.
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3. All knowledge is socially constructed. Learning is a social activity - it is

something we do together, in interaction with each other, rather than an abstract
concept (Dewey, 1938). For example, Vygotsky (1978), believed that community
plays a central role in the process of "making meaning." For Vygotsky, the
environment in which children grow up will influence how they think and what they
think about. Thus, all teaching and learning is a matter of sharing and negotiating
socially constituted knowledge.
4. All knowledge is personal. Each individual learner has a distinctive point of

view, based on existing knowledge and values. This means that same lesson,
teaching or activity may result in different learning by each pupil, as their
subjective interpretations differ. This principle appears to contradict the view the
knowledge is socially constructed. Fox (2001, p. 30) argues (a) that although
individuals have their own personal history of learning, nevertheless they can share
in common knowledge, and (b) that although education is a social process,
powerfully influenced by cultural factors, nevertheless cultures are made up of
sub- cultures, even to the point of being composed of sub-cultures of one. Cultures
and their knowledge-base are constantly in a process of change and the knowledge
stored by individuals is not a rigid copy of some socially constructed template. In
learning a culture, each child changes that culture.
5. Learning exists in the mind. The constructivist theory posits that knowledge
can only exist within the human mind, and that it does not have to match any real
world reality (Driscoll, 2000).Learners will be constantly trying to develop their
own individual mental model of the real world from their perceptions of that world.
As they perceive each new experience, learners will continually update their own
mental models to reflect the new information, and will, therefore, construct their
own interpretation of reality.
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Having studied about the constructivism and its application to teaching, give
at least 5 characteristics of a constructivist teacher. You may express your
answer by writing a poem or drawing or a clipart or photo essay.
19
Describe each of the learning theory and discuss how this can be applied
in the teaching and learning.
Theory/Concept Application
Behaviorism
Information Processing
Humanistic
Cognitive Constructivism
Constructivism
20
Read a research or a study related to any of the learning theories

presented in this unit. Fill out the matrix below.
Research Title:
Problem:
Research Methodology:
Findings:
Conclusions and Recommendations:
References:
Teaching Implications
21
References
Behets, D. (1990) Concerns of preservice physical education teachers. Journal of

Teaching in Physical Education 10: pp.66-75.
Center for Teaching and Learning (undated) What is learning? [online]. University of
California Berkeley. Availablehttps://teaching.berkeley.edu/resources/learn/what-
learning
Hare, C. (2019). An Introduction to humanistic learning theory. Retrieved from
https://medium.com/age-of-awareness/an-introduction-to-humanistic-learning-
theory- 1489cdde6359
Lawless, C. (2019). What is Information Processing Theory?: Using it in Your Corporate
Training. Retrieved from https://www.learnupon.com/blog/what-is-information-
processing-theory/
Lucas, M.R. and Corpus, B. (2014). Facilitating learning: A metacognitive process.
Lorimar Publishing Inc.
Merriam, S. B. and Kim, Y. S. (2008) Non‐Western perspectives on learning and
knowing. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education Special Issue: Third
Update on Adult Learning Theory [online] 119(Autumn): pp.71-81. Available at:
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ace.307
Smith, M. K. (1999). ‘The cognitive orientation to learning’, The encyclopedia of
pedagogy and informal education. [https://infed.org/mobi/the-cognitive-
orientation-to-learning/. Retrieved: July 20, 2020.
Smith, M. K. (1999) ‘The behaviorist orientation to learning’, The encyclopedia of
pedagogy and informal education. Retrieved from https://infed.org/mobi/the-
behaviourist-orientation-to-learning/ on July 20, 2020.
Surgenor, P. (2010) Behaviourism. In: Teaching Toolkit: How students learn 2 [online].
UCD Teaching and Learning Resources. Available at:
http://www.ucd.ie/teaching/t4media/UCDTLT0017.pdf
Surgenor, P. (2010) Constructivism. In: Teaching Toolkit: How students learn UCD
Teaching and Learning Resources. Available at:
http://www.ucd.ie/teaching/t4media/UCDTLT0018.pdf
Tweed, R. G. and Lehman, D. R. (2002) Learning considered within a cultural context.
American Psychologist 57(2): pp.89-99. Available at:
https://nusearch.nottingham.ac.uk/permalink/f/t1e4u0/TN_apa_articles10.1037/
0003-066X.57.2.89
Willinsky, J. (1998) Learning to divide the world: education at empire's end.
Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Woolfolk Hoy, A., Davis, H. A. and Anderman, E. M. (2013) Theories of learning and
teaching in TIP. Theory Into Practice 52(sup1): pp.9-21.
1

B. Learner-Centered Psychological Principles
Learner – Centered Psychological Principles
Introduction
In its history, psychology has provided valuable information on human thinking,

growth and motivation for the design of schooling based on theory and study. Advances
in our comprehension of perception, memory, and cognitive and motivational processes
will directly lead to changes in teaching, learning, and the entire schooling enterprise.
Beginning in 1990, the American Psychological Association (APA) appointed a special Task
Force on Psychology in Education, one of whose purposes was to integrate research and
theory from psychology and education in order to surface general principles that have
stood the test of time and can provide a framework for school redesign and reform.
In addition, these principles reflect conventional and scientific wisdom. They

comprise not only systematically researched and evolving learner-centered principles that
can lead to effective schooling but also principles that can lead to positive mental health
and productivity of our nation`s children, their teachers, and the systems that serve
them. These principles emphasize the active and reflective nature of learning and
learners. Thus, in this lesson, you will be oriented with the fourteen learning principles
that would guide the facilitating of learning in your classrooms. Application of these
principles in the actual classroom settings is also included in this lesson.
Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you must have:
A. recognized the 14 learner–centered principles and formulated pedagogical

implications for future applications in the classroom;
B. written a reflective essay by sharing and indicating your classroom experiences as
student and relating these experiences to any of the 14 leaner – centered
principles learned; and
C. created a poster advocating the use of the 14 Learning – Centered Psychological
Principles in teaching and applications of these principles in the classroom.
Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Unit 1. Focus on the 21st Century Learner
2
Let’s Warm - up!

Using the concept map, indicate words or terms related to learner – centered classroom.
Learner-
Centered
Elaborate your concept of a learner–centered classroom.
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Let’s Discover!
The 14 learner-centered principles are categorized into four domains. These

categories group the principles into research-validated domains important to learning:
metacognitive and cognitive factors, affective and motivational factors, developmental
and social factors, and individual difference factors. An understanding of these domains
and the principles within them establishes a framework for designing learner-centered
practices at all levels of schooling. It also helps define what "learner-centered" means
from a research-validated perspective.

3
Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors
1. Nature of the learning process
The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional

process of constructing meaning from information and experience.
There are different types of learning processes, for example, habit formation
in motor learning; and learning that involves the generation of knowledge, or
cognitive skills and learning strategies. Learning in schools emphasizes the use of
intentional processes that students can use to construct meaning from information,
experiences, and their own thoughts and beliefs. Successful learners are active, goal-
directed, self-regulating, and assume personal responsibility for contributing to their
own learning.
Message for Teachers: Use techniques that aid students in constructing meaning
from information, experiences, and their own thought and beliefs.
2. Goals of the learning process
The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can
create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.
The strategic nature of learning requires students to be goal directed. To

construct useful representations of knowledge and to acquire the thinking and
learning strategies necessary for continued learning success across the life span,
students must generate and pursue personally relevant goals. Initially, students'
short-term goals and learning may be sketchy in an area, but over time their
understanding can be refined by filling gaps, resolving inconsistencies, and deepening
their understanding of the subject matter so that they can reach longer-term goals.
Message for Teachers:

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3. Construction of knowledge
The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in
meaningful ways.
Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to build links

between new information and experiences and their existing knowledge base. The
nature of these links can take a variety of forms, such as adding to, modifying, or
reorganizing existing knowledge or skills. How these links are made or develop
may vary in different subject areas, and among students with varying talents,
interests, and abilities. However, unless new knowledge becomes integrated with
4
the learner's prior knowledge and understanding, this new knowledge remains
isolated, cannot be used most effectively in new tasks, and does not transfer
readily to new situations.
Message for Teachers: Assist learners in acquiring and integrating knowledge

by a number of strategies that have been shown to be effective with learners of
varying abilities, such as concept mapping and thematic organization or
categorizing.
4. Strategic thinking
The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking

and reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals.
Successful learners use strategic thinking in their approach to learning,

reasoning, problem solving, and concept learning. They understand and can use a
variety of strategies to help them reach learning and performance goals, and to
apply their knowledge in novel situations. They also continue to expand their
repertoire of strategies by reflecting on the methods they use to see which work
well for them, by receiving guided instruction and feedback, and by observing or
interacting with appropriate models.
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5. Thinking about thinking
Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental

operations facilitate creative and critical thinking.
Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set reasonable
learning or performance goals, select potentially appropriate learning
strategies or methods, and monitor their progress toward these goals. In
addition, successful learners know what to do if a problem occurs or if they
are not making sufficient or timely progress toward a goal. They can generate
alternative methods to reach their goal (or reassess the appropriateness and
utility of the goal).
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5
6. Context of learning
Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture,

technology, and instructional practices.
Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Teachers a major interactive role

with both the learner and the learning environment. Cultural or group
influences on students can impact many educationally relevant variables, such
as motivation, orientation toward learning, and ways of thinking. Technologies
and instructional practices must be appropriate for learners' level of prior
knowledge, cognitive abilities, and their learning and thinking strategies.
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Motivational and Affective Factors
7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning
What and how much is learned is influenced by the motivation.

Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the individual's
emotional states, beliefs, interests and goals, and habits of thinking.
The rich internal world of thoughts, beliefs, goals, and expectations for
success or failure can enhance or interfere the learner's quality of thinking and
information processing. Students' beliefs about themselves as learners and the
nature of learning have a marked influence on motivation. Motivational and
emotional factors also influence both the quality of thinking and information
processing as well as an individual's motivation to learn. Positive emotions,
such as curiosity, generally enhance motivation and facilitate learning and
performance. Mild anxiety can also enhance learning and performance by
focusing the learner's attention on a particular task. However, intense negative
emotions (e.g., anxiety, panic, rage, insecurity) and related thoughts (e.g.,
worrying about competence, ruminating about failure, fearing punishment,
ridicule, or stigmatizing labels) generally detract from motivation, interfere
with learning, and contribute to low performance.
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6
8. Intrinsic motivation to learn
The learner's creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity

all contribute to motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is
stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to
personal interests, and providing for personal choice and control.
Curiosity, flexible and insightful thinking, and creativity are major

indicators of the learners' intrinsic motivation to learn, which is in large part a
function of meeting basic needs to be competent and to exercise personal
control. Intrinsic motivation is facilitated on tasks that learners perceive as
interesting and personally relevant and meaningful, appropriate in complexity
and difficulty to the learners' abilities, and on which they believe they can
succeed. Intrinsic motivation is also facilitated on tasks that are comparable to
real-world situations and meet needs for choice and control.
Message for Teachers: Encourage and support learners’ natural curiosity

and motivation to learn by attending to individual differences in learners’
perceptions of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevance, and personal choice
and control.
9. Effects of motivation on effort
Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended

learner effort and guided practice. Without learners' motivation to
learn, the willingness to exert this effort is unlikely without coercion.
Effort is another major indicator of motivation to learn. The acquisition of

complex knowledge and skills demands the investment of considerable learner
energy and strategic effort, along with persistence over time. Educators need
to be concerned with facilitating motivation by strategies that enhance learner
effort and commitment to learning and to achieving high standards of
comprehension and understanding.
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10. Developmental influences on learning
As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints

for learning. Learning is most effective when differential development
within and across physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains is
taken into account.

7
Individuals learn best when material is appropriate to their developmental

level and is presented in an enjoyable and interesting way. Because individual
development varies across intellectual, social, emotional, and physical domains,
achievement in different instructional domains may also vary. Overemphasis on
one type of developmental readiness--such as reading readiness, for example--
may preclude learners from demonstrating that they are more capable in other
areas of performance. The cognitive, emotional, and social development of
individual learners and how they interpret life experiences are affected by prior
schooling, home, culture, and community factors. Early and continuing parental
involvement in schooling, and the quality of language interactions and two-way
communications between adults and children can influence these developmental
areas. Awareness and understanding of developmental differences among children
with and without emotional, physical, or intellectual disabilities, can facilitate the
creation of optimal learning contexts.
Message for Teachers: Be aware of and understand developmental differences

among students with and without emotional, physical, or intellectual disabilities, to
facilitate the creation of optimal learning contexts.
11. Social influences on learning
Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations,

and communication with others.
Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an opportunity to interact

and to collaborate with others on instructional tasks. Learning settings that allow
for social interactions, and that respect diversity, encourage flexible thinking and
social competence. In interactive and collaborative instructional contexts,
individuals have an opportunity for perspective taking and reflective thinking that
may lead to higher levels of cognitive, social, and moral development, as well as
self-esteem. Quality personal relationships that provide stability, trust, and caring
can increase learners' sense of belonging, self-respect and self-acceptance, and
provide a positive climate for learning. Family influences, positive interpersonal
support and instruction in self-motivation strategies can offset factors that
interfere with optimal learning such as negative beliefs about competence in a
particular subject, high levels of test anxiety, negative sex role expectations, and
undue pressure to perform well. Positive learning climates can also help to
establish the context for healthier levels of thinking, feeling, and behaving. Such
contexts help learners feel safe to share ideas, actively participate in the learning
process, and create a learning community.

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8
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Individual Differences Factors
12. Individual differences in learning
Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for

learning that are a function of prior experience and heredity.
Individuals are born with and develop their own capabilities and talents. In
addition, through learning and social acculturation, they have acquired their own
preferences for how they like to learn and the pace at which they learn. However,
these preferences are not always useful in helping learners reach their learning
goals.
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13. Learning and diversity
Learning is most effective when differences in learners' linguistic,

cultural, and social backgrounds are taken into account.
The same basic principles of learning, motivation, and effective instruction

apply to all learners. However, language, ethnicity, race, beliefs, and
socioeconomic status all can influence learning. Careful attention to these factors
in the instructional setting enhances the possibilities for designing and
implementing appropriate learning environments. When learners perceive that
their individual differences in abilities, backgrounds, cultures, and experiences are
valued, respected, and accommodated in learning tasks and contexts, levels of
motivation and achievement are enhanced.
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9
14. Standards and assessment
Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the

learner as well as learning progress – including diagnostic, process, and
outcome assessment – are integral parts of the learning process.
Assessment provides important information to both the learner and teacher at

all stages of the learning process. Effective learning takes place when learners feel
challenged to work towards appropriately high goals; therefore, appraisal of the
learner's cognitive strengths and weaknesses, as well as current knowledge and
skills, is important for the selection of instructional materials of an optimal degree
of difficulty. On-going assessment of the learner's understanding of the curricular
material can provide valuable feedback to both learners and teachers about
progress toward the learning goals. Standardized assessment of learner progress
and outcomes assessment provides one type of information about achievement
levels both within and across individuals that can inform various types of
programmatic decisions. Performance assessments can provide other sources of
information about the attainment of learning outcomes. Self-assessments of
learning progress can also improve students self - appraisal skills and enhance
motivation and self-directed learning.
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* The development of each principle involved thorough discussions of the

research supporting that principle. The multidisciplinary research expertise of
the Task Force and Work Group members facilitated an examination of each
principle from a number of different research perspectives.

10
Let’s Check!
Mechanics
1. Think of your experiences in any of your classes

(elementary, high school, college) where you
can connect the principles that you have learned
in this lesson.
2. Write a paragraph narrating your experiences in
not less than 200 words and not more than 250
words.
3. In the next paragraph, write a reflection (not
less than 250 words and not more than 300
words) by connecting your experiences to the
14 principles we have discussed. Specify the
principles and give specific examples of classroom experiences to support your
discussion.
4. Write your answers on the space provided.
5. A rubric will be used to evaluate your essay.
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11
Essay Writing Rubric
Components 1 2 3 4
Focus and Details The topic and main There is one topic. There is one clear, There is one clear,
ideas are not clear. Main ideas are well focused topic. well – focused topic.
somewhat clear. Main ideas are clear Main ideas are clear
but are not well and are well
supported by detailed supported by detailed
information. and accurate
information.
Organization Information is Information is Information is Information is
irrelevant and the somewhat relevant somewhat relevant relevant and
order of ideas is and the presentation and presented in a presented in a logical
illogical of ideas is not so logical order. order.
logical.
Voice The author’s purpose The author’s purpose The author’s purpose The author’s purpose
of writing is unclear. of writing is of writing is of writing is very
somewhat clear, and somewhat clear, and clear, and there is
there is some there is some strong evidence of
evidence of attention evidence of attention attention to audience.
to audience. The to audience. The The author’s
author’s knowledge author’s knowledge extensive knowledge
and/or experience and/or experience and/or experience
with the topic is/are with the topic is/are with the topic is/are
limited. evident. evident.
Word Choice The writer uses a The author uses The author uses vivid The author uses vivid
limited vocabulary. words that words and phrases. words and phrases.
Jargon or clichés’ may communicate clearly, The choice and The choice and
be present and but the writing lacks placement of words is placement of words
detract from the variety. inaccurate at times seems accurate,
meaning. and/or seems natural, and not
overdone. forced.
Sentence Sentences sound Most sentences are Most sentences are All sentences are well
Structure, awkward, are well constructed, but well constructed and constructed and have
Grammar, distractingly they have a similar have varied structure varied structure and
Mechanics, & repetitive, or are structure and/or and length. The length. The author
Spelling difficult to length. The author author makes a few makes no errors in
understand. The makes several errors errors in grammar, grammar, mechanics,
author makes in grammar, mechanics, and /or and/or spelling
numerous errors in mechanics, and /or spelling, but they do
grammar. Mechanics, spelling, but they do not interfere with
and/or spelling that not interfere with understanding.
interfere with understanding.
understanding.

12
Final Task: Let’s Do This!
Create a poster advocating the use of the 14

Learning – Centered Psychological Principles in
teaching and how you will apply these principles in
your future classrooms. Use a separate sheet
(long– size bondpaper) for your poster. Also, please
indicate a paragraph (200 words) describing and
explaining the poster you have created. A rubric
will be used to evaluate your poster.
Poster Making Rubric

Points 1 2 3 4 5
Content Content is Content is either Content is Content is Content is
inaccurate. questionable or accurate but some accurate but some accurate and all
Information is incomplete. required required required
incomplete, Information is not information is information is information is
inaccurate, or not presented in a missing and/or not missing and/or not presented in a
presented in a logical order, presented in a presented in a logical order.
logical order, making it difficult logical order, logical order, but
making it difficult to follow. making it difficult is still generally
to follow. to follow. easy to follow.
Presentat Presentation has Presentation is Presentation flows Presentation is Presentation is
ion no flow. unorganized. Tools well. Some tools mostly neat and neat, clean, well-
Insufficient are not used in a are used to show clean. organized and
information and relevant manner. acceptable Information is presented in a
lacking some of Lacking some of understanding. organized in a creative way.
the member’s the members’ Each member’s logical manner Presentation is
information. information/ and information is and shows some colorful and
or information is represented and degree of creative.
not identified identified with creativity. The Information is
their name. overall interesting and
presentation is accurate.
interesting.
Pictures No images or Images are Most images Images, pictures, Images are
and artwork included. inappropriate and and/or artwork is and clip art and colorful, and
Images artwork shows are colorful and drawn artwork are appropriate to the
mostly colorful and
little, if any, appropriate. The topic. Layout flows
appropriate. Layout
creativity. The layout shows little may show some well, shows
layout is messy, creativity and/or is degree of creativity creativity, and is
disorganized or not organized but is not organized pleasing to the
cluttered. logically or logically and/or is eye.
cluttered. cluttered.
Mechanic More than 7 No more than 7 No more than 5 A few (2-3) errors No spelling,
s spelling, grammar spelling, grammar spelling, grammar in spelling, grammar, or
or punctuation or punctuation or punctuation grammar or punctuation errors
errors. Text is errors. Most of errors. Several punctuation. Most in the text. Text is
copied or not text is not in instances where text is in student’s in the student’s
included. authors’ own the text is not in own words. own words.
words and/or no student’s own
text included. words.

13
References:
Combs, B. (2000). Assessing the Role of Educational Technology in the Teaching and
Learning Process: A Learner-Centered Perspective. Retrieved from
http://www.ed.gov/rschstat/eval/tech/techconf00/mccombs_paper.html]
Learner-Centered Principles Work Group of the American Psychological Association's

Board of Educational Affairs . (1997, November). Learner – Centered
Psychological Principles: A framework for School Reform and Design. Retrieved
from https://www.apa.org/ed/governance/bea/learner-centered.pdf
Lucas, M. & Corpuz, B. (2014). Facilitating learning: A metacognitive process

(4th Ed.). Quezon City, Metro Manila: Lorimar Publishing House.

C. Motivation in Facilitating Learning
MOTIVATION IN FACILITATING LEARNING
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, the student must have:
a) demonstrated knowledge on the theories of motivation and its application to

facilitate learning;
b) critically analyzed resources that have been conducted and discuss the impact
on various types of motivational processes.
c) designed motivational technique appropriate for the topic.
Activity:
How motivated are you? Here is a test. Score yourself by checking the appropriate
column.
Legend:
1 – Never
2 – Seldom
3 – Sometimes
4 – Often
5 – Always
Behavior 1 2 3 4 5
1. I study even when there is no quiz/test.
2. I enjoy working on homework.
3. I look forward to school days.
4. I read for learning, not only for grades.
5. In ever school task I do, I always do my best.
6. I give/do more than what is required
7. I listen intently to my teacher’s lecture and instructions.
8. I participate actively in class.
9. I like homework.
10. When something is not clear, I ask questions to clarify.
11. I do not allow myself to be discouraged by my classmates’
unfavourable remarks.
12. My teacher’s unfavourable remarks do not turn me off,
rather they challenge me to do my best.
13. I believe that success can be reached by anyone who works
hard.
14. I always feel about excited about learning

15. I submit course requirements not only for the sake of
compliance
16. I study not only for grades but more for learning.
17. I believe that nothing is difficult if we spend hours of
learning it.
18. I believe that how much I learn from class depends
ultimately on me.
19. I believe I can cope with my teacher’s expectation.
20. I am always eager to learn new things.
21. I am very much interested to improve myself.
22. I read outside my assignments and lessons because it helps
me improve myself.
23. I love to be in the company of people who inspire me to
keep on growing.
24. I avoid people who have no desire to improve themselves.
25. I see the relevance of my lessons to the realization of my
dream in life.
26. I am willing to give up satisfaction of an immediate goal for
the sake of a more important remote goal. E.g. give up
watching TV in order to study.
Total per column
Grand TOTAL
Analysis
Interpret your scores:
• One hundred thirty (130) is the perfect score. If you got 65, that means you are
midway but not highly or very motivated. The closer you are to 130, the better
motivated you are.
• Do you agree with your score? In what items did you score comparatively lower?
What message do you get from those items where you scored low?
• When can you say that a student is highly motivated to learn? What are the
indicators of a student’s level of motivation?
Abstraction
All of us are motivated in one way or another. We differ in levels, hence high
or low manifestations are easily observed. This is true mostly with students who are
naturally curious and eager to gain information. Associated with teaching, motivation
is the key that could spell student interest or indifference in any learning activity.
One of the greatest challenges that teachers face is how to motivate students.

