Num Root Finding 1

Numerical Solutions of Non-linear Equations: Root Finding
For a given function f (x), find a number ↵ such that

<latexit sha1_base64="UpR3oHBV0PzJMDFomY4tSQsdGiM=">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</latexit>
f (↵) = 0.
Iterative Method: Bisection Method
Hypothesis:
There exists an interval [a, b] such that the function f : [a, b] ! R is

<latexit sha1_base64="CxvjQfDa8rAwiufiB69DlV9vzzY=">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</latexit>
continuous, and the numbers f (a) and f (b) have opposite signs.
=) there exists ↵ 2 [a, b] such that f (↵) = 0.

<latexit sha1_base64="ZKPY91fc0Jub+6mmOWWanDjGM60=">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</latexit>
Let c be the midpoint of the interval [a, b], i.e.,

<latexit sha1_base64="UQOL/JMU5MsWH6tb2jyPk1cT8JM=">AAADNnicdVJNi9NAGJ7Er7V+dfXoZdhGaN0SmqIogrDgxYOHFVq70IYymbxphp2PMDOplpCz/8C/4m/x4FG8+gM8OGkDbnf1hYEnz/vxZN5nkoIzY0ejb55/7fqNm7cObnfu3L13/0H38OEHo0pNYUoVV/osIQY4kzC1zHI4KzQQkXCYJedvmvxsDdowJSd2U0AsyEqyjFFiHbXsfnkHFgc0wAlgmwMWLC0UkxarbPvtIOg14TiYkyFO4mGAWQjhsBMEHfp6kWlCq6iuxnWfHCeDhiUyxVRJw1LQ2xGFVmlJnUrWJwOc9ekAhwGe5KABE93IanBVyhiWMM4sA/Nq2e2NwtE28FUQtaCH2jhdHnqfF6mipQBpKSfGzKNxYeOKaMsoh7qzKA0UhJ6TFcwdlESAiavtAmv8xDEpzpR2x919y17sqIgwZiMSVymIzc3lXEP+L2dzUeN9eZu9jCsmi9KCpDv1rOTYKtxYhFOmgVq+cYBQ7RZCMc2J27SzYm/8fBLFVfPHzZg93UT8+8bDdM0Ks4NmvdoBS9xriatPu2Xs9f0tv5CX8NH5qjSIp1UL6mrSgo6zLrps1FUwG4fRszCK3o97J89bFw/QY3SE+ihCL9AJeotO0RRR9Ns78o69of/V/+7/8H/uSn2v7XmE9sL/9QfIlQXx</latexit>
1
c = (a + b)
2
and consider the product f (a)f (c). There are three possibilities:
Iterative Method: Bisection Method
Let c be the midpoint of the interval [a, b], i.e.,

<latexit sha1_base64="UQOL/JMU5MsWH6tb2jyPk1cT8JM=">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</latexit>
1
c = (a + b)
2
and consider the product f (a)f (c). There are three possibilities:
1. f (a)f (c) < 0; this means that a root (there might be more than one)
<latexit sha1_base64="pLxXs4f+Ot40TgVP17bVd4orJak=">AAADG3icdZJNixMxGMcz48uu9WVbPXp5sCO0UoZOURT0sODF4wqtXWiH8kz6TCfsJDMkadcy9OyX8NN4FK8ePPpNTNsBt7v6QOCX5zXJP0mZC2P7/V+ef+v2nbtHx/ca9x88fHTSbD3+ZIql5jTiRV7o8wQN5ULRyAqb03mpCWWS0zi5eL+Nj1ekjSjU0K5LiiUulEgFR+tcs2YVhRCkHexC2uHdd314G4DNhAFJqIxDtICgi8JCx2akCaRYZBYSB4XbuQQFhaIuuJqE7CWRggADQDWHgPcCECGFPQimmJcZwlSoCfaAxxAGs2a7H/Z3BjchqqHNajubtbwv03nBl5KU5TkaM4kGpY0r1FbwnDaN6dJQifwCFzRxqFCSiavdK23gufPMIS20W8rCznu1okJpzFomLlOizcz12Nb5v5jN5AYOx9v0TVwJVS4tKb6fni5zsAVsdYC50MRtvnaAXAt3AeAZauTWqXXQaRjF1fbE2zYHcxP57xv35itRmj2a1WIPFt2XiKvP+8c4qPubfiWu6NLp7SSWL6oaNtWwhoaTLrou1E0YD8LoZRhFHwft01e1isfsKXvGOixir9kp+8DO2Ihx9ts78ppey//qf/O/+z/2qb5X1zxhB+b//AOen/pe</latexit>
is between a and c, i.e., ↵ 2 [a, c].
2. f (a)f (c) = 0; if we assume that we already know f (a) 6= 0, this means