What is Motivation?
Motivation is an inner drive that causes a person to do something and

persevere at something. It is the strength of the drive toward an action. It refers to
initiation, direction, intensity and persistence of behavior. When we get motivated to
do something, it is not enough that we start working at that thing and we get
attracted toward that thing. Our attraction to that thing becomes so intense that we
persist working on that same thing through thick and thin.
Student motivation has to do with students’ desire to participate in the

learning process. It also concerns the reasons or goals that underlie their
involvement in academic activities. Although students may be equally motivated to
perform the task, the sources of their motivation may differ.
How do we describe a person who is motivated?
A person who is motivated is excited about learning and accomplishing things

He/She takes initiative to undertake learning task, assignments and projects without
being pushed by his/her parents or teachers. He/She has goals to accomplished and
dreams to realize.
The following are the indicators of a highly motivated learner?
➢ Willing to give up the satisfaction of immediate goals for the sake of more
important remote goals.
➢ Willing to give up joining his/her barkada to watch a movie in order to
prepare thoroughly for final examinations.
➢ Learns to enjoy learning and learns much more than one who is not
motivated
➢ Persist and perseveres in his/her studies even when things turn out to be
difficult.
➢ Does not give up easily.
Reflect on yourself and identify what indicator do you possessed?
Examine the following statements:
• “How can I ever perform? I have a very low IQ. All my brothers and sisters
are as dumb as I am.”
• “I dropped out of my classes because of my failing grades, kasi nabarkada
ako.”
• “How can I be motivated to study when what my parents want me to be is
not what I want to be.”

• “I have to perform in class. My parents and teachers expect me to perform.
All my brothers and sisters are performing, nakakahiya naman kung di ako
magperform nang mabuti.”
Based on the statement above, to which are quality success and happiness attributed?
To something within a person’s control or something outside a person’s control?
Classification of Motivation
Intrinsic motivation – when the source of motivation is

from within the person himself/herself or the activity itself.
Extrinsic motivation– when that which motivates a person

is someone or something outside him/her.
Intrinsic motivation is shown in the enjoyment of the

activity itself and the inner conviction of the learner that such
things are the right things to do in order to realize a personal
goal or a life dream. Extrinsic motivation plays an
indispensable function when a learner is not yet intrinsically
motivated. It includes factors such as rewards, incentives,
praises or words of encouragements, approval of significant
others like teachers, parents, peer group or their opposites
such as fear of punishment, withdrawal of privileges, tenure
and ostracism.
Motivational Theories to Learning
The Cognitive and achievement theory View on Motivation
• Cognitive and achievement approaches to motivation examine how factors like

achievement goals and cognitive dissonance influence motivation.
• According to the achievement approach to motivation, the need for achievement
drives accomplishment and performance and thereby motivates our behavior. People
are motivated by different goals related to achievement, such as mastery or
performance goals.
• Cognitive approaches to motivation focus on how a person’s cognition’s – and
especially cognitive dissonance – influence their motivation.
• The theory of cognitive dissonance proposes that people have a motivational drive to
reduce contradictory cognitions by either changing or justifying their attitudes,
beliefs and behaviors.

• Cognitive dissonance refers to a conflict or anxiety resulting from inconsistencies
between one’s beliefs and one’s action or other beliefs.
Cognitive Theories of Motivation

1. Expectancy Theory – explain the why and how an individual chooses one
behavioral option over other.
2. Goal–Setting Theory – states the importance of creating goals in motivating a
person.
Expectancy is a variable that represents the belief that the effort (E) of an individual
is an outcome of a need to attain the performance (P) goals that he desires. The theory
states that there are three factors that influence the expectancy perception of a person.
➢ Self efficacy – the individual’s belief regarding his own ability to perform a
specific behavior successfully.
➢ Goal difficulty – occurs when the desired performance goals are too high that
might result to low expectancy perceptions.
➢ Control – the degree of a person’s perceived control over his performance.
A sense of high self-efficacy means a high sense of competence. Self efficacy is the
belief that one has the necessary capabilities to perform a task, fulfil role expectations, or
meet a challenging situation successfully.
The following are self-efficacy enhancing strategies

• Make sure students master the basic skills.
• Help them make noticeable progress on difficult task.
• Communicate confidence in student’s abilities through both words and
actions.
• Expose them to successful peers.
Goal Setting Theory
Goal setting theory was proposed by Edwin Locke in the 1960’s. It explains that goal
setting has an influence on task performance. Specific and challenging goals are more likely
to motivate a person and lead to a better execution of task, whereas vague and easy goals
results to poor task performance. Therefore... the goals should be SMART, (Specific,
Measurable, Achievable, Result oriented and Time-bound) and challenging. It is important
that students’ learning is monitored, however simply monitoring results is not enough.
Students should be given feedback about their performance.

Learning Goals vs Performance Goals
The goals we set for ourselves affect our level of motivation. Learning goals is a
Desire to acquire additional knowledge or master new skills whereas performance goals is a
desire to look good and receive favourable judgements from others or else look bad and
receive unfavourable judgements.
Goal setting is effective when the following major elements are present:
• Goal acceptance
• Specificity
• Challenge
• Performance monitoring
• Performance feedback
Behavioral View on Motivation
In behaviorist theory on learning, the external environment influences more on

motivation – such as rewards and punishment
Behaviorist use two concepts:

1. Rewards – an object or event supplied as a consequences of a particular behavior
that we think is attractive
2. Incentive – an object or event that we think motivates a person’s behavior.
Example:
A teacher believes that a good grade is a reward for those who have done their
assignment.
A student who value good grades view it as an incentive
Understanding student motivation requires probing student’s view about what they
count as incentive and distinguishing these from what we may think are rewards. If we are
consistently reinforced for certain behavior, we may develop habits or tendencies to act in
certain way. Providing grades for learning or punishment for misbehavior is an attempt to
motivate students by extrinsic means.
Therefore... from behavioral perspective, motivation is simply the anticipation of

reward. A person is driven to acquire positive reinforcement, and driven by previous
experiences of reward, we act accordingly to achieve more reinforcement.
Performance in task and the motivation to do so may be caused by external forces

such as parents, teachers, peers educational requirements, job specification, etc.

Types of Behavioral Theory on Motivation
Reinforcement theory of Motivation was proposed by BF Skinner based on the idea of

Thorndike’s ‘Law of Effect”. It states that individual behavior is a function of its
consequences. Individual’s behavior with positive consequences tends to be repeated and
behavior with negative consequences tends not to be repeated.
Incentive Theory on Motivation refers to incentive or motive to do something.

The most common incentive is reward. Rewards can be tangible and intangible and is
presented right after the occurrence of the action or behavior that one is trying to correct or
cause to happen. If actions are positively received, people are more likely to act in this
manner, or if negatively received people are less likely to met in the manner.
Humanistic Theory on Motivation
Humanistic theory on motivation is based on the idea that people have strong
cognitive reasons to perform various actions. People are basically good, and have an innate
need to make themselves and the world better. It emphasizes the personal worth of the
individual, the centrality of human values, and the creative, active nature of human beings.
Humanistic theory on motivation is famously illustrated in Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of
Needs, which presents different motivations at different levels. Physiological or Biological
needs, Safety & security needs, Love and Belongingness, Esteem Needs, and Self –
Actualization
Implication of Motivational Theories of Learning in teaching and learning
Cognitive Theory
Cognitive dissonance
Whenever you want to change a student’s attitude, first identify the beliefs at the
heart of that attitude; when you have a fairly clear picture induce cognitive dissonance by
producing powerful information and arguments which counter those beliefs. The degree of
cognitive dissonance should be as high as possible for the attitudinal change we purport to
bring about to be effective. For example, when dealing with a misbehaving child, to simply
tell them off for what they did will be way less effective than raising their awareness of the
ways their conduct affected others negatively and explaining why is morally/ethically wrong.
Cognitive Evaluation Theory

We need to ensure that before engaging students in challenging tasks that they may
perceive as being beyond their levels of competence we prepare them adequately,
cognitively and emotionally. For instance, in language learning, before carrying out a difficult
listening comprehension task, students should be exposed several times to any unfamiliar
vocabulary or other language item contained in the to-be-heard recording so as to facilitate
the task. Moreover, modelling strategies that may facilitate the tasks and giving them the
opportunity to experience some success in similar tasks through those very strategies may
increase their sense of self-efficacy; this will give them greater expectancy of success and a
feeling of empowerment which will feed into their sense of competency and control.
Goal-related theory
Instead of setting goals for your students in a top-down fashion, involve them
actively in the process of learning. Moreover, help the students narrow down the goals set
as much as possible and gauge them as accurately as possible to their existing level of
competence. E.g.: instead of simply telling a student to check his next essay more
accurately next time around and give them a lengthy error checklist, sit down with them and
ask them to choose three challenging error categories that they would like to focus on and
to aim to attain 80, 90 or even 100% accuracy in those categories in their essay due the
following week. Make sure that the knowledge required by the learners to prevent or fix the
target errors is learnable and that the students are provided with learning strategies which
will assist them in achieving the set goals.
Humanistic Theory
Maslow hierarchy of human needs affects students’ performance. Students who are
hungry or fearful may find it difficult to concentrate on their studies. Students who are
rejected and isolated may refuse to participate fully in class activities. In the same manner,
teacher-student relationships are significant in satisfying students’ needs. Student need to
feel that they are worthy of respect, from both themselves and others. The respect must be
based on actual achievement.
Motivational Techniques
Keep Students Active and Engaged
When students are interacting and engaged, they

won't have to time to get bored. Choose students at random
to answer questions, and make it understood that you value
their input and ideas. Student interaction and sharing
enhances instructional time and prepares students to
function more effectively as a body of learners. We must
recognize the importance of these dynamics and find ways
to celebrate student intelligence.

Allow for Creativity and Variety
Assigning a piece of writing? Allow students to

pick their own genre—such as reports, poems, creative
writing stories, plays, or songs—when assigning a topic.
When students can pick their favourite form of writing,
they'll stay intrinsically motivated.
Create a Class Newspaper
Inspire interest in current events by using a local paper as a model for reporting
class events. Class projects in every subject area can be presented as news articles with
headers, bylines, lead-ins, bodies, and summary paragraphs. Word games, weather,
horoscopes, and after-school activities can be integrated with whatever content is being
taught.
Get Out of the Classroom
Holding class or even just a short discussion in a new environment, whether a park,
museum, or the school library, is a great way to stoke student interest. When you return to
your classroom, they may see a new approach to a problem or assignment.
Create a Competition
Participate in a competition. As long as there is

appreciation for everyone's best effort and not all
attention is placed solely on the winner, a competition
can be a great way to create excitement.
Offer Differentiated Instruction
Knowing that you'll have students of differing abilities in your classroom, craft your
lessons for everyone—taking into consideration the different ability levels.
Provide Feedback Promptly, Frequently, and Efficiently
Students must be able to see a direct connection between any effort or completed
task (such as homework) and a response from you, both verbal and written. Make sure you
mention each student's personal progress, rather than comparing his or her work with
others in the class.

Provide Multiple Opportunities for Students to Set Goals
Students should have multiple opportunities to set their own

academic goals. Invite them to establish obtainable goals for a
lesson, a unit, or even for the whole year. Ask them what they
would like to learn about a topic and what they think they must do
to learn that material. Psychologists tell us that the goals we set for
ourselves (as opposed to the goals others set for us) are
intrinsically more motivational. We're more inclined to pursue those
goals and relish in the success that comes about when we achieve them.
Share Accomplishments
Provide numerous opportunities for students to share their accomplishments with the
class and the class to share their achievements with the larger school community. Use skits,
plays, readers theater productions, library displays, bulletin boards, a class newspaper or
newsletter, or other media to promote the efforts of the whole classroom.
Finally, be an enthusiastic teacher and show you are interested and enjoying what
you are doing. Enthusiasm is contagious.
Assessment/Application
1. Identify examples of extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation based on the

items of the questionnaire checklist.
2. Which type of motivation is more beneficial? Intrinsic or Extrinsic? Why?
3. Between learning goals and performance goals, with which type do you identify
yourself? Explain your answer.
4. Why do people tend to attribute their successes to internal causes and their
failure to external causes?
5. Give your opinion/comment on this statement, “Success has many fathers; failure
or defeat is an orphan.”
6. Choose three (3) topics and design what will a motivational technique suited to
each topic.

References:
Lucas,MR & Corpuz,B. “Facilitating Learning:A Metacognitive Process.

LorimarPublishing, C.2007
Vega, V. & Prieto, N. “Facilitating Learning”. Books Atbp. Publishing Corp. C. 2012
Salandanan, G., PhD. “Methods of Learning”. 2nd ed. Lorimar Publishing Inc.
C. 2012
Conti, Gianfranco, Phd. “Implication of Motivational Theories of Learning in teaching-

learning. July 27, 2015. Retrieved at gianfrancoconti.com
Top Ten Motivation Tips for the Classroom. March 8, 2012. Retrieved at
www.teachervision.com

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D. Diversity of Learners
Diversity of Learners
Introduction
As our students enter the classroom,

they bring with them a unique background, set
of skills, and educational needs. No two
students learn the same because of these
traits. Diversity in the classroom does not
just refer to cultural diversity but also refers to
diversity in skills, knowledge, and needs.
Learners have different strategies, approaches,
and capabilities for learning that are a function
of prior experience and heredity.
Individuals are born with and develop

their own capabilities and talents. Thus, as
educators, we need to help students examine
their learning preferences, and expand or
modify them, if necessary. Specifically, we
need to look into the different theories related
to individual differences such as the theory of intelligence and concepts of multiple
intelligences and learning styles. Knowledge of these will guide us in identifying the
educational needs of our learners and to have a deeper understanding of their learning
capabilities and styles. It is important to understand these attributes in order to effectively
facilitate learning. As we attend to these differences, we can come up with instructional
methods or create materials that are aligned with the learning styles of our learners. This
can be a huge factor toward succeeding in facilitating a class that is focused on students’
needs and that is basically how to learn efficiently.
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, you must have:
a. recognized the different theories and concepts related to intelligences and learning
styles;
b. listed possible classroom activities to address various learning styles and
intelligences; and
c. read and analyzed a research paper about multiple intelligences and learning styles
through a matrix

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Let’s Warm – up!
Multiple Intelligences and Learning Styles Inventory

Complete each section by placing a “1” next to each statement you feel accurately
describes you. If you do not identify with a statement, leave the space provided blank. Then
total the column in each section.
Section 1
_____ I enjoy categorizing things by common traits
_____ Ecological (environmental) issues are important to me
_____ Hiking and camping are enjoyable activities
_____ I enjoy working on a garden Total Number
_____ I believe preserving (saving/keeping) our National Parks is important of 1’s used in
_____ Putting things in hierarchies (system of levels) makes sense to me
Section 1
_____ Animals are important in my life
___________
_____ My home has a recycling system in place
_____ I enjoy studying biology, botany and/or zoology
_____ I spend a great deal of time outdoors
Section 2
_____ I easily pick up on patterns
_____ I focus in on noise and sounds
_____ Moving to a beat is easy for me
_____ I’ve always been interested in playing an instrument
Total Number
_____ The cadence (rhythm/speed) of poetry intrigues me
_____ I remember things by putting them in a rhyme of 1’s used in
_____ Concentration is difficult while listening to a radio or television Section 2
_____ I enjoy many kinds of music ___________
_____ Musicals are more interesting than dramatic plays
_____ Remembering song lyrics is easy for me
Section 3
_____ I keep my things neat and orderly
_____ Step-by-step directions are a big help Total Number
_____ Solving problems comes easily to me of 1’s used in
_____ I get easily frustrated with disorganized people
Section 3
_____ I can complete calculations quickly in my head ___________
_____ Puzzles requiring reasoning are fun
_____ I can’t begin an assignment until all my questions are answered
_____ Structure helps me be successful
_____ I find working on a computer spreadsheet or database rewarding
_____ Things have to make sense to me or I am dissatisfied
Section 4
_____ It is important to see my role in the “big picture” of things
_____ I enjoy discussing questions about life
_____ Religion is important to me Total Number
_____ I enjoy viewing art masterpieces of 1’s used in
_____ Relaxation and meditation exercises are rewarding Section 3
_____ I like visiting breathtaking sites in nature ___________
_____ I enjoy reading ancient and modern philosophers

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_____ Learning new things is easier when I understand their value

_____ I wonder if there are other forms of intelligent life in the universe
_____ Studying history and ancient culture helps give me perspective
Section 5
_____ I learn best interacting with others
_____ “The more the merrier”
_____ Study groups are very productive for me Total Number
_____ I enjoy chat rooms of 1’s used in
_____ Participating in politics is important Section 3
_____ Television and radio talk shows are enjoyable ___________
_____ I am a “team player”
_____ I dislike working alone
_____ Clubs and extracurricular activities are fun
_____ I pay attention to social issues and causes
Section 6
_____I enjoy making things with my hands
_____ Sitting still for long periods of time is difficult for me
_____ I enjoy outdoor games and sports
Total Number
_____ I value non-verbal communication such as sign language
of 1’s used in
_____ A fit body is important for a fit mind
Section 3
_____ Arts and crafts are enjoyable pastimes
___________
_____ Expression through dance is beautiful
_____ I like working with tools
_____ I live an active lifestyle
_____ I learn by doing
Section 7
_____ I enjoy reading all kinds of materials
_____ Taking notes helps me remember and understand
_____ I faithfully (routinely/always) contact friends through letters and/or e-mail
_____ It is easy for me to explain my ideas to others
_____ I keep a journal
_____ Word puzzles like crosswords and jumbles are fun Total Number
_____ I write for pleasure of 1’s used in
_____ I enjoy playing with words like puns, anagrams and spoonerisms Section 3
_____ Foreign languages interest me ___________
_____ Debates and public speaking are activities I like to participate in
Section 8
_____ I am keenly aware of my moral beliefs
_____ I learn best when I have an emotional attachment to the subject
_____ Fairness is important to me
_____ My attitude effects how I learn
_____ Social justice issues concern me Total Number
_____ Working alone can be just as productive as working in a group of 1’s used in
_____ I need to know why I should do something before I agree to do it Section 3
_____ When I believe in something I will give 100% effort to it ___________
_____ I like to be involved in causes that help others
_____ I am willing to protest or sign a petition to right a wrong

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Section 9
_____ I can imagine ideas in my mind
_____ Re-arranging a room is fun for me
_____ I enjoy creating art using varied media Total Number
_____ I remember well using graphic organizers of 1’s used in
_____ Performance art can be very gratifying Section 3
_____ Spreadsheets are great for making charts, graphs and tables ___________
_____ Three-dimensional puzzles bring me much enjoyment
_____ Music videos are very stimulating
_____ I can recall things in mental pictures
_____ I am good at reading maps, atlases and blueprints
Now carry forward your total from each section and multiply by 10 below:
Section No. of 1’s Multiply Multiplied Score

x 10
x 10
x 10
x 10
x 10
x 10
x 10
x 10
x 10
Now plot your scores on the bar graph provided… color in the blocks up to the multiplied
score.
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0 Section Section Section Section Section 5 Section Section Section Section
1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9
Types of Naturalis Musical Logical Existential Interperson Kinesthetic Verbal Intraperso Visual
Strength tic al nal

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1. Are you familiar with all the intelligences/ learning styles presented in the activity?
Share your brief insights about them.
2. What are your top 3 types of learning styles? Bottom 3 types of learning styles?
3. What do you think these learning styles tell you about the course you chose or the
career you might get into in the future?
Let’s Discover!
I. Theories of Intelligence
Researchers define intelligence as the capacity to acquire knowledge, the ability to

think and reason in the abstract, and the capability of solving problems (Stenberg, 1986).
Any theory of intelligence must be able to do three things: 1.) relate intelligence to
an individual’s internal world and explain what happens when a person thinks intelligently;
2.) accept the relation between the external world and that person’s intelligence and
explain how intelligence functions in the real world; 3.) relate intelligence to the individual’s
experiences.
• Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences
The theory of multiple intelligences was developed in 1983 by Dr. Howard Gardner,
professor of education at Harvard University. It suggests that the traditional notion of
intelligence, based on I.Q. testing, is far too limited. Instead, Dr. Gardner proposes eight
different intelligences to account for a broader range of human potential in children and
adults. These intelligences are:
1. Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence (“word smart” or “book smart”)

This intelligence involves the knowing which comes through language;
through reading, writing, and speaking. It involves understanding the order and
meaning of words in both speech and writing and how to properly use the language.
It involves understanding the sociocultural nuances of a language, including idioms,
plays on words, and linguistically-based humor. If this is a strong intelligence for
you, you have highly developed skills for reading, speaking, and writing and you tend
to think in words. You probably like various kinds of literature, playing word games,
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making up poetry and stories, engaging in involved discussions with other people,
debating, formal speaking, creative writing, and telling jokes. You are likely precise in
expressing yourself and irritated when others are not! You love learning new words,
you do well with written assignments, and your comprehension of anything you read
is high.
2. Mathematical-Logical Intelligence (“math smart” or “logic smart”)

This intelligence uses numbers, math, and logic to find and understand the
various patterns that occur in our lives: thought patterns, number patterns, visual
patterns, color patters, and so on. It begins with concrete patterns in the real world
but gets increasingly abstract as we try to understand relationships of the patterns
we have seen. If you happen to be a logical-mathematically inclined person you tend
to think more conceptually and abstractly and are often able to see patterns and
relationships that others miss. You probably like to conduct experiments, to solve
puzzles and other problems, to ask cosmic questions, and analyze circumstances and
people’s behavior. You most likely enjoy working with numbers and mathematical
formulas and operations, and you love the challenge of a complex problem to solve.
You are probably systematic and organized, and you likely always have a logical
rationale or argument for what you are doing or thinking at any given time.
3. Visual-Spatial Intelligence (“art smart” or “picture smart”)

We often say “A picture is worth a thousand words!” or “Seeing is believing!”
This intelligence represents the knowing that occurs through the shapes, images,
patterns, designs, and textures we see with our external eyes, but also includes all of
the images we are able to conjure inside our heads. If you are strong in this
intelligence you tend to think in images and pictures. You are likely very aware of
object, shapes, colors, textures, and patterns in the environment around you. You
probably like to draw, paint, and make interesting designs and patterns, and work
with clay, 2 colored markers, construction paper, and fabric. Many who are strong in
visual-spatial intelligence love to work jigsaw puzzles, read maps and find their way
around new places. You probably have definite opinions about colors that go
together well, textures that are appropriate and pleasing, and how a room should be
decorated. And, you are likely excellent at performing tasks that require “seeing with
the mind’s eyes,” such as visualizing, pretending, imagining, and forming mental
images.
4. Intrapersonal Intelligence (“self - smart” or “introspection smart”)

At the heart of this intelligence are our human self - reflective abilities by
which we can step outside of ourselves and think about our own lives. This is the
introspective intelligence. It involves our uniquely human propensity to want to know
the meaning, purpose, and significance of things. It involves our awareness of the
inner world of the self, emotions, values, beliefs, and our various quests for genuine
spirituality. If this intelligence is one of your strong points you may like to work alone
and sometimes you may shy away from others. You are probably self-reflective and
self-aware and thus you tend to be in tune with your inner feelings, values, beliefs,
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and thinking processes. You are frequently bearers of creative wisdom and insight,
are highly intuitive, and you are inwardly motivated rather than needing external
rewards to keep you going. You are often strong willed, self-confident, and have
definite, well-thought out opinions on almost any issue. Other people will often come
to you for advice and counsel.
5. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence ("body smart" or "movement smart")

We often talk about “learning by doing.” This way of knowing happens
through physical movement and through the knowing of our physical body. The body
“knows” many things that are not necessarily known by the conscious, logical mind,
such as how to ride a bike, how to parallel park a car, dance the waltz, catch a
thrown object, maintain balance while walking, and where the keys are on a
computer keyboard. If you have strength in this intelligence area you tend to have a
keen sense of body awareness. You like physical movement, dancing, making and
inventing things with your hands, and roleplaying. You probably communicate well
through body language and other physical gestures. You can often perform a task
much better after seeing someone else do it first and then mimicking their actions.
You probably like physical games of all kinds and you like to demonstrate how to do
something for someone else. You may find it difficult to sit still for long periods of
time and are easily bored or distracted if you are not actively involved in what is
going on around you.
6. Interpersonal (“people smart” or “group smart”)

This is the person-to-person way of knowing. It is the knowing that happens
when we work with and relate to other people, often as part of a team. This way of
knowing also asks use to develop a whole range of social skills that are needed for
effective person-to-person communication and relating. If this person-to-person way
of knowing is more developed in you, you learn through personal interactions. You
probably have lots of friends, show a great deal of empathy for other people and
exhibit a deep understanding of other points of view. You probably love team
activities of all kinds and are a good team member--you “pull your own weight” and
often much more! You are sensitive to other people’s feelings and ideas, and are
good at piggybacking your ideas on others’ thoughts. And you are likely skilled at
drawing others out in a discussion. You are also probably skilled in conflict
resolution, mediation, and finding compromise when people are in radical opposition
to each other.
7. Naturalist Intelligence (“nature smart” or “environment smart”)

The naturalist intelligence involves the full range of knowing that occurs in
and through our encounters with the natural world including our recognition,
appreciation, and understanding of the natural environment. It involves such
capacities as species discernment, communion with the natural world and its
phenomena, and the ability to recognize and classify various flora and fauna. If the
naturalist intelligence is one of your strengths you have a profound love for the
outdoors, animals, plants, and almost any natural object. You are probably
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fascinated by and noticeably affected by such things as the weather, changing leaves
in the fall, the sound of the wind, the warm sun or lack thereof, or an insect in the
room. At a young age you were likely nature collectors, adding such things as bugs,
rocks leaves, seashells, sticks, and so on to your collections. You probably brought
home all manner and kinds of stray animals and today you may have several pets
and want more. You tend to have an affinity with and respect for all living beings.
8. Musical-Rhythmic Intelligence (“music smart” or “sound smart”)

This is the knowing that happens through sound and vibration. In the original
research on the theory of multiple intelligences this intelligence was called musical-
rhythmic intelligence. However, it is not limited to music and rhythm so I’m calling it
auditory-vibrational, for it deals with the whole realm of sound, tones, beats, and
vibrational patterns as well as music. If you are strong in this intelligence area you
likely have a love of music and rhythmic patterns. You are probably very sensitive to
sounds in the environment; the chirp of cricket, rain on the roof, varying traffic
patterns. You may study and work better with music in the background. You can
often reproduce a melody or rhythmic pattern after hearing it only once. Various
sounds, tones, and rhythms may have a visible effect on you--others can often see a
change in facial expressions, body movement, or emotional responses. You probably
like to create music and you enjoy listening to a wide variety of music. You may be
skilled at mimicking sounds, language accents, and others’ speech patterns, and you
can probably readily recognize different musical instruments in a composition.
• The Five Components of Emotional Intelligence by Daniel Goleman
Self-awareness
The ability to recognize and understand personal moods and emotions and
drives, as well as their effect on others. Hallmarks* of self-awareness include self-
confidence, realistic self-assessment, and a self-deprecating sense of humor. Self-
awareness depend on one's ability to monitor one's own emotion state and to correctly
identify and name one's emotions.
Self-regulation
The ability to control or redirect disruptive impulses and moods, and the
propensity to suspend judgment and to think before acting. Hallmarks include
trustworthiness and integrity; comfort with ambiguity; and openness to change.
Internal motivation
A passion to work for internal reasons that go beyond money and status -which
are external rewards, - such as an inner vision of what is important in life, a joy in doing
something, curiosity in learning, a flow that comes with being immersed in an activity. A
propensity to pursue goals with energy and persistence. Hallmarks include a strong drive
to achieve, optimism even in the face of failure, and organizational commitment.

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Empathy
The ability to understand the emotional makeup of other people. A skill in treating
people according to their emotional reactions. Hallmarks include expertise in building
and retaining talent, cross-cultural sensitivity, and service to clients and customers. In an
educational context, empathy is often thought to include, or lead to, sympathy, which
implies concern, or care or a wish to soften negative emotions or experiences in others.
Social Skill
It refers to the proficiency in managing relationships and building networks, and
an ability to find common ground and build rapport. Hallmarks of social skills include
effectiveness in leading change, persuasiveness, and expertise building and leading
teams.
• David Perkin’s Theory of Intelligence
In 1992 book Smart Schools, David Perkins analyses a number of different

educational theories and approaches to education. His analysis is strongly supportive of
Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences. Perkins presents detailed arguments that IQ
has three major components or dimensions:
1. Neutral intelligence
This refers to the efficiency and precision of one’s neurological system. There
is substantial evidence that a child’s neural intelligence can be adversely affected by
the mother’s use of drugs such as alcohol and cocaine during pregnancy. Lead (such
as from lead-based paint) can do severe neural damage to a person. Vitamins, or the
lack thereof, can affect neutral intelligence.
2. Experiential intelligence
This refers to one’s accumulated knowledge and experience in different

areas. It can be thought of as the accumulation of all one’s expertise. Experiential
intelligence is based on years and years of accumulating knowledge and experiences
in both informal and formal learning environments. Such knowledge and experience
can lead to a high level of expertise in one or more fields.
3. Reflective intelligence
This refers to one’s broad – based strategies for attacking problems, for
learning, and for approaching intellectually challenging tasks. It includes attitudes
that support persistence, systematization, and imagination. It includes self –
monitoring and self – management. This kind of intelligence can be thought of as a
control system that helps make effective use of neural intelligence and experiential
intelligence. A person can learn strategies that help to make more effective use of
neural and experiential intelligence (Moursund, 1999).

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II. Learning Styles
Learning Styles are divided into two which include the cognitive styles and the the
thinking styles. Let us discuss their individual features.
• Cognitive Styles
Cognitive styles refer to the preferred way individual processes information.

These also describe a person’s typical mode of thinking, remembering or problem –
solving. Furthermore, styles are usually considered to be bipolar dimensions whereas
abilities are unipolar (ranging from zero to a maximum value). Having more of an
ability is usually considered beneficial while having a particular cognitive style simply
denotes a tendency to behave in a certain manner. Cognitive style is usually
described as a personality dimension which influences attitudes, values, and social
interaction.
The most well-known style is the independent versus dependent style. It

refers to a tendency to approach the environment in an analytical, as opposed to a
global fashion.
Field independent – Individuals can easily separate important details from a

complex or confusing background. They tend to rely on themselves and their
own thought system when solving problems.
Field dependent – Students with this style find it more difficult to see the
parts in a complex whole. They rely on others’ ideas when solving problems
and are good at interpersonal relationships.
Other cognitive styles that have been identified include:
o Scanning – differences in the extent and intensity of attention resulting in

variations in vividness of experience and the span of awareness.
o Levelling versus sharpening – individual variations in remembering that pertain to

the distinctiveness of memories and the tendency to merge similar events.
o Reflection versus impulsivity – individual consistencies in the speed and adequacy

with which alternative hypotheses are formed and responses made.
o Conceptual differentiation – differences in the tendency to categorize perceived

similarities among stimuli in terms of separate concepts or dimensions.
• Thinking Style
Thinking style is the characteristic way of processing I formation. It is the

way one acquires knowledge, acquires thoughts, forms views and opinions, applies
one’s value, solves problems, makes plans, decisions, and expresses oneself to
others.

11
Professor Anthony Gregor, professor of curriculum and instruction, at the

University of Connecticut, has divided thinking styles into four groups:
Concrete Sequential Thinkers – They tend to be based in reality. They process

information in an ordered, sequential, linear way. To them, reality consists of what
they can detect through their physical sense of sight, touch, sound, taste, and smell.
They notice and recall details easily and remember facts, specific information,
formulas and rules with ease. “hands on” is a good way for these people to learn.
Concrete Random Thinkers – They are experimenters. Like concrete sequential,

they are based on reality, but are willing to take more of a trial – and – error
approach. Because of this, they often make the intuitive leaps necessary for true
creative thought. They have a strong need to find alternatives and do things on their
own way. If you are a concrete random thinker, use your divergent thinking ability.
Believe that it is good to see things from more than one viewpoint. Put yourself in a
position to solve problems but give yourself deadlines. Accept your need for change.
Abstract Random Thinkers – They organize information through reflection, and

thrive in unstructured people – oriented environments. The ‘real” world for abstract
random thinkers is the world of feelings and emotions. Their minds absorb ideas,
information, and impressions and organize them through reflection. They remember
best if information is personalized. They feel constricted when they are subjected to
a very structured environment. If you are an abstract random thinker, use your
natural ability to work with others. Recognize how strong emotions influence your
concentration. Build on your strength of learning by association. Look at the big
picture first. Be careful to allow yourself enough time to finish the job. Remind
yourself to do things through plenty of visual clues, such as colored stickers pasted
up where you will see them.
Abstract Sequential Thinkers – They love the world of theory and abstract
thought. They like to think in concepts and analyze information. They make great
philosophers and research scientists. Their thinking processes are logical, rational,
and intellectual. A favorite activity for these learners is reading, and when a project
needs to be researched they are very thorough at it. Generally, they prefer to work
alone rather than in groups. If you are an abstract sequential thinker, give yourself
exercises in logic. Feed your intellect and steer yourself toward highly structured
situations.
• Kolb’s Theory of Learning Styles
Diverging (feeling and watching)

These people are able to look at things from different perspectives. They are
sensitive. They prefer to watch rather than do, tending to gather information and use
imagination to solve problems. They are best at viewing concrete situations from
several different viewpoints.
Kolb called this style 'diverging' because these people perform better in
situations that require ideas-generation, for example, brainstorming. People with a
diverging learning style have broad cultural interests and like to gather information.

12
They are interested in people, tend to be imaginative and emotional, and

tend to be strong in the arts. People with the diverging style prefer to work in
groups, to listen with an open mind and to receive personal feedback.
Assimilating (watching and thinking)

The assimilating learning preference involves a concise, logical approach.
Ideas and concepts are more important than people.
These people require good clear explanation rather than a practical
opportunity. They excel at understanding wide-ranging information and organizing it
in a clear, logical format.
People with an assimilating learning style are less focused on people and
more interested in ideas and abstract concepts. People with this style are more
attracted to logically sound theories than approaches based on practical value.
This learning style is important for effectiveness in information and science
careers. In formal learning situations, people with this style prefer readings, lectures,
exploring analytical models, and having time to think things through.
Converging (doing and thinking)

People with a converging learning style can solve problems and will use their
learning to find solutions to practical issues. They prefer technical tasks, and are less
concerned with people and interpersonal aspects.
People with a converging learning style are best at finding practical uses for
ideas and theories. They can solve problems and make decisions by finding solutions
to questions and problems.
People with a converging learning style are more attracted to technical tasks
and problems than social or interpersonal issues. A converging learning style enables
specialist and technology abilities.
People with a converging style like to experiment with new ideas, to simulate,
and to work with practical applications.
Accommodating (doing and feeling)

The Accommodating learning style is 'hands-on,' and relies on intuition rather
than logic. These people use other people's analysis, and prefer to take a practical,
experiential approach. They are attracted to new challenges and experiences, and to
carrying out plans.
They commonly act on 'gut' instinct rather than logical analysis. People with
an accommodating learning style will tend to rely on others for information than
carry out their own analysis. This learning style is prevalent within the general
population.

13
Let’s Check!
In the following table, list down at least four intelligences from the list of multiple
intelligences by Howard Garners and two learning styles from Kolb’s Theory of Learning
Styles. Then, formulate possible classroom activities (title and short description) that would
cater such intelligences and learning styles listed. Indicate the subject/course, the grade
level and the lesson/topic where these activities be employed.
Subject/Course: _________________________________Grade Level: _________________
Lesson/Topic: _______________________________________________________________
Intelligences Possible Classroom Activities

1. a.
b.
2. a.
b.
3. a.
b.
4. a.
b.

14
Learning Styles Possible Classroom Activities

1. a.
b.
2. a.
b.
Final Task: Let’s Do This!
Look for a research article related to Intelligences and Learning Styles. Read the
article and fill out the matrix below. Use bullets to highlight the key points in the matrix.
(Use a separate sheet if necessary.)
Title: Author/s:
Problem/ Theoretical Methodology Findings Conclusion/ Pedagogical
Objectives Framework Recommendations Implications (Pls.
formulate if not
available)
Reference
(Complete
APA
bibliographic
al entry
format)

15
References:
Armstrong, T. (2020). Multiple Intelligences. Retrieved from

https://www.institute4learning.com/resources/articles/multiple-intelligences/
McLeod, S. A. (2017, October 24). Kolb - learning styles. Simply Psychology.

https://www.simplypsychology.org/learning-kolb.html.
Vega, V. & Prieto, N. (2012). Facilitating Learning. Mandaluyong City: Books Atbp.
Publishing Corp.

1
Unit 2: Profile of a Learner-Centered Teacher

Learning Outcomes:
1. Assess one’s attitude toward teaching;

2. Categorize the two domains of Teacher knowledge;
3. Demonstrate understanding of the different knowledge domains that a teacher
should possess to facilitate learning
4. Contextualize the four components of the general dimensions of Teacher Knowledge;
and
5. Exemplify to indicate the value of the components of teachers’ Content Knowledge.
This Unit will help you create a profile of a

teacher who is learner-centered. The teacher’s
profile actually means the traits, competencies,
capabilities and attitudes possessed. In the
teaching and learning context, there are teachers
that are so effective that they can successfully
guide the learners to perform well. The learner’s
performance which is reflected in the change of
behavior does not mean that the lesson is made
easy requiring extremely minimal tasks but it is a
particular teacher’s capability that can challenge
the learners to understand the value of discipline
and focused dedication to study while leading
them to their satisfaction and fulfillment in
discovering that they are actually growing in in
the process.
What kind of teacher can facilitate learning effectively? What capacity and
competencies should a teacher possess that make the learners see the direction to unravel
and value their own ways of learning while at the same time enjoying the process?
This is the profile we would like to capture. This also leads me to ask you to reflect whether
you have the makings of that kind of teacher – one who can effectively facilitate learning.
Let’s find out.
Take the Self-Inventory that follows.

Unit 2. Profile of a Learner-Centered Teacher
2
Task: Self Inventory
You chose to teach and if you want to prepare yourself to be able to do well, it has to start
from assessing how you look at teaching and all the essential elements involved. Take this
self-inventory adapted from GURO 21 (SEAMEO, INNOTECH). Check the column
corresponding to how you honestly assess yourself.
I cannot do I am learning I am learning I can do

this yet how to do how to do this but I
Competency this but with this but with need to
close less learn more
supervision supervision and
improve
Novice Trainee Apprentice Practitioner
1. Assess my attitude toward
the subject matter I teach.
2. Categorize the two
domains of knowledge for
teaching.
3. Distinguish the four
components of teacher
knowledge.
4. Differentiate the four
components of teacher
content knowledge.
After answering the self-inventory tool on assessing your attitude toward teaching, how did
you fare? What competencies do you need to gain or enhance?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

3
PRIMING
Task: Read this short passage about the teacher.
And God Created the First Teacher
On the sixth day, God created man. On the seventh day He rested, not so much to
recuperate from the previous six days of work, but rather to prepare Himself for the work
He was going to do on the next day. For it was on that day--the eight day that God created
the First teacher. The Teacher, though taken from among men and women, had several
significant modifications. In general, God made the Teacher more durable than others. The
Teacher was made to rise at 5:30 a.m. and go to bed no earlier than 11:30 p.m. with no
rest in between. The Teacher had to be fit to correct 102 term papers over Easter vacation.
Yes, God made the Teacher tough, but gentle, too. The Teacher was equipped with soft
hands to dry the tears of the second grader who pet goldfish drowned the night before or
those of the 16 year old girl who was not asked to the prom.
And into the Teacher, God poured a generous amount of patience. Patience, when a student
asks for a repeat of the directions the Teacher had just repeated for someone else.
Patience, when the kids forget their book money for the fourth day in a row. Patience, when
one-third of the class fails the test. Patience, when the textbooks haven't come today and
the classes start tomorrow.
And God gave the Teacher a heart slightly bigger than the average human heart. For the
Teacher's heart had to be big enough to love the kid who screams, "I hate this class, it's
boring!"...to the kid who wets his pants in the middle of the phonics lesson while the
supervisor is in the room...to love the kid who gets arrested for drunk driving on the day
after he got an 'A' on his essay entitled, "The Evils of Alcohol"...to the kid who runs out of
the classroom at the end of the school year without so much as a 'goodbye,' let alone a
'thank you.'
And lastly, God gave the Teacher an abundant supply of Hope. For God knew that the
Teacher would always be hoping. Hoping that the kids would someday learn how to
spell...hoping that just for one day no one's zipper would get stuck...hoping not to have
lunch room supervision...hoping that Friday would come...hoping for a free day...and always
hoping for more pay.
When God finished creating the Teacher, He stepped back and admired the work of His
hands. And God saw that the Teacher was good. Very good. And God smiled, for when He
looked at the Teacher, He saw into the future. God saw that His Only Begotten Son would
someday come to earth and live among men. And He would be called Teacher, too.
-Author unknown
4
After reading the short passage, what struck you the most and provide the reason?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
What desirable traits and attitudes should one acquire in order to be a teacher who a
learner would like to have?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
DEEPENING
How teachers behave and manage learners is reflective of their attitude. Attitude is defined
as a settled way of thinking or feeling about someone or something, typically one that is
reflected in a person's behavior (Merriam-Webster, 2019).
In the educational context, a teacher’s attitude toward himself, teaching, or the lesson can
greatly influence learners.
Classifications of Teacher Attitude
1) Attitude toward oneself.