<latexit sha1_base64="LPemWPt8t94dMhD9IjXxE73v3WY=">AAADJ3icdVJdi9NAFJ3Er7V+dd1HFQYboStLSYqiIAsLvvi4QmsXtqHcTCbN0PmIM5PWEvq8f8Vf46Pooz/A/+CkCbjd1QuBM/fce+6dOUkKzowNw5+ef+Pmrdt39u527t1/8PBRd//xJ6NKTeiYKK70WQKGcibp2DLL6VmhKYiE00myeF/zkyXVhik5suuCxgLmkmWMgHWpWfdiOMBB1odDnPXJ4XGI3wWYZXhFMRhTCoptDnZ75E42XeOFVKu2YyrpZxweBa6GGSwoSNOUB43WlikNDqbAixyOSYBBprVYDkuKM1W6E2CtlB3Mur1wEG4DXwdRC3qojdPZvncxTRVxK0pLuFv2PBoWNq5AW0Y43XSmpaEFkAXM6bmDEgQ1cbV9sQ1+4TKp20C7T1q8zV7uqEAYsxaJqxRgc3OVq5P/42wuNnh3vM3exhWTRWmpJM30rOTYKlx7glOmKbF87QAQzdwFMMlBA7HOuR2lURRX9ca1zM7cRPz7xkfpkhWmgWY5b4AF93vE1ZfmMXb6/pZf4iVd2ZwqTcXLqgWbatSCjrMuumrUdTAZDqJXgyj6OOydvG5d3ENP0HPURxF6g07QB3SKxoig396B99R75n/1v/nf/R9Nqe+1PQdoJ/xffwAigP9W</latexit>
that f (c) = 0, thus ↵ = c and we have found a root.
3. f (a)f (c) > 0; this means that a root must lie in the other half of the
<latexit sha1_base64="9KziIfUcewi1f2zHXdQqwP4nJ10=">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</latexit>
interval, i.e., ↵ 2 [c, b]

Algorithm: Bisection Method
1. Given an initial interval [a0 , b0 ] = [a, b], set k = 0 and proceed as

<latexit sha1_base64="0qpcnYMnHYoUtwhNsNknU3FnsT4=">AAAETHicjVPdbtMwFM7aMUb528YlNxYN0mClSioQE2LSYBfA3RArm9RGleOctFYdJ7JPOyor1zwMz8ID8BxcIiScn4l2GxKWIn85P9/n43McZoJr9Lwfa43m+o2Nm5u3Wrfv3L13f2t757NOZ4pBn6UiVWch1SC4hD5yFHCWKaBJKOA0nB4V/tM5KM1TeYKLDIKEjiWPOaNoTaPttW/DEMZcGpCzBBRFyFtDjpAQ8o7PQRIqCZccORV2R1BzC9yhgBgHdGS8vEPCYhsqPp5gcDCg1hB0XKIBiTs98FzLEJFMpQwgIlSTOBUiPdevWqTSOUqTbIZAXDYy0z0/P7C003xvGCvKjJ+bXl6q7YaF+VnprMSeuPVJP8TEjaugmqMOILV1Oem153aqw9FlvbKM8rem+G/ycIX8ovILtrAip9eT97OIFqVPq1sapwRT8gkhI26PdG0UyGipM6Otttf1ykWuAr8Gbadex7a9X4dRymy+RCao1gO/l2FgqELORNHqmYaMsikdw8BCSRPQgSnHKiePrSWy/VL2k0hK63KGoYnWiyS0kQnFib7sK4z/8uEkycmqPMb7geGyGAbJKvV4JoobKQaXRFwBQ7GwgDJlJ5IRNqF2SOxQrtAPTvzAFCcuaFZ0w+T6ijvRnGe6gno+rgBS+4YC86W6jJW8v+FLfgnnOIFUQfLU1CA3JzVo2db5lxt1FZz2uv7zru9/7LUPX9Rd3HQeOo+cXcd3XjqHznvn2Ok7rLHT2G+8abxtfm/+bP5q/q5CG2t1zgNnZa1v/AGpO2ed</latexit>
follows:
2. Compute ck+1 = ak + 12 (bk ak )
3. If f (ck+1 ) f (ak ) < 0, set ak+1 = ak , bk+1 = ck+1
4. If f (ck+1 ) f (bk ) < 0, set bk+1 = bk , ak+1 = ck+1
5. Update k and go to Step 2.