If we have a positive view of ourselves, we radiate this in the classroom. This can be
achieve through self-knowledge and self-mastery. Knowing our limitations and areas
needing improvement can enhance our self-efficacy. So we take a positive view of
our surroundings. We show confidence and exude happiness and this is usually
manifested when we are in the classroom or working with learners under our
tutelage.
2) Attitude toward Learners

Our treatment of learners reflect our attitude toward them. When we see them as
co-learners and discover new ways of doing things or when we do not feel
threatened at all when they ask so many questions but see these as signs of
effective engagements then it may create a welcoming atmosphere that makes
learners wanting always to be in our class.
5
3) Attitude toward Subject Matter

Our love for the subject matter can be seen clearly by our learners. The passion to
teach the lesson drives us to study and prepare and no matter how many years we
teach, when we have the right attitude toward our lesson, we will always feel the
need to study further and prepare well. This practice usually leads us to hone our
knowledge and skills in facilitating learning.
4) Attitude toward Peers and Learners’ Parents

It is said that one major 21st century skill is knowing how to collaborate. Do we see
others like classmates, friends or colleagues as threats or do we see them as
possible partners? Do we know how to be a team player knowing that each
individual has specific strengths that can augment or suffice what may be a limitation
to others? Do we value support from parents and other stakeholders? Do we take a
welcoming stance when dealing with people and not being judgmental toward those
who we may not like or who may be socio-economically different?
Our attitude and positivity can be contagious. How we look at the lesson to be taught
can greatly influence our learners. When we are excited to share our love for teaching or
our experience on a learning point, this will be manifested on how we present the lesson. It
can influence the learners’ view on the subject matter and his attitude toward learning the
lesson as well.
As a teacher, possessing the positive attitude and the right enthusiasm on the subject
matter or toward the learner are attributes of an effective facilitator of learning in today’s
world.
Retrieved from: https://www.iuemag.com/february2017/di/8-influential-quotes-to-be-enthusiastic.php

6
Possessing a positive attitude toward teaching is a great start but this may not be
enough. We have to be prepared and know the categories of knowledge that as teachers,
we need to possess.
Two Domains of Knowledge for Teaching
As we prepare to teach, it is necessary that we have a sound knowledge of the factors

and aspects in teaching and learning.
The figure depicts the Teacher Education

Program as having three distinct components
namely: (1) Pedagogical and Subject Matter
Knowledge, (2) Teacher Skills, and (3) Attitude and
Disposition.
Focusing on the first component of the figure

– the Pedagogical and Subject Matter knowledge
occupies the first aspect of the meta-profile. The
profile indicates the value of knowledge in the
discipline content which constitutes the ‘what to
teach’ while pedagogical knowledge constitutes the
understanding of the theories and principles on how
to effectively teach. (TA-SE, Teacher Education
Meta-profile Report, 2017). These are the two
dimensions of teacher knowledge. Figure 1 shows the South-East
Asia Teacher Education meta-
profile of a teacher
A. General Dimensions of Teacher Knowledge
Teacher Knowledge is as necessary as gaining the skills in teaching. When teachers

understand that facilitating learning is not isolated but is closely linked to other factors,
principles and views, then they are aware of its importance. It includes principles on how
learners are managed when learning, understanding the instructional design to be planned
considering strategies believed to work and assessment principles that have to be
considered. This is the idea of having a general pedagogical knowledge.
Another area of knowledge is our understanding of learners and their needs. Teaching
requires that we know how to deal with learners’ preferences to learn, their needs and
readiness to learn. We understand their tendencies as well as how they think based on their
developmental stages. All of these may affect their disposition toward school work and
learning.

7
In addition, we need to be familiar with the goals of school administration, the norms
and conventions in society and the logistical requirements that affect educational contexts.
At this point, you may have noticed that this dimension of teacher knowledge does not
refer to one’s knowledge in the area if specialization such as math, Araling Panlipunan,
English or Science neither the skills in facilitating learning. This dimension refers to the
general dimensions of teacher knowledge that includes basic theories and principles in
teaching and learning.
B. Content-Specific Dimensions of Teacher Knowledge
This is another dimension of teacher knowledge. Content-specific teacher knowledge is

the teacher’s knowledge of his discipline or specialization (Schulman, 1986).
a. Curriculum Knowledge
Every teacher should understand the curriculum. This refers to the school’s program of
study for each level. The learning program includes the content to be covered, the goals of
teaching, instructional activities and materials to be used in facilitating learning.
If we teach a particular subject, it is part of a curriculum designed by the national

agency such as the Department of Education. We need to be familiar with the Curriculum
Guide issued by the agency. One specific subject when handled well based on the
Curriculum Guide (CG) is going to contribute to the total goal as designed in the Basic
Education Program.
b. Content Knowledge and Knowledge on Pedagogy
Content knowledge refers to the in-depth understanding of structures of knowledge

that may include but not limited to theories, concepts or principles of a specific discipline.
The teacher usually gains this through rigorous training and study. Sometimes, professional
teachers continue advance trainings and pursue higher degrees to hone their knowledge in
the discipline. In fact, they are also required to pursue research work to determine
empirically-supported answers to questions raised in terms of how teaching of the content
can be done effectively.
Schulman’s (1986) idea of the interconnectedness of content knowledge and

pedagogical knowledge is an addition to his description of a teacher quality. This is the skill
reflecting one’s understanding of the pedagogical approach to make a difficult lesson easy to
comprehend and facilitate an engaging learning experience for learners through a variety of
strategies and techniques.
It is amazing when teachers unlock the learners’ mind allowing it to contribute to the
building of their understanding as they share their conceptions and even misconceptions
until they see a clear picture of what the concept really is. This is more meaningful, I
believe. Instead of the teacher rubbing down the learners’ throat the lesson being taught
8
through a series of lectures which usually will not interest young learners, those teachers
who are innovative and engaging will find ways on how to catch the learners’ interest and
develop their love for the subject in particular and learning in general. These are the ones
who are equipped with the pedagogical knowledge for they know ways and techniques how
to guide learners to gain the competencies desired for them.
c. Technology Knowledge
In the article Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge: A Framework for Teacher

Knowledge written by Mishra and Khoeler (2006), the additional element of teacher
knowledge is highlighted. This is a welcome development from Schulman’s PCK concept of
the knowledge requirements of a teacher. In the advent of the 4th Industrial Revolution, we
try to understand how the Education has to take place to ensure its relevance. And this is
with the integration of a major element – technology.
Study closely the model designed by Mishra and Khoeler.
Figure 2. The TPACK Model

9
ASSESSING
Write your answers in the Answer Sheet provided/appended in this section.
Required Assignment:
After closely studying Figure 2 (The TPACK Model), answer the questions below. Explain
what each circle represents.
1. What do the intersections mean?
2. Besides having a clear understanding

of the TPACK – teachers’ knowledge
domains, what other factors have to
be considered by a teacher and why
should these be considered?
If you still cannot make sense of the figure

2, then I suggest that you research further
so that you will be able to answer the three
important questions I have posed in this
section. Your answer is a requirement for
this unit. I have attached additional
materials for your reference.
Required Assignment: A Letter of

Gratitude
Think of a former teacher or even your

current teacher whose capacity to handle the
class you greatly appreciate and value. Assess
her or his domains of knowledge. Then write a
letter addressed to this particular teacher
whose dimensions of knowledge are
mentioned and appreciated.

10
Required Assignment: Submit an Essay describing the Profile of a Learner-

Centered Teacher
It should contain the learner’s reflection of his personal characteristics vis-à-vis the profile
projected of what a Learner-Centered Teacher is.
Photo by BrAt_PiKaChU

11
References:
Lucas, R. and Corpus, B. (2014). Facilitating learning: A metacognitive approach. 4th edition.
Lorimar Publishing Inc., Philippines
On-line & Off-line Survey Instruments:Motivation, Cognitive Styles, Learning Styles,

and Learning Strategies Retrieved from:
http://www.nflrc.hawaii.edu/prodev/SI99/surveyinstruments.htm
SEAMEO INNOTECH GURO 21 Facilitating 21st Century Learning retrieved from:

http://iflex.innotech.org/GURO21/Module2/index.html
Those Who Understand: Knowledge Growth in Teaching Author(s): Lee S. Shulman

Reviewed work(s): Source: Educational Researcher, Vol. 15, No. 2 (Feb., 1986), pp. 4-14
Published by: American Educational Research Association Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1175860 . Accessed: 02/08/2012 15:50
Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge: A Framework for Teacher Knowledge PUNYA

MISHRA MATTHEW J. KOEHLER1 Michigan State University
Pictures:
Retrieved from: https://www.iuemag.com/february2017/di/8-influential-quotes-to-be-

enthusiastic.php
Retrieved from:
https://www.google.com/search?q=image+of+an+asian+teacher&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKE
wjPiNHctPfqAhX6xosBHZ7sBEQQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=image+of+an+asian+teacher&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzoCCAA6BggAEAcQHj
oGCAAQCBAeUNGq3wFYtbnfAWCfzd8BaABwAHgAgAHfAogB_BaSAQUyLTEuOJgBAKABAaoBC
2d3cy13aXotaW1nwAEB&sclient=img&ei=1gMkX8_FMPqNr7wPntmToAQ&bih=625&biw=13
66#imgrc=9X2-yLyjMVrHTM
Retrieved from: https://medium.com/better-humans/how-to-boost-your-self-compassion-

with-mirror-meditation-da4114415f20

1
Unit 3: A Learner-Centered Environment

Learning Outcomes:
After the studying the materials, you should be able to:
1. Describe a learner-centered environment that promote fairness, respect and care to

encourage learning;
2. Plan and design a learning space indicating flexibility in accommodating learners’
needs; and
3. Craft a Personal Plan of your perceived ideal learner-centered environment
PRIMING
The Classroom Climate
The Classroom Climate is a psychological, social, cognitive, emotional and physical

environment where learners acquire knowledge and skills through interaction between and
among the teacher and the learners. It is influenced by the psychological environment and
the physical setting.
Facilitating learning can effectively take place when learners feel secured and not
threatened. This is ensured when the teacher creates a positive atmosphere.
Study the succeeding facts sheet, article and blog related to creating a conducive
classroom climate. Determine how you can create an ideal climate that establishes a learner-
centered environment and be able to answer the given task as directed.
I have placed the Uniform Resource Locator (URL) of the materials I would like you
to read. However, for those who may have weak or no internet connectivity, I placed the
images of these blogs and articles so you can easily read them. Credit goes to the respective
authors and I do hope you learn well just as I how I have learned so much on how they try
to create an environment that is learner-centered.
https://www.educationcorner.com/developing-a-student-centered-classroom.html
Developing a Student-centered Classroom by Becton Loveless
https://www.gettingsmart.com/2017/08/8-things-look-student-centered-learning-environment/8
Things to Look For in a Student-Centered Learning Environment By Emily Liebtag August 9, 2017
http://lighthouse.bcps.org/learner-centered-environments.html
Learner-Centered Environments

Unit 4. Learner-Centered Environment
2
DEEPENING
The first material is a blog by Becton Loveless. The blog discusses how the
environment can become a welcoming place for learners making them feel accepted for
whoever or whatever they have. It is a place where their space is respected and they feel
valued and recognized for their unique personhood.

3

4

5

6

7

8
This next site is very informative. It contains videos and images of learning
spaces that address the needs of learners.

9
ASSESSING
After going over the materials, you may have gained some points on how you can create the
right climate for a learner-centered classroom.
Required Task: Create an Acrostic of CLASSROOM

CLIMATE
Using each letter, compose an acrostic of a clear description
of your idea of a classroom climate that you envision your
classroom for yourself.
The Physical Classroom as a Learning Space
PRIMING
When you visit a classroom in most of the schools around, you can see a set-up that looks
like the one in Image A. Perhaps, like me, you may have been in a classroom that is
arranged in a manner like this.
Image A
Compare this with the classroom arrangements that are shown in the succeeding images.

10
Image B
Image C
What are your observations? Why are these classrooms arranged is such ways?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
DEEPENING
Classroom climate does not only refer to the emotional and psychological
environment but also to the physical environment. We are usually affected by the physical
condition around us. In this context, we can learn more efficiently when we are in a place
that is clean, pleasant and conducive to study.
A learning space should have the right amount of furniture, chairs, cabinets, bulletin
boards among others that are arranged in such a way that there is ease in mobility and
allows interaction among the learners. The teacher can see everybody and that the learners
can likewise see the blackboard or a focal instruction point when needed. The area should
have enough lighting, it has to be well-ventilated, safe and clean. It is advisable that every
learner is assigned a work space and seating arrangement is flexible so that it is easy for
them to work in groups.

11
Based on minimum standards issued by DepED, the size of the classroom for
elementary and secondary schools must be 7.0 meters in width/depth x 9.00 meters in
length or 9.00 meters in width/depth x 7.00 meters in length measured from the centers of
the walls.
An image of the perspective of a DepED Building
I would like to suggest some ideas that may excite you in designing your own
learning space plan. Accompanying this material is a powerpoint presentation containing five
principles that you can consider when planning and designing your 21st-century classroom.
Look for the powerpoint presentation (in pdf) and study it. I have also placed some
interesting classroom designs that allow flexibility inside the classroom.
The Virtual Classroom – An Alternative Learning Space
With COVID-19 pandemic that affected our human engagements inside a physical
classroom, there is another place called the Virtual Classroom. This has become an
alternative learning space.
At present, we are all experiencing a mediated way of communicating because the

institution opted to give prime importance to our safety and health. The set-up of remote
learning is not new at WVSU because we initiated a Distance Education Program since
2004. Initially it was through the modular mode which in fact is still being used as the label
of the offerings. However, this was converted into an online flexible learning mode. The
University Distance Education Program (UDEP) offers programs for graduate and post-
baccalaureate levels.
The virtual classroom poses a challenge on how it is managed. The teacher called
the online tutor has to possess certain technological skills and discourse competence to be
able to effectively navigate through the learning management system while guiding and
engaging the course participants in learning. Although the demand to learn is given to the
learner, just like in your case, the online tutor has to ensure that he facilitates learning
effectively despite the mediation and remote distance.

12
It is no excuse for the online tutor to just leave everything to the learner. Engagement
and monitoring of learning have to be done in a virtual classroom. In fact much more effort is
required when you facilitate learning in a distance mode because learning is mediated and
usually reaction or feedback is a bit delayed. So one’s presence has to be evident.
This is called Social Presence in a distance class or remote learning. Social Presence is
defined as the degree of an individual to feel connected with classmates and teacher in an
online community.
Like in the physical classroom, the virtual classroom should also have an atmosphere
that is supportive of the needs of the learners. Sung and Mayer (2012) in their article Five
Facets of Social Presence in Online Learning stated that social respect (e.g. giving timely
responses), social sharing (sharing information or expressing beliefs which makes the
learners understand that you are reading their work and reacting to their ideas), an open
mind (e.g. establishing a welcoming feeling as you provide encouraging feedback), social
identity (e.g. being called by name) and intimacy (e.g. sharing personal experiences and
creating an atmosphere that you are a co-learner) can have a positive effect on establishing
a classroom climate conducive for remote learning.
I would like you to study the infographics entitled, How to Humanize Your Online
Class. Write your answers to the following trigger questions: What are your takeaways by
reading the material? How can you make you presence felt if ever you will handle remote
learning? What classroom policy will you make so your learners will be oriented on what they
should expect from you as their teacher?
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14
ASSESSING
Required Task: A Personal Plan of a Learner-

Centered Environment – This is one’s desired vision
of his teaching context which should include the design
of a learning space and the classroom management
policies in facilitating a learner-centered environment.

15
References:
SEAMEO INNOTECH GURO 21 Facilitating 21st Century Learning retrieved from:

http://iflex.innotech.org/GURO21/Module2/index.html
Suggested materials (blogs, vblogs, sites, OERs, among others) for you to use as reference:
Sung & Mayer (2012) Five facets of social presence in online distance education. Volume 28,
Issue 5 Computer in Human Behavior, Elsevier https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2012.04.014
https://www.educationcorner.com/developing-a-student-centered-classroom.html
Developing a Student-centered Classroom
by Becton Loveless
https://www.gettingsmart.com/2017/08/8-things-look-student-centered-learning-
environment/8 Things to Look For in a Student-Centered Learning Environment
By Emily Liebtag August 9, 2017
http://lighthouse.bcps.org/learner-centered-environments.html
Learner-Centered Environments
https://www.facultyfocus.com/articles/teaching-and-learning/five-ways-to-teach-students-
to-be-learning-centered-too/
FiveWays to TeachStudents to Be Learning Centered, Too
November 28, 2018 Carl S. Moore, PhD
https://www.wevideo.com/blog/for-schools/why-is-the-teachers-role-so-important-in-
creating-a-student-centered-classroom
Why is the teacher's role so important in creating a student-centered classroom?
August 9, 2018 / By Dr. Nathan Lang-Raad
Visualizing 21st-Century Classroom Design Retrieved from

https://www.edutopia.org/blog/visualizing-21st-century-classroom-design-mary-wade

1
Unit 4: Facilitative Teaching

Learning Outcomes:
After the studying this unit and the appended materials, you should have:
1. Described characteristics of facilitative teaching;

2. Designed segments of a lesson integrating higher order thinking skills through
activities and questions asked; and
3. Tried out strategies that elicit active learning and teaching.
PRIMING
I would like to share with you one of my favorite books –

The Prophet by Khalil Gibran, a Lebanese-American writer.
There is a section that I want you to read.
What line or lines reveal

facilitative teaching? Why do
you say so?
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2
After going through the Units in this course and based on what you have studied so
far, analyze the pool of statements. Identify which statements are taking the Learner-
Centered viewpoint. Then write them in the appropriate column. Identify which ones are
looking from the Knowledge-Centered Lens. Then write the statements in the appropriate
column. The answers are found at the end of this material.
Learner-centered Knowledge-centered
DEEPENING
Even in the past, there were attempts to shift the focus of teaching to learners as
mentioned in Khalil Gibran’s verse. This is an indication that learners’ needs are held
important in the teaching-learning context even in the past. How is facilitative teaching

3
characterized? Let us try to understand these characteristics of facilitative teaching so that

you can become an effective facilitator of learning.
What is Learner-Centered Teaching?
Learner-centered teaching is an approach that focuses on learners and their needs as

they migrate from solely receiving input from their teachers toward being actively involved
in constructing their own understanding of the concept. So they direct their own learning
through self-regulation, discipline and attention to what is relevant –- a manifestation of
independent learning.
There are ways on how the teacher can give attention to facilitating instruction that is
learner-centered. Below are some strategies.
• Some Strategies that Create Space for Active Learning
As a teacher, one major challenge is to be able to draw out from the learners their
ability to direct their own learning. One that is not dependent on you as the teacher but that
which is triggered by an inspiration to believe that they can do it or that it is okay if their
first attempt to understand the lesson fails. It is being able to give them the feeling of
security that you are there to guide them to start afresh and learn to persevere until they
experience the fulfillment of real learning. This is tough especially for a novice teacher.
So, what do we do?
The best way for us to do is to design lessons that will make the learners actively
engaged in the learning process. We need to use active learning strategies. Those that will
empower them and engaged them so that they will be open or free to think and express
their creativity. These will stimulate a classroom because students are made as the focal
point of the teaching and learning process.
Easy said, as the expression goes, but in reality active learning does not instantly
happen by just giving instructions. It requires a strong commitment to make the learning
environment conducive for learners to be engaged and eventually build their accountability
for their own learning. Lesson plans are to be designed and implemented well. Learners
have to be trained to understand the shared responsibility of embracing the fact that the

4
decision to learn is actually theirs. And when they reach this realization, this is the phase
that we can say they are active. When learners take the initiative to learn, then we can say
that we have succeeded in facilitating learner-centered teaching.
I have attached a material entitled Student-Centered Teaching Methods (adapted by C.

Sealfon from Table 2 of the PCAST report). It provides a list of strategies of active learning
with feedback. Each type is described and exemplified. If you are connected in the internet,
when you click the examples, it will lead you to the site Description Examples of studies that
demonstrate enhanced learning
For those who may not have a strong internet connectivity, I am pasting the basic
content of the material here for your easy reference. However, when you have a strong
internet connectivity, you can check the links which will lead you to more relevant and
important research-based practices of learner-centered teaching methods. It will be
enriching your understanding.

5

6

7
Based on this matrix, which activity have you experienced as a learner and what can
you say about your experience? If ever you have never experienced any of these, which one
would you like to try as a learner? Why?
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If we want our learners to improve learning and to become responsible in directing

themselves as they pursue independent study, we need to encourage metacognition. It is
basically thinking how you think. When you try to understand how your mind works and you
regulate your own thoughts as you learn is a strategy that can actually help improve one’s
performance.
• Metacognition: Thinking About Thinking
I want you to answer this questionnaire adapted from Bradford University by Lucas
and Corpus (2014) in Facilitating Learning a Metacognitive Approach.
Directions: Answer the questionnaire by putting a tick mark (√ ) in the column that best
describes what is true to you.
Part 1 Always Sometimes Never
(10) (5) (0)
1 I exert effort to find out why I need to do a particular task.
2 I reward myself when I work.
3 I see to it that I give myself regular breaks from work.
4 I am able to keep my concentration and do not let my “mind “drift away.”
5 I have ways of dealing with distractions.
6 I am willing to do the work I do not enjoy because I see it as important.
7 I seek clarification from the teacher about her expectations and standards.
8 I go to tutorials to improve my school work.

8

(10) (5) (0)
1 I make a weekly time table for the school work I need to accomplish.
2 I make a review schedule for examinations.
3 I plan to get the necessary resources and equipment prior to starting work.
4 I submit all my assignments on time.
5 I have a place to work where I won’t be disturbed.
6 I have time for family commitments and relaxation as well as studying.
7 I prioritize tasks which should be done first, second and so on.
8 I make lists of things to do.
9 I make a list of valuable references with bibliographic details, page numbers of

quotes and so on.
10 I review my work before submitting it.

(10) (5) (0)
1 I discuss work assignments with other students.
2 I share resources with other students.
3 I keep cuttings from newspapers and magazines which may be of help to me.
4 I make sure I see TV programs which may be useful.
5 I read the topic assigned before a session.
6 I ask questions and generally take part in group discussion
7 I listen out for key ideas when someone is talking.
8 When I am listening to someone, I try to anticipate what they will say next.

(0) (5) (10)
1 I get so worried about assignments that they make me feel ill.
2 This worry about assignments makes me feel depressed.
3 I feel miserable about doing assignments.
4 I let these concerns about work get on top of me.
5 When I need to work, others always succeed in persuading me to go out.
6 I have difficulty in talking to others about my worries.
7 I ignore my personal fitness through worrying about assignments.
8 The stress of assignments causes me to get behind and I never seem to catch
up.

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(10) (5) (0)
1 My notes indicate the main ideas, rather than merely repeat what has been
said.
2 I listen for the key ideas when listening to a speaker.
3 I approach tutors for help.
4 I organize or file my notes regularly
5 I rewrite my notes under key ideas, headings, using numbering or letter

schemes.
6 I have a shorthand technique of my own.
7 I underline or highlight key ideas so they stand out.
8 I decide, before reading a book, whether it is vital or background reading.
9 I go over a book before diving into chapter one.
10 I check the content pages for relevance before reading a book.
11 I look for summaries at the end of chapters.

(10) (5) (0)
1 I see to it that I understand what is really being asked for in the

assignment/project.
2 I read other references and read about the topic.
3 I make an outline/plan before doing my assignment/project.
4 I spell-check for mistakes.
5 My essays have clear introductions.
6 My essays have a conclusion.
7 I frequently check back to the title during the writing of an essay.
8 My essays/research paper has a full set of references and a bibliography.
9 I review project/assignment before submitting it.
10 I request someone else to look at/read my project/assignment before

submitting it.
Adapted from Bradford University
Scoring:
The six parts of the questionnaire pertain to the following aspects of study habits:
I. Motivation
II. Organizing and Planning your work
III. Working with others; Utilizing resources and feedback
IV. Managing school work stress
V. Note-taking and reading
VI. Preparing an assignment/project
10
Use the scoring guide below
Scoring for Part 1: Motivation

Score: 10 for Always
5 for Sometimes
0 for Never
Feedback:
Scores from 55 to 80 mean that you do not appear to have many problems in
getting down to work and keeping to it.
Scores from 35 to 50 mean that you sometimes get down to work but you can be
distracted, you might not always be certain why you need to work. You probably
could benefit from learning some techniques that help you get down to work
more
consistently and keep at it.
Scores of 30 and below signify that you really do have problems in getting down
to work. Unless you develop skills in this area you are likely to have many
unsatisfactory experiences as a student throughout your life. You need to take
action.
Scoring for Part 2: Organizing and Planning your Work

5 for Sometimes
0 for Never
Feedback:
Scores from 70 to 100 mean you are well-organized and plan ahead for your
work.
Scores from 40 to 65 mean you are not as well-organized as you could be. Your
time management might benefit from a c loser analysis.
Scores of 35 and below mean you have little organization, probably deal with
things as they happen, constantly doing, things at the last minute, often not
getting work
completed. You need to take action.
Scoring for Part 3: Working with Others and Utilizing Resources and Feedback
5 for Sometimes
0 for Never
Feedback:
Scores from 55 to 85 mean you make full use of resources available, listen well
and take an active part in seminars.
Scores from 35 to 50 mean you probably collect resources, but you need to ask
yourself how you are going to use them more effectively.
Scores of 35 and below mean there are important resources around you that you
are ignoring. You may not be hearing much of what is being said. You need to
know what resources are available, and you need to find out where they are and
what they have to offer. You need to take action.

11
Scoring for Part 4: Working with Others and Utilizing Resources and Feedback
Score: 10 for Never
5 for Sometimes
0 for Always
Feedback:
Scores from 65 to 80 mean that although you sometimes get stressed and worried
you have the skills of knowing how to minimize problems and look after yourself.
Scores from 40 to 65 that you handle your anxieties and concerns moderately well
but develop skills to manage them more effectively.
Scores of 35 and under mean that you are likely to get overwhelmed with your
problems which will make you much less effective as a student. You need to acquire
the skills of managing stress more effectively. You need to take action.
Scoring for Part 5: Note-taking and Reading

5 for Sometimes
0 for Never
Feedback:
Scores from 75 to 110 mean you prepare well and read efficiently, learning as you
go. You waste little time reading irrelevant material.
Scores from 45-70 mean your reading and note taking skills are adequate, but could
be improved.
Scores of 40-70 mean your reading and note taking skills are adequate, but could be
improved.
Scores of 40 and below mean your notes are likely to be of little use to you, if they
exist at all. You spend a lot of time reading or sitting in but come home with very
little. You need to become more selective in what you read or write down. You need
to become more selective in what you read or write down.
Scoring for Part 6: Preparing an Assignment/Project

5 for Sometimes
0 for Never
Feedback:
Scores from 70-100 mean that your essays are well thought out, researched and
clearly written
Scores from 40-65 mean that there is room for improvement although you do
demonstrate some skills
Scores of 35 and below mean that you probably wonder why your essays always get
such low marks Resources and support are available to help you improve your essay
writing skills. Take action now.

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My Score in the Study Habits Questionnaire
Aspect of Study Habits My Score Interpretation
Part 1 Motivation
Part 2 Organizing and Planning your work
Part 3 Working with others, utilizing

resources and feedback
Part 4 Managing School work Stress
Part 5 Note taking and reading
Part 6 Preparing an assignment/ project
What did you discover about yourself using this questionnaire? In what aspects are
you strong? In what aspects do you need to improve?
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If you have accomplished the activity of answering the questionnaire and analyzing
your scores, you were made to reflect on how you study and learn. You may have also
experienced a deeper thinking and awareness of your behavior when learning in the
process. This is making you think about how you think and you were actually doing
metacognition.
It was John Flavell (1985) that introduced the concept of metacognition.

Metacognition is basically trying to learn and understand how you learn. So when you
understand how your mind works, you can actually employ strategies that can make you a
better learner. He identified two elements of metacognition: Knowledge of Cognition and
Regulation of Cognition.

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Under Knowledge of Cognition, Flavell identified three types:
1. Declarative knowledge or Person knowledge. This is the individual’s awareness

of what he is capable or what his limitations are when learning. He is aware of what
conditions work for him when studying or pursues learning by doing what he prefers
because it works for him and helps him learn better.
2. Procedural knowledge or task knowledge. This includes the knowledge or

perceptions about the task and the demands or requirements it entails for it to be
accomplished successfully. When a task is given and you have an idea about it, you
can easily think of a way on how to accomplish it efficiently. However, when you are
aware that you lack knowledge about a task at hand perhaps because it is new to
you or it is extremely complicated, then your Person knowledge is at work. So what
action will you take next? This leads us to look at the next type.
3. Strategy knowledge or conditional knowledge.

It involves one’s awareness of the strategy involved to
learn and its evaluation if it will work while considering
the other underlying factors. If you think learning using
a particular way does not work, then you can think of
another solution that may help you learn or think
better. For example, if you are trying to recall a
procedure or critical points in your explanation of an
idea, creating a mnemonic device may help.
Knowledge of Regulation
Another important aspect of metacognition is the regulation. Regulation is how you

monitor your mind and assess your knowledge when learning. That is why you are made to
write your reflections about a lecture you have listened to or an activity that you did. Your
realizations which may include both pleasant and otherwise will give you insights on how
you are actually performing. In fact, when writing about your frustrations, you are asked to
think of a way that can help you address the difficulty. This is actually your own
metacognitive experience. So after all, metacognition is not a novel concept to you. You
have been using it all along.
To determine whether you are practicing metacognition, think of task you need to
accomplish. Then try asking yourself these questions and answer them as well:
• What do I know about the task?

• What skills do I have so that I can accomplish the task?
• How will I go about this task? What technique will I use to accomplish the task?
• How much time shall I devote on this task?

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Now it’s your turn.
Based on Flavell’s Knowledge of Cognition and Knowledge of Regulation, construct five

(5) more questions that can help you reflect on how metacognition is at work in your mind.
1._________________________________________________________________________
2._________________________________________________________________________
3._________________________________________________________________________
4._________________________________________________________________________
5._________________________________________________________________________
When you become a teacher, your learners need to be trained on how to become
familiar with the way their mind works and how they can maximize the potential of their
capabilities in learning. This is our role as a facilitator of learning. We lead the novice
learners into becoming expert learners. The element that differentiates between the two
kinds of learners is metacognition for this is a mental activity that goes beyond cognition.
Expert learners know how to monitor and regulate their thinking to make learning more
successful.
To be able to facilitate learning, one important skill that a teacher has to possess is the
ability to ask questions. These are the kind of questions that make learners think and work
on a level that usually captures their desire to learn and love the idea of learning. These are
questions that require Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS).
Every teacher should be a good questioner. He should be able to ask questions that
will guide the learner’s mind to think deeper and on a level that will require critical analysis
or evaluation of the point at hand. The kinds of questions asked is crucial in teaching.
Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) in Learning
Asking questions is part of teachers’ technique to direct students’ attention to the

lesson. This is a skill required of a teacher who emphasizes promotion of learning with
thinking. If we want our learners to be able to think well, we need to ask the right questions
for in the context of learning, the ability to think well is the crux of the instructional process.

15
When Reading…
When checking comprehension on a material

read, teachers can ask questions based on the
dimensions of comprehension. The Literal level of
comprehension is easy to learn because the answer
required is simply asking learners to remember
facts or details explicitly stated in the text.
When learners after reading a chapter of a

book are asked questions with answers found in the
text, although it is not totally useless, they will be
simply recalling or remembering. Not so much deep thinking is required. This is categorized
a low level of comprehension because it requires rote learning and memorization. There is
surface understanding only.
Interpretation dimension of reading comprehension requires learners to infer or

imply from what is actually stated. The learner is asked to tap into his experience like
making sense with prior knowledge in relation to the one being learned. Questions asked in
this level require not to be solely dependent on what is in the text but shows a cognitive
display of a deeper understanding.
The next level which is Evaluation is a higher level of the dimension of

comprehension. The reader has to look and make judgment at the given content and how
the ideas are presented. Integration dimension of comprehension applies what is said and
what is meant by extending beyond the ideas or concepts. This is reading beyond the lines
as one tries to analyze the ideas and apply these to other information. The highest level of
comprehension is the Creative level. This is the ability manifested by creating something
novel from the basic knowledge acquired.
Thinking is a conscious act and in the context of learning, it is the core of the
instructional process. We want our learners to become thinkers. In the 21st century, thinking
is promoted as a major competence expected from those are educated. So if we want this to
be the output of education, we need to sharpen students’ thinking skills through the kinds of
questions being asked.
Engaging learners to learn will require the teacher to possess the qualities that will
excite them, encourage them to be hooked to the idea of how amazing it is to learn, get
them excited to explore and support them to innovate something new from their
understanding of a concept.
How can this be done?
A well-thought lesson design, the enthusiasm brought by the teacher to the learning
environment, the knowledge of learners’ developmental stages and their needs play a big
role. One important skill that is expected of teachers is the ability to ask the right kinds of

16
questions that pose a challenge to the learners’ mind yet make them feel comfortably
assured.
Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy
In the field of education, Benjamin Bloom (1913-1999) is a name that resounds. He

is an educational psychologist whose seminal work became a framework of determining
learning objectives or the level of cognitive abilities expected of a learner to achieve after
instruction. The taxonomy however, was revised by Krathwohl and Andersen (2002). This
revised Bloom’s Taxonomy categorizes thinking into six categories or levels namely,
Creating, Evaluating, Analyzing, Applying, Understanding and Remembering. The image
below is the revised version of Bloom’s Taxonomy and shows the varying levels indicating a
shift of taxonomy from simple to complex.
Allow me to walk you through the steps. On the next page is an activity. Follow
strictly the instructions.

17
Task A. After studying the image of Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy, take this simple quiz.
Resist the temptation of going back to the image to check your answers. If you feel like you
need to review, go ahead and give yourself a few minutes before you take the short quiz.
Then when you start answering it, do not look for the possible answers in the previous
page. Try it!
Match column A with column B by drawing a line connecting the taxonomy with its
explanation.
Column A Column B
Remember Making judgments based on criteria and standards

(checking, critiquing)
Understand Carrying out or using a procedure in a given situation

(executing, implementing)
Apply Retrieving relevant knowledge from long-term memory

(recognizing, recalling)
Analyze Putting elements together to form a novel, coherent

whole or make an original product (generating, planning,
producing)
Evaluate Determining the meaning of instructional messages, including
oral, written, and graphic communication (interpreting,
exemplifying, classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing,
explaining)
Create Breaking materials into its constituent parts and detecting
how the parts relate to one another and to an overall
structure or purpose (differentiating, organizing,
attributing)
Now that you have finished Task A, check you work. You may now look at the image
for referral. Based on Bloom’s categories, to which category will you categorize Task 1
activity? Why do you say so?
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Task B. Study the image closely again and assess the extent of what you know about it.
Choose three levels or categories and write one question that you believe fits each level you
chose. Write your answers in the space provided.
1. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
After doing Task B, how do you evaluate the task? Compare Task B with Task A.
Which challenged you to think deeper? Why is it so?
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___________________________________________________________________________
Higher Order Thinking skills may be harder to teach but these skills are eventually
going to matter most when learners live their life in the real world. The levels of Analyze,
Evaluate and Create are thinking skills that need to be taught and honed for students to do
well in their chosen career. These levels should be given more attention. So when you design
a lesson, study closely the learning outcomes and performance indicators, your assessment
activities and even the test items.
Here is another representation of the Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy with the levels of
thinking and their respective lists of action words. These action verbs can be useful when
working on your lesson objectives, framing your discussion questions and constructing your
assessment activities.

19
The following questions I constructed at random trigger the individual’s higher order
thinking skills. Study these and explain why this is so.
Question: What does the message of the speech mean to you? How will this affect others?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Question: Is there anything wrong with the procedure? How else can the process be
corrected?
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___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

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Question: What is another way of addressing the problem?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Question: How is this Agatha Christie’s novel like the others that you have read?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
When you are learner-centered as a teacher, focus on the material and commit to
guiding your learners to gain mastery of the learning processes that will make them learn at
a deeper level in order that they will turn out to be independent learners.
At this point in time, it has to be clear that we teach our learners to become critical
thinkers and so we need to learn how to ask questions that train their higher order thinking
skills. It is not enough to settle with the idea of just knowing about something. Now that
you know, what will you do with what you know? If this is how you will approach your
facilitation of learning, you will create a learning atmosphere that allows students to analyze,
evaluate and create hence, promoting higher order thinking skills.
Some Instructional Stance that Can Promote Higher Order Thinking Skills
1. Require your learners to create something out from the ordinary. It is guiding them
to apply a figment of idea in application to a situation that may address a need or
solve a complex situation. An innovation or an artistic production can manifest higher
order thinking skills.
2. Be supportive of your learners’ curiosity and open to their suggestions. Being

enthusiastic and welcoming to their ideas is an effective attitude. They will slowly
gain confidence and feel good about themselves because you allow them to
contribute to the building of their understanding of whatever is being discussed or
learned in class. This can strengthen your relationship with them and can also
provide opportunities for teachable moments.

21
3. Be open to contradictions or opposing ideas. Train your learners to disagree

graciously but not become disagreeable. When moments come that they
passionately refute a viewpoint or a proposition, guide them to be respectful as they
disagree and tell them that when disagreeing with an idea, they can provide an
option or a suggestion. In this way, the intention to disagree is directed toward a
more helpful tone rather than doing it for argumentative reasons and nothing else.
Novel ways sometimes can come out from opposing views and can also test existing
thoughts and patterns.
4. Provide ample exposure of new patterns and twist to your learners and guide them
to look at old ways from a fresher perspective. Just like wearing varied thinking hats.
5. Constructively be critical about new ideas so test these because usually fine tuning
and enhancing are required.
The questioning skill is critical for a 21st century teacher. Learners’ performance or
achievement can be affected by a teacher’s questioning and reacting skills. This you should
learn well. Knowing about the Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy, you can actually use each
category as a basis in crafting your instructional objectives or the learning outcomes that
you hope to be achieved by your learners. Consequently, these learning outcomes are the
basis of your assessment activities. And in the course of instruction time, this is dominated
by teacher’s questioning as employed by great teachers that heightens instruction as a way
of stimulating thinking.
A Caution of Ineffective Questioning Techniques
Throwing questions for learners to answer does not mean that teaching is done well.
You need to consider the learners and their readiness to answer questions raised. Some
pitfalls to evade include the following:
1. Not Too Much, Too Soon. You may have the tendency to ask a battery of
questions that may just actually be requiring a simple answer, of “Yes: or “No”.
When too many closed questions are raised in a class session, these may just be
low level questions. Sometimes a few very good questions can trigger an
engaging discussion and you need is to pry and direct the conversation to
unravel what needs to be understood. So facilitating discussion does not equate
to the number of questions but the quality of questions asked.
2. Total Recall. Memory recall questions may not really serve your aim to make
learners think on a higher level of cognition. So, minimize using this. This does
not actually mean that questions at this level have no merit. They do at certain
times but you can still ask much more thought-provoking questions that will train
the learners’ mind to be critical and analytical.

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3. Let Go! One mistake that teachers do sometimes is to take full control of the
instruction process. We you become a teacher, you can take the lead but also
allow your learners to initiate asking questions. So provide this opportunity for
them. Facilitate discussion. Direct or redirect the flow of conversation as you
provide feedback along the way.
4. Spread the Questions. This refers to focusing on all students when you ask
questions. Scanning all of them in the room, having eye contact. Involve all and
not just a few number of learners all the time.
5. Allow Think Time. When asking a question, let your learners process the
question first. Giving them a few seconds to think may help. Think time is crucial.
One technique is to address the question to the whole class. Given all of them
time to mull over the question or scan through their books or notes. This practice
will make all of the members think. When you identify one learner first and then
ask the question, the tendency is that the rest of the class will be complacent.
Effective questioning engages learners to listen, think, and respond to each other as
well as to you, their teacher. Some guidelines are presented so you will be effective in
asking questions and employ the appropriate way to react to learners’ repartee or
responses.
• Plan Good Questions
Make question that are focus-specific rather than having a vague or general one.
Vague question: “How does metacognition work?”
Focus specific: “How is metacognition reflected in class when a grade six learner is
trying to learn about the digestive system?”
Use Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy as a basis when crafting your questions. This will
ensure that you will not only be considering recall questions or those that will manifest your
learners’ understanding. You will guide them to think on a higher level when you have
questions that range from lower level to higher order.
When facilitating the discussion, ensure the balance between questions and
discussion asking and telling.
• Open-Ended Questions are Good
Ask more open-ended questions and not just a one word or a phrase correct answer
to the question. Let them elaborate their answer and even explain why they thought of it.
This will encourage them to express themselves more and also make them to think on their
answer to the question in greater depth.

23
It is also good to space your questions instead of giving them in a cluster. A battery
of questions given in class may confuse the flow of thinking. After focusing on one point and
exhausting all possible ideas on the issue, you can direct the questioning to a clear direction
that you have designed as the facilitator of learner-centered teaching.
When asking questions, always consider your learners’ capability and their cognitive
level. When a nine-year old learner who is challenged cognitively is asked, simple questions
can be used like, “When you do not have a class, do you also have other activities? What do
you do? Why do you do it?”
However, when the learner who is also of the same age, is more than capable to
answer more challenging questions, you can frame your questions in such manner as:
During your spare time, what are some of your interesting engagements?”
• Give Serious Attention to Questions
Wait time should be observed when asking a well-planned question. Allow the
learners to process their thoughts. Perhaps three seconds can be allotted to lower level
questions. However when asking a higher order question, even when a few hands are
raised, give it ten seconds. This will improve the quality of responses.
Whenever nobody will still answer your question even if enough wait time was given,
you can follow up by (a) rephrasing the question; (b) asking the learners if they need
further clarification; or (c) ask a simpler question that will scaffold their understanding.
During instruction in a face-to-face setting such as when you are giving an input, you
can stop after a section and inquire from the learners how they are coping. This will
stimulate interaction. You do not have to wait for the last few minutes to find out how
learners are doing or what they are learning so far.
On the other hand, when you are designing a lesson that will be delivered in a
blended format, you can engage learners through the quality of questions you ask in an
asynchronous session. That is engaging them and following the thread of discussion by
checking the entries in the Forum regularly.
When facilitating a face-to face discussion, you can invite comments and
elaborations from the class members. You can pause and appear expecting for more
responses. Ensure that chances are given to all and not only a minority of learners who may
dominate the discussion through their responses and questions.
When learners raise questions, encourage them to find answers to their own
questions and when they answer questions asked, recognize their effort and give credits to
students who are attempting. In a different setting that is in a mediated asynchronous
session, you can assess the quality of answers posted by learners in your discussion board
and you can facilitate asynchronous discussion the way you do in your face-to-face format.

24
At this point, you can perhaps see the significance of having the skill in questioning.
Besides asking questions to check on learners’ assignments and classwork, it also motivate
students to focus and pay attention to the lesson; promote thinking and encourage them to
pursue their own independent inquiry which can result in an enhanced knowledge base.
Training learners to think on a higher level so that they will be competent in problem
solving is to make them aware that they can actually learn how to be creative in their ways
of thinking and doing.
Six Thinking Hats
Creativity is the highest level of Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy. This means that if you facilitate
a class that is learner-centered, you can design activities that will hone their creative
thinking skills. Study the concept of Bono’s Six Thinking Hats.
“Creative thinking is not a talent; it is a skill that can be learned. It empowers people
by adding strength to their natural abilities which improves teamwork, productivity,
and where appropriate, profits.” —Edward de Bono

25
Bono’s Six Thinking Hats is a concept that can be used to guide learners as they
brainstorm and innovate to do problem solving. Using this concept can be fun and interesting
to training the mind to take varying perspectives to address a problem.

26
The Task: You are expected to plan the questions that you need for a lesson you are
designing. Think how you will be able to do it by wearing the six thinking hats. Using this
template, write down how you will accomplish the task.

27
ASSESSING
EDUC 204: Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching
Name: ________________________________________________
Program, Year and Section: _______________________________
Required Assignment A: A Proverb to Live By
How do you relate this proverb to the idea of doing facilitative teaching? In 300-500 words,
write your answer in a separate sheet and be sure to submit it on or before the due date.

28
EDUC 204: Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching
Name: ________________________________________________
Program, Year and Section: _______________________________
Required Assignment B: Designing Active Learning
Design a lesson with the following required elements:
1) Learning Outcomes or Instructional Objectives

2) Subject Matter
3) Level of target learners
4) A brief description of the sections in the lesson or flow of instruction indicating active
learning
5) Pertinent questions identified according to their level (i.e. based on Bloom’s Revised
Taxonomy)
Write your answer in a separate sheet to be submitted on or before the due date. Should
you have questions, please contact your course facilitator.