Bisection Method : Stopping criteria
We can select a tolerance " > 0 and generate a sequence of approximate root,
<latexit sha1_base64="T3zqm2+IOPj9e3gvLuKwNbby9D4=">AAAEGniclVNLb9NAEHYSHiW8WjhyWdFUqlAUxUEUhASqBAcOCBWpL6mJovV67Kyy3l12x20iK/+kv4Yb4sqFf8PYsQC34sBIlr+Zb2Znd+fbyCrpcTj82Wp3bty8dXvjTvfuvfsPHm5uPTr2JncCjoRRxp1G3IOSGo5QooJT64BnkYKTaP6u5E/OwXlp9CEuLUwynmqZSMGRQtPNyxNggmtGK4BAxhkaBY5rAaw3PucOrJfK6LfDHuM6ZiloYhEo0cOXHMo8kzBurTMLmZWMMwb7zPNln/XsNOyzsYoN+j6z0089lmuUihldleEMWGKUMhdSp0wYHctyV55JzzLA19PN7eFgWBm7DsIabAe1HUy32sk4NiLPQKNQ3PuzcGRxUnCHUihYdce5B8vFnKdwRlDzDPykqK5xxXYoEtOGHH0aWRX9u6LgmffLLKJMOunMX+XK4L84nGXN7vG5tL7uv1hvoFEDOs8kAlXt/E8Zcj/3zVBEazRzqrrILJrxsxyTV5NCapsjDXZ9H0muSBKslA6LpSONqCUBLhyNSjAx444LJIF1xzRN44COulRQWMWlLtfXcFETz4oarIrDGjRpBVnGV8XH6tekYkikrsSxKt7/wd3mAbpoLCN7w54PRNbvRgbRZJU7LH0FCVb0aO07mc7wtz8pUjAkO7ek5h7oKekUZ8UYYYEXMqbZFuGLMpHakjLDqzq8Do5Hg3BvsPd5tL0/qjW6ETwJnga7QRi8DPaDD8FBcBSIVru12wpbo85l52vnW+f7OrXdqmseBw3r/PgFEZ5asw==</latexit>
say, p1 , . . . , pN until one of the following conditions is met:
<latexit sha1_base64="0Tm+gQvGXQmE9L8HFeFngWUZW4s=">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</latexit>
1. |pN pN 1| <"
|pN pN 1|
2. |pN |
< ", pN 6= 0, or
3. |f (pN )| < ".


Unfortunately, difficulties can arise using
any of these stopping criteria.
1. |pN pN 1| <"
|pN pN 1|
2. |pN |
< ", pN 6= 0, or
3. |f (pN )| < ".


1. |pN pN 1| <"
|pN pN 1|
2. |pN |
< ", pN 6= 0, or
3. |f (pN )| < ".
There are sequences {pn }1

<latexit sha1_base64="krcU4dRmVDxJ8fVULSp8D1vwPFg=">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</latexit>
n=0 with the property that the di↵erences pn pn 1

converge to zero while the sequence itself diverges.

1. |pN pN 1| <"
|pN pN 1|
2. |pN |
< ", pN 6= 0, or
3. |f (pN )| < ".
There are sequences {pn }1

<latexit sha1_base64="krcU4dRmVDxJ8fVULSp8D1vwPFg=">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</latexit>
n=0 with the property that the di↵erences pn pn 1

converge to zero while the sequence itself diverges.
<latexit sha1_base64="2wBIUoDmGa8R0ZZqr7AzxBPdgxw=">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</latexit>
Pn 1
Example: Let {pn } be the sequence defined by pn = k=1 k . Show that {pn }
diverges even though limn!1 (pn pn 1 ) = 0 page 154 - mapa

1. |pN pN 1| <"
|pN pN 1|
2. |pN |
< ", pN 6= 0, or
3. |f (pN )| < ".
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It is also possible for f (pn ) to be close to zero while pn di↵ers significantly from p.