29
References:
Conceptual Framework: The Facilitative Teacher Retrieved from:

https://www.methodist.edu/education/facilitative-teacher/
Raudys, J. (2018). 8 Active Learning Strategies and Examples. Retrieved from:

https://www.prodigygame.com/main-en/blog/active-learning-strategies-examples
Huitt, W. (1997). Metacognition. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta

State University. Retrieved [date],
from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/cognition/metacogn.html
Learner-Centered Teaching. Retrieved from: https://www.igi-global.com/dictionary/creating-

collaboration-in-global-online-learning/40896
https://study.com/academy/course/instructional-strategies-for-learner-centered-
teaching.html
Progressivism. Retrieved from: https://study.com/academy/lesson/progressivism-overview-

practical-teaching-examples.html
Improving Lesson Design and Implementation. Retrieved from:

https://serc.carleton.edu/NAGTWorkshops/certop/imp_design.html
https://teachingcommons.lakeheadu.ca/10-characteristics-learner-centered-experiences
Learner-Centered Example. Retrieved from:

https://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/module/hpl/cresource/q1/p02/

1
Unit 5: Learner-Centered Approaches
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, the student must have:
1. demonstrated a deep understanding on

the concept of learner-centered approach
and its characteristics;
2. contextualized the different domains of

learner-centered approach;
3. critically analyzed the elements of

learner-centered approach; and
4. demonstrated knowledge on the

different approaches and its effectiveness
and impact in the teaching-learning process.
Activity:
Compare the activities in Column A with the activities in Column B
A B

Unit 5. Learner-Centered Approaches
2
Answer the following questions:
1. What can you say about the activities in the first column?
2. Describe the activities in the second column.
3. Which of the activities commonly observe in your classroom?
4. What mode of teaching do your teachers utilized?
Analysis
What activities are considered Teacher-centered? Learner-Centered?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
How do you differentiate a teacher-centered approach from learner-centered

approach?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Do your teachers employed Learner-centered teaching? When can you say that the
teacher utilized the learner-centered approach?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Abstraction
The teacher is fully responsible for choosing the methods, strategies and
approaches to be utilized in the classroom, taking the structure of the group into
consideration and the teaching aids available in the classroom as well as following the
guidelines provided by the institution. In this new era in education, teachers are
challenged and encouraged to use in their classroom the learner-centered approach in
facilitating learning.

3
What is Learner-Centered Approach?
Learner-Centered Approach,
broadly encompasses methods of teaching
that shift the focus of instruction from the
teacher to the learner. In original usage,
learner-centered learning aims to develop
learner autonomy and independence by
putting responsibility for the learning path
in the hands of the students by imparting
to them skills, and the basis on how to
learn a specific subject and schemata
required to measure up to the specific
performance requirement. Learner-
centered instruction focuses on skills and practices that enable life-long learning and
independent problem solving. Student-centered learning theory and practice are
based on the constructivist learning theory that emphasizes the learner’s critical role
in constructing meaning from new information and prior experience.
Cite other learning theories that support Learner-Centered approach. Write your
answer in the space provided.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Why is Learner-Centered approach important?
Learner-centered approach is important because it uses interactive strategies

to engage the students and develop their abilities. This approach helps students
develop skills such as decision making and problem solving, teamwork, and
presentation skills that are relevant to the current need. This also helps students to
become independent problem solvers, and improve their critical and reflective
thinking. It also increases their own confidence in their understanding and their skills.
The learner-centered approach prepares students to manage the so many

distractions of adulthood. Learners gain an understanding of their own learning style.
They get more control over how they spend their time. They get to collaborate with
other students.

4
What are the characteristics of Learner-centered approach?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
• Engage students on the learning process.

• Learner-centered teaching includes explicit skill instruction, students learn
how to think, solve problems, decision making, teamwork, evaluate evidence,
analyze arguments and generate hypotheses.
• Learner-centered teaching encourages students to reflect on what they are
learning and how they are learning it.
• Learner-centered teaching motivates students by giving them some control
over learning processes.
• Learner-centered teaching encourages collaboration.
• Learner-centered teaching makes possible students can learn from and with
others.
Describe the prevalent approach utilized by your teachers in class based on the
characteristics given above.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

5
Five Domains of Learner-Centered Approach
1. The knowledge base. Knowledge base is that what a student already knows
largely determines what new information he attends to, how he organizes and
represents new information, and how he filters new experiences, and even what he
determines to be important or relevant. (Lambert & McCombs,2000)
2. Strategic processing and executive control. The ability to reflect on and

regulate once thoughts and behaviors is an essential aspect of learning. Successful
students are actively involved in their own learning, monitor their thinking, think
about their learning and assume responsibility for their own learning. (Lambert &
McCombs,2000)
3. Motivation and Affect. The benefits of learner-centered teaching include

increased motivation for learning and greater satisfaction with school; both of these
outcomes lead to greater achievement.(Alexander & Murphy 2000).
4. Development and individual differences. Individuals progress through various

common stages of development, influenced by both inherited and environmental
factors.
5. Situation or context. Theories of learning that highlight the roles of active

engagement and social interaction in the student’s own construction of knowledge.
Many environmental factors including how the teacher teaches, and how actively
engaged the students is in the learning process positively or negatively influence
how much and what students learn (Lambert & McCombs, 2000)
What will be the roles of teachers based on the domains in order to achieve effective
Learner-centered teaching?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Elements of Learner-Centered approach
• The reliance on active rather than passive learning;

• The emphasis on deep learning and understanding;
• Increased responsibility and accountability on the part of the students;
• An increased sense of autonomy in the learner;
• An interdependence between teacher and learner;
• Mutual respect within the learner-teacher relationship; and
• A reflexive approach to the teaching and learning process on the part of both
the teacher and the learner.

6
Based on the elements of Learner-centered approach, we can see the difference

between the traditional or conventional approach from the Learner-centered approach
as follows:
In traditional approach, most class time is spent with the teacher lecturing and
the students watching and listening. The students work individually on assignments,
and there are less opportunities to collaborate. When students work alone, they don’t
learn how to be a team player, and communication skills may suffer. Teacher–centered
instruction can get boring for students, and their minds may wander, and even may
miss important points. In teacher-centered instruction, students are usually on the
receiving end and may not have ample opportunities to express themselves, ask
questions and direct their own learning.
In learner-centered instruction, students and teachers share the focus. Instead

of listening to the teacher exclusively, students and teachers interact equally. Group
work is encouraged, and students learn to collaborate and communicate with one
another. This approach include active learning, in which students solve problems,
answer questions, formulate questions of their own, discuss, explain,
Debate, or brainstorm during class, cooperative learning, and interactive learning, and
inductive teaching and learning. Some disadvantages of this approach areas students
are talking and interacting, classroom are often busy,
Based in your own experience, which of the two method you considered
effective in learning?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
What are the advantages and disadvantages of Learner-Centered Approach?
Advantages
1. Students develop learning and other skills and gain meaningful knowledge that
will help them throughout life.
2. It can help build social skills and self-esteem.
3. Gain more emotional and cognitive support from their peers.
4. The relationship between rights and responsibilities is learned.
5. Students discover that learning is interesting and fun.
6. Teachers have less traditional work to do.
7. Students are more attentive and willing to participate in the class.

7
8. Complaints about irrelevance and unfairness decrease.

9. Reports and paper generated by students increase a teacher’s collection of useful
information.
10. The pupil has more of an active role to play in their learning.
11. Students can adapt the way they learn, to make their studies more effective.
12. Students work together in achieving goals by upholding the norms of the group
13. Students are actively helping and motivating spirit to succeed together.
14. Active role as peer tutors to further enhance the group’s success.
15. Interaction between students with increasing their ability to argue.
Disadvantages
1. It requires a longer time for students so it is difficult to achieve targets.

2. Take a long time for teachers so that teachers in general do not want to use
cooperative learning.
3. It requires special skills of teachers so that not all teachers can do or use
cooperative learning.
4. Specific nature of students’ demands, such as the nature likes to work together.
As future teacher, which do you prefer, Teacher-centered or student-centered

approach? Support your answer.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Learner-Centered Approaches
• Inquiry-based learning
Inquiry-based learning is a form of active learning that starts by posing

questions, problems or scenarios. It contrast with traditional education, which generally
relies on the teacher presenting facts and his or her knowledge about the subject. It
emphasizes the students’ role in the learning process. Rather than the teacher telling
students what they need to know, students are encouraged to explore the material,
ask questions, and share ideas. This approach considers the six process skills necessary
for inquiry-based learning like observe, infer, communicate, classify, measure, and
experiment.

8
Seeven Inquiry-Based Learning Strategies:
Like any method, there are strategies to help you successfully run an inquiry
activity. These strategies will also allow you to enjoy the full extent of inquiry=based
learnings’ benefits.
1. Keep Guiding Principles in Mind
To run an inquiry activity, you should follow the following broad principles:
o Learners are at the center of the inquiry process.

o Inquiry activities themselves should concentrate on building
information-processing and critical thinking abilities.
o You should monitor how students develop these skills as they build
concept understanding of the topic in question.
o Facilitate exercises, try to learn more about your students’ learning
habits and inquiry-based learning in general.
Keeping these principles in mind will keep you focused on the over aching
purposes of inquiry-based learning
2. Demonstrate how to participate

Because students may not be familiar with Inquiry-based learning, consider
demonstrating how to participate in inquiry activity. Specifically, they must learn
how to:
o Contribute ideas
o Develop those ideas
o Question themselves and group members in a constructive manner
o Investigate, to the fullest extent possible, their ideas, and hypotheses
3. Surprise students
To spark curiosity and enjoy its aforementioned benefits, run a surprise inquiry
activity. Start your class by:
o Playing video
o Handling out a mathematical formula or list of math word problems
o Distributing a primary source document
The content piece must relate to a topic that interests students, effectively
engaging them. After they examined the content, split them into small groups and
give them an open question to answer

9
4. Use inquiry when traditional methods will not work
5. Understand when inquiry will not work
6. Do not wait for Perfect Question

A student can ask a question that stimulates classmates’ curiosity, signaling you
to prepare a launch an inquiry activity using the following guide questions:
o Reflect a core subject content
o Has engaged students from past or other classes
o Interests students, as indicated in previous lessons and discussions.
The questions source, from students, is secondary.
7. Run a Check-In Afterwards

Allotting time for class-wide reflection lets students discuss challenges and
discoveries, filling knowledge gaps and supplementing findings. This prepares
them for future lessons and inquiry activities.
Case-based instruction
Case-based learning is an approach that engages students in discussion of

specific scenarios that resemble or typically are real-world examples. This method is
learner-centered with intense interaction between participants as they build their
knowledge and work together as a group to examine the case. The teachers’ role is
that of a facilitator while students collaboratively analyze and address problem and
resolve questions that have no single right answer. The process include: creation of
small group, establishment of problem/narrative to develop further inquiry and
discussion, analyzed the problem with a study path being formulated, self-discovery of
information, data, literature and clinical implication, supporting evidence, hypothesize
potential answers, and collect and disseminate new information.
There are number of benefits using the case-based approach in the classroom.
In a review of literature, Williams (2005) describes how case-based learning utilizes
collaborative learning, facilitates the integration of learning, develops students’ intrinsic
and extrinsic motivation to learn, encourages learner self-reflection and critical
reflection, allows for scientific inquiry, integrates knowledge and practice, and supports
the development of a variety of learning skills.
Case-based learning has several characteristics, including versatility,

storytelling power, and efficient self-guided learning.
In Case-based learning classrooms students typically work in groups on case

studies, stories involving one or more characters and /or scenarios. The cases present
a disciplinary problem or problems for which students devise solutions under the

10
guidance of the teacher. This approach can be implemented in medical, law and
business schools, and is increasingly used within undergraduate education, particularly
within pre-professional majors and sciences. This method involves guided inquiry and
is grounded in constructivism whereby students from new meanings by interacting with
their knowledge and the environment.
Problem-based learning
Problem-based learning (PBL) is a teaching method in which complex real-world

problems are used as the vehicle to promote students learning of concepts and
principles as opposed to direct presentation of facts and concepts in addition to course
content. PBL can promote the development of critical thinking skills, problem solving
abilities, and communication skills. It can also provide opportunities for working in
groups, finding and evaluating research materials, and life-ling learning (Duch et al,
2001)
Problem-based learning can be incorporated into any learning situation, this

approach can also be used to create assessment items. The main thread connecting
these various uses in the real world problem.
Characteristics of Problem-based learning:
o The problem must motivate students to seek out a deeper understanding

of concepts.
o The problem should require students to make reasoned decisions and to
defend them.
o The problem should incorporate the content objectives in such a way as to
connect it to previous knowledge.
o If used for a group project, the problem needs a level of complexity to
ensure that the students must work together to solve it.
o If used for a multistage project, the initial steps of a problem should be
open-ended and engaging to draw students into the problem.
Project-based learning
Project based learning is a teaching method in which students learn by actively

engaging in real-world and personally meaningful projects. In this approach students
work on a project over an extended period of time-from a week up to semester- that
engages them in solving a real world problem or answering a complex questions. They
demonstrate their knowledge and skills by creating a public product or presentation for
a real audience.

11
Project-based learning is a dynamic, flexible pedagogy that may look different

for every group of students in every classroom. The essential elements promote deeper
learning, greater engagement and higher quality work. These element include:
challenging problem or question, sustained inquiry, authenticity, application of
learning, integration, student voice and choice and feedback loops of critique, reflection
and refining of the product-including formative and summative assessment.
Characteristics of Project-Based Learning
Here are three characteristics of meaningful project-based learning activities

that lead to deeper student understanding:
• Inter-disciplinary. Students focused and engage with real-world problems. This

is an interdisciplinary approach because real world challenges are rarely solved
using information or skills from a single subject area. Projects require students
to engage in inquiry, solution building, and product construction to help address
the real0world issue or challenge presented. As students do the work, they
often use content knowledge and skills from multiple academic domains to
successfully complete the project.
• Rigorous, Project-based learning requires the application of knowledge and

skills, not just recall and recognition. Unlike rote learning that assesses a single
fact. Project-based learning is more complex and can be used to assess how
students apply a variety of academic content in new contexts. As student
engage in the work of a project they follow a process that begins with inquiry.
Inquiry leads to deeper learning, not just related to academic content, but also
related to the use of content in real world applications. Inquiry processes can
help lead to the development of solutions that address the problem/challenge
of the project and the creation of products to communicate solutions to an
audience based upon the application of content and skulls.
• Student-centered. In Project-based, the role of the teacher shifts from content

deliverer to facilitator or project manager. Students work more independently
through the PBL process, with the teacher providing support only when needed.
Students are encouraged to make their own decisions about how best to do
their work being studied.
As a result, students develop deep content knowledge as well as critical thinking

collaboration, creativity, and communication skills. Project-based learning unleashes a
contagious, creative energy among students and teachers.

12
Discovery Learning
Discovery learning is a kind of teaching that is based on the student finding

things out for themselves, looking into problems, and asking questions. Essentially, it’s
all about students coming to their own conclusion and asking about things in their
course that might not make particular sense. Obviously, as soon as enquiries are made,
they can learn new things and hence will have become part of an innovative, thought-
provoking and interesting educational journey.
It is used in the classroom during problem solving exercises and educational

programs. Students will undergo discovery learning when they are looking at their own
experiences and knowledge in their studies, and enquiring about further information
to improve their understanding. Discovery learning will also be used in terms of
answering controversial and tricky questions, asking other people what they think, and
generally discussing things. Experiments are also key to discovery learning , for
instance in science, where students will be able to experience science right in front of
them-and discover things that may occur, which hence prompts them to ask the
question why?
Just–in Time Teaching
Just-in Time Teaching (JITT) is a pedagogical strategy that uses feedback

between classroom activities and work that students do at home in preparation for the
Classroom meeting. The goals are to increase learning during classroom time, to
enhance student motivation, to encourage students to prepare for class and to allow
the teachers to fine-tune the classroom activities to best meet student’s needs. This
should not be confused with just in time learning, which itself focuses on immediate
connection between learner and the content that is needed at that moment.
Methodology
Just-in Time Teaching may be described as a method by which some or all of

the time students spend in preparation for class is used to leverage the quality of the
time spent in class. To accomplish this JITT relies on pre-class assignments completed
by students 1-24 hours before class meetings. These assignments are known variously
as “warm-up exercises” “Preflight checks,” “checkpoints,” and other names, depending
on instructional settings. These assignments are usually completed online, either
through a course website, or through a learning management system. The pre-class
assignments cover the material that will be introduced in the subsequent class, and
should be answered based on students’ reading or other preparation. As a result. These
assignments provide a strong incentive for students to complete the assigned reading
or other preparatory work before class. For this reason, JITT has been compared to
the use of “reading quizzes”. However, there are important differences.

13
Reading quizzes are generally given during class time. Since the pre-class JITT
assignment is completed online, no class time is used. Also, because students have
more to answer the pre-class questions than they do a typical reading quiz, the
questions may be more open-ended and thought-provoking. This leads to another
significant difference.
Most faculty members make the pre-class assignment due at least 1 hour before
class. This allows the faculty member to review the students’ answer before class. In
most cases, faculty member use this review to make adjustments to the planned
classroom activities. If the faculty member feels that the students have mastered a
topic, she may reduce or eliminate discussion of that topic during class. Similarly, if the
pre-class assignment shows that students have particular difficulties, those difficulties
may be addressed more thoroughly in class.
Faculty using Just-in Time Teaching often use quotes from students’ responses
to the pre-class assignments as “talking points” during the class period. This emphasis
on student work as the starting point or as a touchstone during class helps to make
the class more student-centered, and promotes interactive learning. To maximize the
potential for this use, the questions posed in pre-assignments should be open-ended
and may be somewhat ambiguous.
Taking the full set of methods described above into account, the cycle for a
single classroom meeting as follows:
1. Students complete reading or other preparatory work.

2. Students complete pre-class assignment.
3. The teacher reviews pre-class assignments, and considers changes to
classroom emphasis.
4. The teacher selects quizzes from pre-class assignments to refer to during class.
5. During class, the teacher uses quotes from student work to lead discussion of
the material.
6. During class, students engage in discussion of the material with the teacher
and with one another.
7. The teacher creates or adjusts next pre-class assignment to best meet students’
needs in light of progress made during class.
Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning involves structuring classes around small groups that work
together in such a way that each group member’s success is dependent on the group
success.

14
Cooperative learning can also be contrasted with what it is not. Cooperation is

not having students sit side-by-side at the same table to talk with each other as they
do their individual assignment. Cooperation is not assigning a report to a group of
students where one student does all the work and others put their names on the
product as well. Cooperation involves much more than being physically near other
students, discussing material, helping, or sharing material with other students. There
is a crucial difference between simply putting students into groups to learn and in
structuring cooperative interdependence among students. Cooperative learning
considers positive interdependence, individual accountability, face-to-face interaction,
interpersonal and small group social skills and group processing.
Guidelines for using Cooperative Learning:
• Limit group size to three to five students.

• Compose groups heterogeneously by mixing students considering academic
achievement, sex and race.
• Give each student in the group a specific role responsibility or task that
contributes to the success of group.
• Use cooperative learning as a supplemental activity for review, enrichment or
practice, allowing student in the group to help one another master material.
Groups can also complete project as reports, presentations, experiments and
art work.
• Consider room arrangement, task materials and time frame as you plan
cooperative activities.
• Grade individual students’ contributions
• Consider providing a group reward to students in the group.
• Vary group composition so that no student feels labelled by being in a ‘slow’
group and all students have an opportunity during the school year to work with
every other student in the class.
• For cooperating learning groups to function effectively, collaborative social skills
must be taught, modelled and reinforced regularly
Collaborative Learning
Collaborative learning is based on the idea that learning is a naturally social act
in which the participants talk among themselves. It is through the talk that learning
occurs. Collaborative learning is the educational approach of using groups to enhance
learning through working together. Groups of two or more learners work together to
solve problems, complete tasks, or learn new concepts.
This approach actively engages learners to process and synthesize information

and concepts, rather than using rote memorization of facts and figures. Learners work
with each other as projects where they must collaborate as a group to understand the

15
concept being presented to them. Through defending their position, reframing ideas,
listening to other view points and articulating their points, learners will gain a more
complete understanding as a group than they could as individuals.
Benefits of Collaborative Learning:
1. Celebration of diversity: Students learn to work with all types of people. During
small-group interactions, they find many opportunities to reflect upon and reply
to the diverse responses to fellow students bring to the questions raised. Small-
groups also allow students to add their perspectives to an issue based on their
differences. Such exchange inevitably helps students to better understand other
cultures and points of view.
2. Acknowledgment of individual differences: Students learn to relate to their

peers and other learners as they work together in group enterprises. This can
be helpful for students who have difficulty with social skills. They can benefit
from structured interactions with others.
3. Actively involving students in learning: Each members has opportunities to

contribute in small groups. Students take more ownership of their material and
think critically about related issues when they work as team.
4. More opportunities for personal feedback: Because there are more exchanges
among students in small groups, students receive more personal feedback
about their ideas and responses. This feedback is often not possible in large-
group instruction, in which one or two students exchange ideas and the rest of
the class listens.
1. Why some teachers discouraged to use learner-centered approach?

_____________________________________________________________________
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2. Design an activities for each of the approaches given above.
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ASSESSMENT/APPLICATION
1. Based on your experience during your elementary and High School, Identify the
subject/s where the teacher implements the Learner-centered approach in facilitating
the teaching and learning process. What activities were employed?
2. Give your personal reflection on the Characteristics of the child-centered approach

and how it affects the role of the teacher in the classroom. (Write in your journal.)
3. Determine if the elements of learner-centered approaches are observed in the

classroom. Also discuss how these affect your learning experience? (Write in your
journal)
4. Why do some teachers discourage the use of the Learner-centered approach in

facilitating learning? Interview at least 5 teachers and take note their comments in
your journal.
5. Based on your class observation last semester,
• What strategies/approach do teacher used?
• When they used the different approaches?
• How they use those approaches?
• What assessment strategies do teachers utilized?

17
References:
Lucas, MR & Corpuz, B. “Facilitating Learning” A Metacognitive Process, Lorimar

Publishing, C. 2007
Marrs KA, Blake, R, (2003), Use of Warm Up Exercises in Just-in Time Teaching:
Determining Students’ Prior Knowledge and Misconception in Science Teaching,
September 2003, pp 42-47
Novak, GN. Patterson, (1999), Just-in Time Teaching: Blending Active Learning and
Web Technology, Saddle river, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-085034-9
Gerlach, J. M. (1996) “ Is this collaboration?” In Basworth, K. and Hamilton, S. J. (Eds).

Collaborative Learning: Underlying Processes and Effective Technique, New Directions
for Teaching and Learning No. 59
Brown, H., and Ciuffete, D. C. (Eds.). (2009). Foundational methods: Understanding

teaching and learning. Toronto: Pearson Education.
Barrows HS. (1996). Problem-based Learning in medicine and beyond: a brief
overview. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 68, 3-12
Bonney KM. (2005). Case Study Teaching Method Improves Student Performance and
Perceptions of Learning Gains. Journal ofMicrobiology and Biology Education, 16 (1):
21-28.

1
Unit 6: Technology-Based Teaching

Introduction
This unit presents the use of technologies to support teaching and learning. The
educational use of computers and digital devices is almost taken for granted in education
and we now have a range of associated new technologies available, with opportunities to link
with each other in a variety of ways.
This unit adopts a critical approach to considering these technologies and their
various applications. The possible applications of digital devices and associated new
technologies are many and various; further, they are also developing rapidly. Thus in a unit
such as this it is possible to establish some important underlying ideas, together with a
sample of some of the possibilities. As you study the unit we encourage you to always have
learning and teaching at the forefront of your mind and consider the benefits of using
technology-based delivery methods in teaching and learning.
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this lesson, you must have:

1. developed your thinking as a critical user/potential user of new technologies in education;
2. considered the uses of new educational technologies in teaching and learning;
3. explored and reflected on the use of new technologies and other applications for
educators to support learning; and
4. demonstrated understanding of the way in which technologies can support different
models of classroom engagement.

Unit 6. Technology-Based Teaching
2
Create a mind map with LEARNING at the center. Indicate the

technologies that could be used for learning. Consider this in the
light of your educational experiences – as a learner and as a
future teacher. An example is given below. You can create your
own model of a mind map.
Over the years educational thinker Michael Apple (no connection with Apple
computers!) wrote some words which are as appropriate now as they were
when they were first written:
The new technology is here. It will not go away. Our task as educators is make sure
that when it enters the classroom it is there for politically, economically and educationally
wise reasons, not because powerful groups may be redefining our major educational goals in
their own image (Apple, 1992, p.120).

3
Reflect on some uses of new technology that your teachers have used in
your class? Are there any that you would consider to be particularly beneficial?
What would be your evidence? Are there any that you consider perhaps to be less
beneficial?
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Abstraction
e-Learning
The concept of traditional education has changed radically within the last couple of
years. Being physically present in a classroom is not the only learning option anymore — not
with the rise of the internet and new technologies, at least. Nowadays, students can have
access to a quality education whenever and wherever they want, as long as they have
access to a computer (Educations.com, 2020). We are now entering a new era — the
revolution of online education and with the new normal, e-learning is now slowly embraced
in all levels of education. eLearning is learning utilizing electronic technologies to access
educational curriculum outside of a traditional classroom. In most cases, it refers to a
course, program or degree delivered completely online (elearningNC.gov, 2020).
There are many terms used to describe learning that is delivered online, via the
internet, ranging from Distance Education, to computerized electronic learning, online
learning, internet learning and many others. It is defined as courses that are specifically
delivered via the internet to somewhere other than the classroom where the professor is
teaching. It is interactive in that students can also communicate with their teachers,
professors or other students in the class. Sometimes it is delivered live, where students can
“electronically” raise their hand and interact in real time and sometimes it is a lecture that
has been prerecorded. There is always a teacher or professor interacting /communicating
and grading students’ participation, assignments and tests.

4
Methods of e-Learning
e-Learning resources are related to online, delivery and interaction over the Internet,
using learning management systems (LMS) such as Blackboard, Moodle, Google classroom,
Vista or Angle. Using an LMS (and a web browser), students can log in from anywhere in the
world to access their class materials and interact with one another. Each institution uses a
specific system, but they are all similar in their ability to present course material including
class syllabus, assignments, quizzes, and provide video and audio plus a whiteboard screen
where the lesson is presented just like it would be on a classroom’s video screen or
blackboard. They can interact with instructors, access course materials and stimulate debate
among their fellow students when it fits their schedule
A learning system based on formalized teaching but with the help of electronic
resources is known as E-learning. While teaching can be based in or out of the classrooms,
the use of computers and the Internet forms the major component of E-learning. E-learning
can also be termed as a network enabled transfer of skills and knowledge, and the delivery
of education is made to a large number of recipients at the same or different times. Earlier, it
was not accepted wholeheartedly as it was assumed that this system lacked the human
element required in learning.
However, with the rapid progress in technology and the advancement in learning
systems, it is now embraced by the masses. The introduction of computers was the basis of
this revolution and with the passage of time, as we get hooked to smartphones, tablets, etc,
these devices now have an importance place in the classrooms for learning. Books are
gradually getting replaced by electronic educational materials like optical discs or pen drives.
Knowledge can also be shared via the Internet, which is accessible anywhere, anytime.
Online Learning
Online Learning encompasses a range of technologies such as the worldwide web,

email, chat, new groups and texts, audio and video conferencing delivered over computer
networks to impart education. It helps the learner to learn at their own pace, according to
their own convenience. Online Education requires a great deal of resources and careful
planning. In this, teachers act as facilitators rather than transmitters of content knowledge,
and ICT is regarded as resource that enhances the learning experience of students. Learners
learn through e-learning tools which are available to all. E-Learning has brought back the joy
in learning through its innovative and interactive content delivery and has proved to be more
appealing among students (Arora, 2019).

5
Characteristics of Online Learning
1. Focus has shifted from Teaching to Learning–This is a fundamental change in

perspective and has a dramatic impact on the relationship between teachers and learners.
The learner’s activities are now the focus of the course. Online pedagogy mainly focuses on
the activities of the learner and sees teaching primarily as a means of support.
2. Online Learning is Learner- Centered –The learning process model has changed from
a ‘black box’ model in which inputs consist of presented knowledge and the metrics of the
output focus on what is known to a model that deals with the construction of cognition and
competencies.
3. Online Learning is Dependent Upon the Development of Learning Environments

–Online learning, with its focus on the learner, is moving from the traditional instruction
centered focus towards the support of learning. The role of the instructor is moving towards
being the constructor of the learning environment and as an advisor to the learner.
4. Online Learning is Active –The learner is challenged to own, manage and schedule
their learning. This can be a difficult task for some learners who, for the first time, may be
experiencing the ability to control what was typically controlled by the instructor.
5. Online learning should be Interactive and Collaborative –Media enabled learners

are empowered to interact with the content of the course, with the instructor of the course
and with the other learners in the course.
Distance Learning
Distance Education refers to a mode of learning in which students and teachers are
physically separated from each other. It is student-centered, guided independent study
making use of well-studied teaching and learning pedagogies to deliver well- designed
learning materials in various media. It is also sometimes described as flexible learning and
distributed learning (RA 10650, 2014).
Distance learning does not include any in-person interaction with an instructor or
study peers. Students study at home on their own, and the learning is more individual and
varies on speed and timeline according to each individual student and their availability.
Distance learning actually relies on the educational tools of online learning, and that
is probably why there is some confusion between the two. It is possible to study with online
distance learning as well. In that sense, distance learning is a subset of online learning.

6
Because distance education is remote, it can connect students to universities

worldwide, making it more accessible for students in different countries. It is also known to
be more affordable, which is another factor that helps make education more accessible to
many students around the world and in different socio-economic levels.
The Benefits of Distance Learning
As mentioned above, students can study from universities around the world, even if
they are not able to travel to their preferred program. This allows top universities to be
available to students who would not otherwise be able to attend due to distance, finances, or
other circumstances.
Distance learning is extremely important for those who cannot attend programs due
to health complications, severe social anxiety, busy work schedules or parenting demands, or
any other situations which make it necessary to be confined to the home. This provides an
equal opportunity for people to access higher education despite restrictions or location.
Types of Distance Learning
1. Online courses
Online courses are usually offered as additional classes in traditional degrees. As long
as students have computer and internet access, they can learn and receive instruction at
home.
2. Hybrid courses
Hybrid courses combine traditional classroom settings with online learning at home.
This can mean that students learn individually at home and meet up for in-person
instructions or lectures at certain intervals during the course. The amount of at-home
learning and in-class learning varies for each hybrid course.
3. Conference classes
Conferencing allows students and teachers to meet up for class in real time, whether
in a group or one-on-one with an instructor. Using the phone or video chatting, such as
Skype, students and teachers can engage in live lessons despite distance.
4. Correspondence courses
Correspondence courses consist of students engaging in class material via mail or
email. Students receive material and assignments through mail, and they send completed
assignments back through the same method.

7
Blended Learning
Blended learning, also known as hybrid or integrated learning, has recently become
the dominant paradigm for technology-based learning among educators most especially in
this time of new normal. Blended learning typically refers to a teaching approach that
combines a mix of online and face-to-face learning delivery for improved engagement and
better retention.
Blending face-to-face with online activities also has the potential of bringing the best
of both worlds together in a single course. In its most basic form, it combines a synchronous
face-to-face lecture with some online follow-up activities, such as discussion forums or chats.
Blended learning in the corporate training market is likely to continue to evolve and employ a
more varied mix of learning tools.
There is also evidence that blended learning is more effective than non-blended
approaches. In a controlled study, students who learned Excel tasks using a blended
approach showed a 30 percent improvement in accuracy and learned 40 percent faster than
their control groups in a non-blended approach.32 Successful blends use a course design
that ensures that each element complements the other without duplication. For example, an
instructor might be available for online discussions between classes, post required reading on
course websites, suggest further exploration with a list of links, archive answers to
frequently asked questions, and request that assignments be completed online.
Principles of Blended Learning (WVSU Flexible Learning Policy, 2020)
1. Digital literacy is a core skill for both faculty and students. As a 21st century
skill, this form of literacy is demonstrated in one’s ability to use multimodal
media and technology for critical and creative thinking, collaboration and
communication, and for education and the professions.
2. Pedagogy is the principal consideration in developing and designing blended

courses. Blended learning supports the process of transforming instruction to
serve the students’ learning needs in authentic and alternative ways.
3. Effective blended learning systematically combines the best features of face-

to-face and online learning environments. This provides for a variety of
learning experiences.
4. Effective blended learning constructively aligns learning outcomes, content,

learning activities, and assessment. It has the essential elements of

8
instructional design and accountability measures transported to another

learning platform.
5. Blended learning adheres to relevant, experiential, and learner-centered

methods. The roles of teachers and learners shift as learners become more
independent and accountable for their own learning.
6. Blended approaches cater to diverse abilities and interests of learners. The

affordances of media and technology offer various and flexible ways of
learning that cater to learning needs and styles.
7. Faculty must be adequately trained and supported in the use of learning

management systems and platforms, tools, and various media for blended
course design and delivery to enable learners’ success. In turn, the faculty
establishes an authentic and encouraging learning environment, provides
timely feedback, and encourages collaboration.
8. Students must be adequately prepared to function in a blended learning

environment through easy access to services, tools, and open resources.
These principles cohere with the elements in the context of online and blended
learning put forward by Garrison (2017). In a mediated learning environment, educational
experience is at the intersection of social presence (setting the climate for learning and
collaboration), cognitive presence (selection of content), and teaching presence (structure
and process). An underlying principle is the provision of technical support and services for
faculty and students.
M-learning
Mobile learning, also known as M-learning, is a new way to access learning content
using mobile devices. It is possible to learn whenever and wherever a student wants, as long
as he has a modern mobile device connected to the Internet.
It is no secret that more and more people today access the Internet from a smartphone.
Desktop and laptop computers are still popular, and instead of choosing just one device, it
has become the norm to own multiple devices and use them for different activities.

9
Examples of Mobile Learning in Education
Sharing learning content for mobile consumption
This is the most common way of using mobile learning. After creating learning
material (mostly using a desktop), teachers can share it with their students so they can learn
using their mobile devices, in their own time. It is easy to share the material through email
or by simply sharing the link by text message, for example. This method of mobile learning is
more about individual consumption.
Interaction during lessons
Mobile devices can be used for a blended learning approach. It is also possible to use
mobile devices for a blended learning approach. Instructors can ask questions during face to
face classes and the students can answer them via a survey that they take on their
smartphones. For that, theteacher can share a link to the survey, invite students by email, or
even create a QR code that can be easily captured with a smartphone camera. It is possible
to get immediate feedback, which is especially effective when having large groups or classes.
The main advantages of mobile learning
The Millennial generation has grown up with digital devices. So Mobile learning is
tailored to the way millennials work and think. But there are so many advantages with M-
learning that all generations can benefit from it. Let us take a look at some of the
advantages of M-learning.
1. Learn wherever and whenever you want

M-learning enables learners to take their learning materials with them.
Students do nothave to be at a specific place or to learn at the same time. Their
learning content is available for them in their pockets. Waiting time such as waiting
for a plane or flight time can be used for more productive tasks like learning
something new.
2. More motivation
Students can feel more motivated to learn something new or to take online
training if they know they can take their learning materials everywhere with them.
That is especially the case if they do not have time to learn during their regular work
hours.

10
1. Consider your own situation. Which of the e-learning methods mentioned

above is most suitable and beneficial for you?
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2. Can you also identify disadvantages of using these technology-based teaching

methods based from your own experience or from what you have observed
around you?
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11
Padagogical Wheel
The Padagogy Wheel developed by Allan Carlinton (2012) is designed to help

educators think – systematically, coherently, and with a view to long term, big-picture
outcomes – about how they use mobile apps in their teaching. The Padagogy Wheel is all
about mindsets; it is a way of thinking about digital-age education that meshes together
concerns about mobile app features, learning transformation, motivation, cognitive
development and long-term learning objectives.
The Padagogy Wheel is an everyday device that can be readily used by teachers; it
can be applied to everything from curriculum planning and development, to writing learning
objectives and designing centered activities. The idea is for the users to respond to the
challenges that the Wheel presents for their teaching practices, and to ask themselves the
tough questions about their choices and methods.

12
The Process
The Padagogy Wheel brings together in the one chart several different domains of
pedagogical thinking. It situates mobile apps within this integrated framework, associating
them with the educational purpose they are most likely to serve. It then enables teachers to
identify the pedagogical place and purpose of their various app-based learning and teaching
activities in the context of their overall objectives for the course, and with reference to the
wider developmental needs of their students.
1. Identify the desired outcome. In your course documentation, identify which outcome you
are undertaking.
2. Match outcome with one of Bloom’s Revised Digital Technology Cognitive Domains.
Andrew Churches’ Bloom’s Updated-Digital Technology Taxonomy includes new learning
opportunities offered by emerging technologies.
Are the students going to be:

• memorizing (remembering) information?
• trying to understand meaning of information?
• applying the information construct or demonstration?
• analyzing information to deduce conclusions?
• evaluating information to consider an issue?
• creating with information to publish a project?
3. Choose one or two terms from the Action Verbs sector that matches the Bloom’s cognitive
domain term.
4. Select an activity type from the Activity sector.
5. Consider the apps in the corresponding sector. Then choose one to generate a learning
opportunity for your lesson.
6. Identify how the app will be used as a learning tool in terms of the SAMR model. Does it
simply substitute normal classroom learning activities? Does your new app driven learning
event

13
Apps for Educators
Edmodo
Edmodo is a basic social
networking website that contains
several features similar to
Facebook: a scrollable “wall” or
“timeline” to which you can view
posts ordered by date, an
individualized profile page, push
notifications to show what is new, easy access to sharing links, and an ability to send
messages to groups or individuals. The primary difference is that Edmodo was created with
students and instructors mind by merging familiar social networking features with features
typically associated with classroom management systems.
As an instructor, you can create assignments, build quizzes, poll audiences, manage
small groups, grade activities, and even award badges all within a 2 self-contained space
that enables students and instructors to maintain a degree of separation between their
academic and social worlds. With Edmodo, students and instructors can network in an
environment that keeps the focus solely on teaching and learning without the risk of
inadvertently glimpsing into each other’s private lives (Adams, nd).
Uses of Edmodo in the Classroom

Edmodo has many useful features designed to complement different types of
courses. In particular, it is especially advantageous for:
1. information sharing. Edmodo enables students to easily communicate with their

classmates and instructors. When communicating with classmates, Edmodo allows students
to ask each other questions as well as view and respond to each other’s 3 questions; they
also can share and view information. In my experience, students are quick to respond to one
another, which reduces the amount of e-mail messages and saves valuable time. For more
difficult questions, instructors can choose to respond directly on Edmodo, which allows all
students to view and benefit from these messages. This information sharing ability is also
useful for courses in which students need to share links with one another: for example,
students enrolled in a research methods course may share survey links from Google Forms
or students taking a public speaking course may share links to video presentations hosted on
YouTube.

14
2. group work. Edmodo allows for the easy creation of small student work groups. Each
group has the ability to create a team name and work within an individualized space where
they can share ideas, articles, news, and resources with each other. This feature is especially
relevant in courses with group projects such as a research methods course in which students
may need to share empirical articles, post measures, talk about stimuli, or coordinate group
face-to-face meetings.
3. mobile notifications. When creating their accounts, students have the ability to
select whether they want to send or receive mobile notifications from their instructors in the
form of either an e-mail message or a text message. For example, instructors can use this
feature in the case of having to cancel class; students can use this feature to notify an
instructor that they are running late for an office visit.
4. assignments and grading. Adding assignments on Edmodo is simple. Although 4 these

assignments appear similar to a typical post on a social networking site, the post also
includes an area for students to upload any assignment materials. Grading can be handled
directly on Edmodo through an easy-to-complete touchscreen device, and students can view
their grades immediately on the site. In this instance, Edmodo can be used in lieu of a
classroom management system and enables students to manage their classroom information
on one site instead of two sites.
5. control and visibility. Instructors can maintain a degree of supervision and

management by maintaining access of conversations on the website. You can determine if
your students are sharing information, if they are uploading materials to share with one
another, and if they are responding to each other’s posts. Similarly, you can delete
inappropriate posts as needed and monitor website in the event that issues arise.
Google Classroom
Google Classroom is a
learning management system
(LMS) that aims to simplify
creating, distributing, and grading
assignments and engaging
students in learning online or
remotely. Google Classroom is a
free application designed to help
students and teachers
communicate, collaborate, organize and manage assignments, go paperless, and much
more! It was introduced as a feature of Google Apps for Education following its public
release on August 12, 2014.

15
Assignment creation and distribution is accomplished through Google Drive while

Gmail is used to provide classroom communication. Students can be invited to classrooms
through the institution’s database through a private code that can then be added in the
student interface or automatically imported from a School Information Management System.
Google Classroom integrates with students’ and teachers’ Google Calendars. Each class
created with Google Classroom creates a separate folder in the respective Google service
where the student can submit work to be graded by a teacher. Communication through
Gmail allows teachers to make announcements and ask questions to their students in each of
their classes. Teachers can add students directly from the Google Apps directory or can
provide a code that can be entered for access to the class by students.
Benefits of Using Google Classroom
1. Google Classroom is easy to use. Compared to other LMS (Learning Management

Systems) that have been popular over the past decade, Google Classroom is
amazingly simple. Setting up a new classroom does not take much time or expertise.
2. Google Classroom helps to communicate more efficiently. The teacher will

enter the email addresses of the students just once, and classroom communication is
done. Just by entering the student in the classroom, the teacher has an email group,
a discussion group, and a Google Calendar automatically created. And it is easy to
add and remove students from the class as necessary.
3. Google Classroom helps to communicate more effectively. Probably more

important than being easy to use and efficient, the communication tools are also very
effective. Because it is all Cloud-based, there is no more “losing” of assignments by
students. If a student is absent, communication is seamless. Recently, Google
Classroom added a parent notification feature to keep parents informed about what is
going on in the “classroom.”
4. Google Classroom is more cost-effective and better for the environment. It

is a true advantage for schools to be more cost-effective when it comes to copies and
printing. If every student has a device that connects to the Internet already, every
sheet of paper that we save only makes the school more efficient and more
environmentally responsible.
5. Google classroom is better for students who struggle. The reason Google
Classroom is better is because of the organizational advantage it gives the students.
Assignments never get lost and each classroom is already organized by the teacher.
However, for these students, navigating this has to be taught. Even though students

16
are digital natives, it does not mean that they understand how adults organize their
world to help them learn.
6. With Google Classroom, collaboration is easier outside of school (i.e.,

Flipped Classroom). It is Cloud-based and accessible from anywhere with a
connection. Students can share assignments and work from home together to
complete them. Collaboration is not just limited to working in a group with other
peers. A teacher can flip the classroom by sharing a video to go live in the evening,
requiring students to view it that night to prepare for a quiz on it the next day. The
possibilities are endless.
7. Teacher planning is easy, and the up-front time is worth it. More new
features in Google Classroom allow teachers to schedule out assignments in the
future. If a teacher has a prolonged absence, she could schedule out the assignments
and not have to rely on a sub to manage it all. Classrooms can also be used from
semester to semester and year to year.
8. Feedback is instant and usable. It is possible that students complete a multiple-

choice quiz as they watched the video. This increases engagement and
accountability, but also allows the teacher to view results at the end of the video. She
can then cover the material again if students struggled to respond with correct
answers.
9. Upgrades and improvements are a constant. This is by far one of the best-
selling points of Google Classroom. If something needs to be added or fixed, Google
actually listens and responds (both the assignment scheduling and parent
communication came from this). This also means that teachers will have to continue
to learn as they use it.
Kahoot
Kahoot is an online global educational brand that offers a
free student response platform resembling the popular trivia
game Quizzo. Kahoot is reminiscent of previous clicker
technology with the exception that it is free and easy to learn
and utilize. Educators use Kahoot! to create game-based
quizzes, discussions, and surveys. To start, instructors register
for a free account by going to https://create.kahoot.it. Once
registered, educators can select from millions of free public
games, and adapt them as necessary, or create their own.
The process is easy and straightforward.