1. |pN pN 1| <"
|pN pN 1|
2. |pN |
< ", pN 6= 0, or
3. |f (pN )| < ".
<latexit sha1_base64="4jqYzJy9WTqjI5jMZdiMQsT6Lko=">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</latexit>
It is also possible for f (pn ) to be close to zero while pn di↵ers significantly from p.
Example: Let f (x) = (x 1)10 , p = 1, and pn = 1 + 1/n. Show that |f (pn )| < 10 3
<latexit sha1_base64="wnMzqaIG+4YkwiUowWYGDe9pTek=">AAAEP3iclVNbb9MwFE5XLqPcNnjkxWKZ6KArSScNhCiaBEg8DGmI3aS1qxznpLEWOyE+WVt5+XH7GfwC3hCvvOGk0Vg28cCRLH/n8vn48tlLIq7Qcb43Fpo3bt66vXindffe/QcPl5Yf7as4SxnssTiK00OPKoi4hD3kGMFhkgIVXgQH3sn7In9wCqnisdzFWQJDQceSB5xRNKHR0nlrgDBFL9Afp1QkEbzJyTYgsYP2dK3fnq67a8fadfIOSfqu3SFU+sRORrLvvnDJSyLtLvkaxhOCITWkQQQBngXl1DZVg5SPQ1ybT2dvXedYr2/kNpmEIMFsi9jynWsTL8PaAsn6BfcSKYVvGU9BVaWG6TiO3R0trThdpzRyHbgVWLEq2xktLwQDP2aZAIksokodub0Eh5qmyFkEeWuQKUgoO6FjODJQUgFqqMu7zsmqifgkiFMzJJIyepmhqVBqJjxTKSiG6mquCP4rh6God/dPeaKq/tP5BmockJngCIa1+j80pOpE1UOeWaNeU/K8eFqPH2UYvB5qLpMMQbL5fQRZRDAmhb6Ib56IYTQzgLKUmyslLKQpZWhUaMQWQpyCOeosAp1ElMtifQmTKvFcVyDXuxWopyMQguZ6u5zqKR8CLnmh61x/+Itb9QO0ME6IsT7Z6DLRaXkxYixK1yn8QoFlujf3Sxle+EM9hlgApjPTXIH5b3KMoS4/0YT75m21u1kUmrZGme5VHV4H+72uYWx+6a1s9SqNLlpPrKdW23KtV9aW9cnasfYs1njW+NzYbxw0z5s/mj+bv+alC42K89iqWfP3H/x1Y7g=</latexit>
whenever n > 1 but that |p pn | < 10 3 requires that n > 1000.


1. |pN pN 1| <"
|pN pN 1|
2. |pN |
< ", pN 6= 0, or
3. |f (pN )| < ".
<latexit sha1_base64="dqmPmE/bGDv2fK4hpF/lan59q48=">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</latexit>
Without additional knowledge about f or p (actual root), Inequality (2) is the best
stopping criterion to apply because it comes closest to testing relative error.
Example: Show that f (x) = x3 + 4x2 10 = 0 has a root in [1,2], and use the
<latexit sha1_base64="X7GItj1ORckZsBpT0anqtjywdo4=">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</latexit>
Bisection method to determine an approximation to the root that is accurate to at least

within 10 4 .
Solution:
<latexit sha1_base64="hJoj6m6kNcS/48ioqQnt+p2X0KM=">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</latexit>
• Because f (1) = 5 and f (2) = 14 the Intermediate Value Theorem ensures that
this continuous function has a root in [1, 2].
• For the first iteration of the Bisection method we use the fact that at the midpoint
of [1, 2] we have f (1.5) = 2.375 > 0. This indicates that we should select the interval
[1, 1.5] for our second iteration.
• Then we find that f (1.25) = 1.796875 so our new interval becomes [1.25, 1.5],
whose midpoint is 1.375 .
• Continuing in this manner gives the values:

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|p p13 | < |b14 a14 | = |1.365234375 1.365112305| = 0.000122070