17
Kahoot! is free, easy for students to use, and simple for instructors to learn. In the
classroom, it is fast paced and fun, which supports creative energy and student participation.
ELearning experts state “forty years of research says yes, games are effective learning tools.
People learn from games and they will learn more from a game than from other forms of
learning” (Boller, 2012).
Uses for “Kahoot!” in the Classroom
Instead of using a worksheet at the end of a lesson for assessment, teachers can
consider using Kahoot! It is a fun and effective way to measure which concepts
students understand fully — and which might need reinforcement. If teachers are looking to
end class on an exciting note, Kahoot! is a great way to have fun while also utilizing class
concepts. Teachers can use Kahoot! as a bellringer or class starter to get students engaged
at the beginning of class. They can also use Kahoot! before introducing a new concept as a
form of pre-assessment to see how much students know about the new content. It can be
used throughout a lesson to measure student engagement and understanding. This can be
done by introducing content, then using Kahoot! to see what students understand and have
them explain why the answer is correct.
Why Use “Kahoot!”?
Kahoot! offers many benefits in the classroom. Because of its flexibility, Kahoot! can be
used in various subjects — even physical education. Kahoot! is a great way to keep students
engaged because it focuses on social learning and makes it fun. It is also simple to use
because it works on any device and players do not have to create an account.
Teach Learn Lead
Teach Learn Lead is essentially a social network for educators, designed to support
and connect new teachers as they navigate the beginning of their career in the classroom.
Within this community, teachers can share support and inspiration on topics spanning from
technology in the classroom to professional development (Rink, 2017).
Classroom Applications for Teach Learn Lead
1. Teachers can use this resource to ask their colleagues questions about different
teaching, learning, and educational topics.
2. When browsing by topics, teachers can learn about different strategies to further
student learning in their classroom.
3. Teachers can invite colleagues to join the Teach Learn Lead community. That way, as
questions are asked and ideas shared, more individuals will be able to offer input. It
might be a nice compliment to the network community included in Edmodo.
18
How to Use Teach Learn Lead
First, users must register with the website, and they can do so by creating a unique
Teach Learn Lead account, or they link their Facebook or LinkedIn account to Teach Learn
Lead.
Next, the Teach Learn Lead wall will appear on their screen, and users can read
trending and recent posts.
In addition, users can click the nine white dots on the top right of the screen to load
a menu of options, which allows users to add and view polls, questions, posts, and events to
the wall for the community to view and respond to.
In addition, users can click the “Members” button to learn about fellow users, the
“Topics” button to view content by different themes, the “Drafts” button to access content
they are preparing to post, and the “Invite” button to offer an opportunity for other users to
join Teach Learn Lead. The “Dialogue” button lets users view recent conversation on Teach
Learn Lead, and by tapping the “Profile” button, users can see their recent activity and
notifications.
Slack
Slack is a communication and task management tool. Users can create specialized
messaging groups, or “channels,” according to different projects, teams, and organizations.
What makes it different from other communication tools is that it is specifically created for
work and collaboration. Files that are up to 1GB can be sent and searched within a channel,
which makes file management easy. Slack also allows users to integrate over 1500 apps and
services into the chat, so that they can work
without having to switch tabs and accounts.
Functions like video chatting and screen sharing
make it ideal for teamwork. Bringing Slack into
the classroom can increase communication
and collaboration, facilitate project
management, and allow students to learn how
to use a tool that is popular in many workplaces
today.
With the number of existing communication tools already available, one may be
wondering how this one differs and why one might consider using it. Slack is organized into
‘channels’ which are like chat rooms dedicated to specific conversations. Messages posted to
a channel can be seen by everyone who subscribes to that channel or directed to specific
individuals and kept private. Unlike traditional chat rooms which may be hard to follow, Slack
supports threading, which allows participants to respond directly to posts within a channel
without interrupting the overall flow of conversation. Slack integrates with several third-party
services, such as Box, Google Drive, and Dropbox, as well as developer platforms such as
19
GitHub and Bitbucket. It also has a powerful search feature, making it easy to find files and
specific topics in cross-channel conversations (Abrusini, 2019).
The following is a list of possible ways instructors can use Slack in the classroom:
1. Share information – Create channels for posting announcements, sharing articles,

links, relevant content, etc. Students can immediately ask questions or comment on
the post which could lead to a dialogue around a specific topic. This may help to
engage students in the topic as well as build a sense of community in the class.
2. Manage group projects – Each group can have its own channel to collaborate,
share files, and communicate with each other. Instructors can post resources for
groups in their specific channels and periodically check in and offer assistance as
needed.
3. Crowdsource class notes – Create a channel for students to contribute main ideas
from notes taken in class. This could eventually be used to create a study guide.
4. Poll the class – Slack includes a free polling tool which can be used to survey
students for a variety of reasons in real-time, during class, or asynchronously, outside
of class. Polls are optionally anonymous.
5. Include experts ‘in the field’ – Invite subject matter experts and/or those working
‘in the field’ to Slack so they can participate in conversations and answer student
questions. JHU instructor Jennifer Bernstein invites former students to stay involved
in her Slack channels so that current students can benefit from the perspective of
someone who has recently graduated and is now working in the medical profession.
6. Monitor student engagement – Slack provides an optional weekly summary of

usage statistics, including charts and graphs showing how many messages were
posted, files uploaded, etc.
Learning Activities:
1. Empowered learner
Students can create personal threads to track their learning progress.
Students conduct a self-evaluation of any individual/group project by reviewing the
record in a personal thread or a group project channel.
2. Creative communicator
Students create a channel that is dedicated to a group project, communicate, and
manage the process of the project within the channel.
20
Students can submit different formats of homework to demonstrate their learning

outcomes by integrating external apps/services.
3. Global collaborator
Students can invite experts/professionals from around the world as well as community
members to join their channels.
Students can participate in discussions on related topics by entering public channels
created by the instructor or other users.
Additio
Additio App is an educational technology platform which meets teachers’ needs while
fostering student growth and family engagement. It stands out for features such as rubrics
assessments and standards-based grading, as well as for allowing teachers to plan lessons,
track attendance or create custom reports. It also allows families to be informed of the
progress of their children in class and to be involved in the learning process. Additionally,
students are constantly in touch with their teachers, and can receive all kinds of notifications
and their grades directly on their smartphones. The application is used by teachers in schools
around the world and is particularly present in #GoingGoogle schools and districts, so that it
is integrated with Google Classroom and G Suite.
From planning to grading students, Additio centralizes all classroom management in a

simple and easy-to-use app. It is a flexible multi-device tool available on web version, tablets
and smartphones.
Key features and advantages:

- Powerful digital gradebook.
- Lesson planner per sessions and curricular units with customized templates.
- Rubrics with the possibility of peer and self-assessment.
- Assessment based on skills and learning standards.
- Customized reports.
- Record of attendance, timetable, seating plan and calendar.
- Works offline on mobile devices.
- Integrated with Google Classroom and Microsoft for Education.
- Very easy to use and import data.
- Communication with students and their families.
- Compliant with EU GDPR laws.
- Export data to Excel and PDF.
- Organize and link resources in any format, even from Google Drive and Microsoft
OneDrive.

21
- Calculate averages, round off grades and have more than 150 other features at hand
for your daily classes.
Doceri
Doceri is an interactive whiteboard app where teachers and students can create, record,
and narrate slide presentations. Whether they are starting from a blank screen or modifying
one of the sample projects, it is a fairly intuitive product. Users may opt to run the app on an
iPad alone or while running Doceri Desktop on a computer. When starting a new project,
students will see a blank whiteboard with a range of tools at the top. They can choose a
background such as a music staff, a map, graph paper, or a plain color, and create a
presentation with just a single slide or multiple slides. They can draw a picture, write out
some text, or add in some shapes. Students can record motions as they go, or record audio
or additional graphics to play over the finished slides. Then, students can save it all and play
it back for others to see, or export it as a PDF or YouTube video (Rogowski, 2019).
Using Doceri as a Teaching Tool
Doceri's range of backgrounds and the ability to narrate or record presentations offer
multiple classroom uses.
✓ Social studies teachers may opt to use the map backgrounds to demonstrate population
movement or help students learn to identify key geographical features of specific areas.
✓ Math teachers can also make good use of the backgrounds, choosing different grids or
graphs to teach students about ordered pairs and other geometry concepts. Students
can collaborate to work out math equations or record themselves explaining the process
they used to arrive at a solution.
✓ Other teachers may add their own diagrams or photos as backgrounds and use the tools
to label them as they present -- recording them to create material for flipped classrooms
or absent students.
✓ Doceri's hands-on design tools and attractive interface can get students' creative juices
flowing. With some attention given to basic design principles, students and teachers can
create unique presentations to make lessons and projects more engaging. Plus, when
teachers run Doceri Desktop alongside the app, it frees them up to move about the
classroom and interact with students more easily.
Students can record how they solved a problem or demonstrate how to complete a task
through recordings. Giving kids the chance to explain their learning allows teachers
opportunities to assess student understanding and provide valuable guidance and feedback.
However, they may not want to create a whole presentation that way. All words have to be
handwritten using a finger or a stylus, not typed through a font tool; this can make creating
longer or text-heavy presentations frustrating. Teachers will need to take some time to teach
students about key ideas, details, word economy, and how to incorporate impactful images
22
and graphic organizers into their presentations. The time invested will pay off with more
informative slides that rely on the quality of text rather than the quantity.
Pocket Study
Pocket Study is a Mobile App

based teaching-learning platform. Here,
teachers can share content in the form
of audio flashcards, videos, and learning
materials. Students will be able to
access the content at any point of time
on the go through the app. Along with
the materials, there are even virtual
classes being held on the platform to
make it easier for students.
At this point, there are several traditional learning management systems in the
market. However, Pocket Study aims to create and share content in the easiest and effective
way possible, through mobile apps. It has an interesting audio technology for creating short-
revision centric flashcards which are also unique in the e-education industry. Also, there is an
interesting interactive virtual classroom module where teachers can take live interactive
classes.
Nowadays schools and coaching classes are using video conferencing software for online
teaching which are not purely educational institutions centric so ultimately MyClassCampus
has tried to develop end to end online teaching tool for every type of educational institutions
where teachers can upload content in the form of audio, video, flashcards and teachers can
also take live classes. there is no hustle of sharing meeting id and password, even online
lecture videos can be recorded and can be shared with students if any has missed the class
or lecture.
Some important benefits to students:
✓ Content access of entire syllabus in most organized way possible

✓ High quality short audio notes for quick revision with important content images
✓ Reference videos and learning materials
✓ Search any topic and access all important content and resources
✓ Mark important comment for future reference or revision
✓ Access high quality content anytime anywhere through smartphone
✓ Access of their own teachers’ content in their language/format of learning

23
Some important benefits to teachers/school:
✓ Create a centralized library of important content for their own reference and
sharing with students
✓ Entire content as per structure of syllabus for quick and easy sharing
✓ Freedom to create content in most easiest and effective way possible
✓ Improve productivity of overall teaching and performance of students
✓ No language barrier and so easy to create localized content
✓ Bridge the gap between student-teacher association and learning process during
holiday or time of emergency
✓ Leverage power of Mobile App technology for new age digital teaching
Educreations
Educreations, a free app and online tool, aims to democratize learning by facilitating the
recording and sharing of interactive lessons.
Educreations allows teachers to not only create and share their lessons, but also use
other lessons from a central archive, browse the featured lessons for new ideas, and even
create a flipped classroom by designing lessons for students to watch and review at home.
Additionally, students themselves can create and share lessons, which are stored privately
and visible only by the student and their teacher.
The Educreations app is available for free from the iTunes store and allows teachers to
turn their iPads into an interactive whiteboard from which lessons can be recorded and
shared. For teachers without iPads, lessons can be recorded via their online whiteboard,
which works in all browsers that support flash. Users can design lessons, incorporate images,
videos, and presentations, record a narrative, and share the content with their students to
review. The company stores all the uploaded lessons on
their website educreations.com, which enables teachers
to also embed videos on other sites.
It is easy to use, so it makes a great tool for

assessing student knowledge. Putting this app in the
hands of the learners will give assessment a whole new
meaning. Students can create projects that apply to
every level of Bloom's Taxonomy verbally and through
illustrations

24
Classroom Application of Educreations

Creating
Using Educreations, students can create a movie poster to advertise a story. They
can create a new product related to the story. Characters can be reconstructed to create
new endings to the story. Students can write and perform the inner dialogue of a character
in the story at a particular point in the story or write and perform the lyrics of a song the
main characters would sing if they became a singer. Students can construct the setting for a
story.
Evaluating
In the Language Arts class, students can use media to defend the position of a
character in the story from the characters point of view. Students can judge the theme of
stories by evaluating it based on personal opinion.
In math, present the students with a completed math problem and allow them to
judge whether a correct solution was found. Using a released test question, have the
students defend their solution.
Analyzing
Educreations in the Language Arts class can be used to distinguish between different
elements of various genres. Students can compare and contrast between characters in a
story or characters in different stories.
In science, students can distinguish the steps in the scientific process through
experiments of their own. Students can compare different animals (seal and sea lion) or
anything else one can put in a double bubble map.
In the math class, students can create graphs to differentiate between sets of data.
Applying
In the Language Arts classroom, students can use Educreations to dramatize .
Students can interpret how a character would respond in a different setting. In the science
class, students can classify plants, animals or states of matter. They can begin a scientific
journal where they sketch or illustrate the steps to their science fair project.
In the math class, students can demonstrate the steps to any math concept.
In Social Studies students can dramatize or illustrate historical events.
Understanding
Using Educreation in the science class, when given a picture of the solar system,
students can identify the planets. When given a picture of a plant, they can identify the parts
of a plant. Students can explain the steps to the scientific process. Using pictures, students
can explain the life cycle of an animal, the rock cycle or the water cycle.
In the Language Arts class, students can write vocabulary words and locate a picture
to show the meaning. Students can use pictures of a story to explain selected ideas from the

25
story in their own words. In the same way, they can predict what could happen next in the
story before reaching the end of the story. Students can paraphrase the events in a story.
Remembering
Students can use Educreations in the Language Arts class to record themselves
repeating and listing their spelling words as they write them down. Students can state the
name of characters in a story from pictures of the characters. They can also reproduce the
setting using pictures of their own. Lists of different parts of speech can be created (verbs,
nouns, etc.). In the math class students can recall prime numbers aloud as they choose
them from a list. They can also reproduce their own flashcards in written and verbal form for
later playback. Students can use a circle map to define in writing and verbally.
Trello
Trello is a visual
collaboration platform that gives
teams perspective on projects.
Trello can be used to organize,
collaborate, communicate and
coordinate on projects and
assignments. Trello is great for
a variety of work, educational,
and personal uses, from school bulletin boards, lesson planning, collaborative student
research projects and task management to planning and organizing your next vacation with
your family. The best part is Trello’s collaboration-ability – boards can be viewed, edited,
and managed by multiple members so classrooms, teams, or families can keep track of
everything and everyone in a really intuitive and visually appealing way.
Educational Use of Trello

Trello is a great tool for project-based learning. Students can use Trello to take
control of a project and outline the steps needed to bring it to completion. They can split up
tasks and plan what they need to meet goals. They can move cards around as needed, or
as pieces are completed, and you can track their progress in real time as they go! You can
even go in and set deadlines for individual components, which may help those
procrastinators in your classroom. It is a great tool for synchronous or asynchronous
communication, active learning, cooperative learning, and conducting research.
Suggested Learning Activities Using Trello
Elementary School (Grades K-5):

Have a Trello board or list for each student. List student goals on the Trello board
each week, and make each student responsible for adding a card outlining how they
achieved that goal, or what they need to achieve that goal. For example, if you are working
26
on a cooking project with your student, the goal may be to follow and implement a cooking
recipe. Students may need to use their knowledge of fractions to achieve that goal, or work
on their fractions more if they struggled. This would be included on their card for that week.
Have parents subscribe to their students’ board to track their progress.
Middle School (Grades 6-8):

Have a group of students brainstorm a question, then work through a Trello board
template of steps defined by the teacher to answer that question. This project based
learning model could walk students through brainstorming a question, doing research on
that question, outlining the key facts from that research, and drafting sections of a paper,
creating a youtube video, ora presentation about what their question. Require each student
to add a certain number of cards to each list through the process.
High School (Grades 9-12):

Have each student create a Trello board listing the standards that they will learn in
that class year. The rest of their board will have lists with topics such as what they 1) are
currently learning, 1) are studying to be assessed, 3) have been assessed, and 4) have
mastered. For example, a high-school algebra course may include standards such as “Order
of Operations”, “Understanding Inequalities”, “Scientific Notation”, and “Squares and Square
Roots”. Have students be responsible for moving cards of standards through this process as
they go, and adding documentation to those cards as they progress through each phase.
Higher Education:
Have each student create a Trello board to organize their process in writing a
research term paper. Assign each student two peers who will be viewing and editing
members of the student’s board, who will assess and analyze the students’ process through
the Trello activity log and provide feedback and suggestions.
Which of the following applications presented and discussed have you used in
your class in the past? How did this facilitate teaching and learning?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

27
As a future educator, try exploring all the applications presented in this unit.
Which application would you advocate to use in your own context of teaching?
Explain why.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Create an Info graphic of any of the application which you can use
for education? Please be guided by the rubric given.

28
Read a research or a study related to any of the technology-based

teaching methods or approaches. Fill out the matrix below.
Research Title:
Problem:
Research Methodology:
Findings:
Conclusions and Recommendations:
References:
Teaching Implications

29
References:
Arora, M. (May 2019) Online learning. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net

publication/332833360_Online_Learning
Rogowski, M. (2019). Doceri interactive whiteboard. Interactive whiteboard app for

designing and recording presentations https://www.commonsense.org/
education/app/doceri-interactive-whiteboard
Rink, T. (2017). Apps for teachers. https://blog.mimio.com/top-10-app-picks-part-1-apps-

for-teachers
Becker, K. (2007). Digital game-based learning once removed: Teaching teachers. British
Journal of Educational Technology, 38(3), 478-488. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-
8535.2007.00711.x
Becker, K. (2001). Teaching with games: The minesweeper and asteroids experience.
Journal of Computing in Small Colleges, 17(2), 23-33.
Bergin, S., & Reilly, R. (2005). The influence of motivation and comfort-level on learning to
program. Proceedings of the 17th workshop on psychology of programming – PPIG,
293-304.
Boller, S. (2012, October 20). Game based learning: Why does it work? BLP News—Lessons
on Learning Blog. Retrieved from http://www.bottomlineperformance.com
/gamebasedlearning/#_edn2
Carrington, A. (2012). Padagogical wheel. https://designingoutcomes.com/assets

/PadWheelV5/PW_ENG_V5.0_Apple_iOS_PRINT.pdf
Clark, R. & Mayer, R. (2008). eLearning and the science of instruction: Proven guidelines for
consumers and designers of multimedia learning. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer.
Educations. Com (June 2020). 5 reasons why online learning is the future of education
Retrieved from https://www.educations.com/articles-and-advice/5-reasons-online-
learning-i s-future-of-education-17146
Elearning.gov (2020). What is eLearning? Retrieved from http://www.elearningnc.

gov/about_elearning/what_is_elearning/
Kapp, K. (2012). The gamification of learning and instruction: Game-based methods and
strategies for training and education. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer.
McGinnis, K. (April 2020). Teachers' essential guide to Google Classroom.

https://www.commonsense.org/education/articles/teachers-essential-guide-to-
google-classroom

30
The Economic Times (2020). Definition of 'E -learning. Retrieved from:

https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/definition/e-learning
University of Masachusettes (2019). Online tools for teaching & learning. University of -
tools/trello/
University of the People (2020). What is distance learning? The benefits of studying
remotely. Retrieved from https://www.uopeople.edu/blog/what-is-distance-
learning/#:~:text=Merriam%20Webster%20defines%20distance%20learning,separat
ed%20from%20teachers%20and%20peers.
Quizworks BV (2020). What is Mobile Learning (m-learning)? Definition explained . Retrieved

from https://www.easy-lms.com/knowledge-center/lms-knowledge-center/mobile-
learning/item10388
WVSU (2020). Flexible learning policy.


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1

Unit 1: Focus on the 21st Century Learner

A. Major Schools of Thought Related to Learners’ Development

At the end of this lesson, students must have:

1. demonstrated understanding on what is meant by learning and a learning theory;

Learning is a process that:

1. is active - process of engaging and manipulating objects, experiences, and

3. occurs in a complex social environment - and thus should not be limited to

4. is situated in an authentic context - provides learners with the opportunity to

5. requires learners’ motivation and cognitive engagement to be sustained

In this extract, a Japanese student of English language reflects on

Write about helpful and unhelpful approaches to learning during your

How did you learn?

Formal theories of learning have their origins in psychology. Like informal

Most of these formal theories are unknown to people outside education,

Behaviorism is a branch of formal learning theory. It is often associated with,

Behavioral theories of learning stress observable

The Behaviorist Orientation to Learning

Hartley, J. (1998) Learning and studying. A research perspective, London: Routledge.

Think of some instances from your own experience in education which

Information Processing Theory is a cognitive theory that focuses on how

The premise of Information Processing Theory is that creating a long-term memory

The information processing approach is based on a number of assumptions,

1. Information made available by the environment is processed by a series of

Figure 1. Information Processing Model

Essentially, computer codes (i.e., changes) information, stores information, uses

USING THE INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH IN THE CLASSROOM

2. Bring to mind relevant • Review previous day's lesson.

3. Point out important • Provide handouts.

4. Present information in an • Show a logical sequence to concepts and

5. Show students how to • Present information in categories.

8. Provide for repetition of • State important principles several times in

9. Provide opportunities for • Use daily drills for arithmetic facts.

Think of some instances from your own experience in education which

Humanistic Learning Theory, often called Humanism, focuses on the specific

Humanistic Learning Theory can be summarized this way:

The Role of the Learner

The Role of the Teacher

How Does Learning Take Place

Humanistic Orientations to Learning

Learning can, thus, be seen as a form of self-actualization, it contributes to psychological

Much criticism has been levelled at this model. For example,

Kolb, D. A. (1984) Experiential Learning, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.: Prentice Hall.

Think of some instances from your own experience in education which

D. Cognitivism /Cognitive Constructivism

The cognitivist branch of learning theory was to some degree born of

The Cognitive Orientation to Learning

1. Instruction should be well-organized. Well-organized materials easier to learn and to

Hartley, J. (1998) Learning and Studying. A research perspective, London: Routledge.

Tennant, M. (1988, 1997) Psychology and Adult Learning, London: Routledge.

Think of some instances from your own experience in education which

E. Constructivism and Social Constructivism

Constructivism is ‘an approach to learning that holds that people actively

In elaborating constructivists’ ideas Arends (1998) states that constructivism

1. Knowledge is constructed, rather than innate, or passively absorbed.

2. Learning is an active process. The second notion is that learning is an active

3. All knowledge is socially constructed. Learning is a social activity - it is

4. All knowledge is personal. Each individual learner has a distinctive point of

Read a research or a study related to any of the learning theories

Conclusions and Recommendations:

Behets, D. (1990) Concerns of preservice physical education teachers. Journal of

Unit 1: Focus on the 21st Century Learner

Estimated Duration for Study:

Learner – Centered Psychological Principles