<latexit sha1_base64="/22Hlmmwd+1BXhOhztIem+S6CnA=">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</latexit>
|p p13 | |b14 a14 |

Since |a14 | < |p|, we have: |p|
< |a14 |
 9.0 ⇥ 10 5 ,
Speed of Convergence or Order of Convergence:
Let {an } be a sequence of positive numbers converging to 0. We would

<latexit sha1_base64="hiqnLusmWlNSk+zfV5XSPYqQY/U=">AAADLnicdVLLjtNAEByb1xIem4UbXFrESAihKI5AcFyJCwcOi5SQlWIrGk/a9mg9M2ZmnBBZPnPjV/gaDhwQVz6AD2CcGLHZhZYslaq7q+0qJ2XBjR2Nvnn+lavXrt84uNm7dfvO3cP+0b33RlWa4ZSpQunThBosuMSp5bbA01IjFUmBs+TsddufrVAbruTEbkqMBc0kTzmj1lGL/ue3aCGICkxtVNNFLZtI8yy3URNAgkDB4IcKJUNQKZTKcMtXCLISiRMFpqQTz7jMwCoIRjAMYIawVlWxhIKfYUsLpKbSCLlaQ0qNBZs7HrUwEGwvBn90cLjoD0bD0bbgMgg7MCBdnSyOvE/RUrFKoLSsoMbMw3Fp45pqy1mBTS+qDJaUndEM5w5KKtDE9da4Bh47Zgmp0u6RFrbs+Y2aCmM2InGTgtrcXOy15P96NhcN7J+36au45rKsrHN0dz2titajNhpYco3MFhsHKNPOaQYsp5oyZ9ae/HwSxnX7xq3M3t1E/PuLny1XvDQ7aFbZDljq/pK4/rgzY2/v7/i5vsS1i05pFE/rDjT1pAM9F114MajLYDYehs+HYfhuPDh+0aV4QB6SR+QJCclLckzekBMyJYz88h54Ay/wv/hf/e/+j92o73U798le+T9/AyA+CGA=</latexit>
like to measure how fast the terms an converge.
The situation that we have in mind is that of the absolute error sequence
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an = |xn ↵| of an approximation process xn ! ↵. Knowing the speed of

convergence can help us, given a tolerance of " > 0, to determine a number
of steps suﬃcient to have |xn ↵| < "
Assume that for some number p the condition

<latexit sha1_base64="mxkGE0O/hzrfbVZVQGzT6N8Njd0=">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</latexit>
an+1
lim p = C > 0 an+1 ⇡ Capn
<latexit sha1_base64="CeO+ATpxYX+u3XOCVjNEk7q22yw=">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</latexit>
n!1 an
is satisfied. We will then say that the order of convergence of {an } is p.

The limit value C is the rate of convergence or the asymptotic constant.
Speed of Convergence or Order of Convergence: an+1 ⇡ Capn

Illustration:
Suppose that {pn }1
n=0 is linearly convergent to 0 with
<latexit sha1_base64="z9QHAStVReGz6/lBgAQLjOGmKVE=">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</latexit>
|pn+1 |
lim = 0.5
n!1 |pn |
and that {p̃n }1

n=0 is quadratically convergent to 0 with the same asymptotic
error constant,
|p̃n+1 |
lim = 0.5
n!1 |p̃ |2
n

Illustration:
Suppose that {pn }1
n=0 is linearly convergent to 0 with
<latexit sha1_base64="z9QHAStVReGz6/lBgAQLjOGmKVE=">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</latexit>
|pn+1 |
lim = 0.5
n!1 |pn |
and that {p̃n }1

n=0 is quadratically convergent to 0 with the same asymptotic
error constant,
|p̃n+1 |
lim = 0.5
n!1 |p̃ |2
n
For simplicity we assume that for each n we have

<latexit sha1_base64="LXYn/6ThSsDaZOY7q3xGDTU84gM=">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</latexit>
|pn+1 | |p̃n+1 |
⇡ 0.5 and 2 ⇡ 0.5
|pn | |p̃n |

Illustration:
|pn+1 | |p̃n+1 |
<latexit sha1_base64="L5T3ZokgCkRQiaqjDTHyNVkkGHw=">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</latexit>
⇡ 0.5 2 ⇡ 0.5
<latexit sha1_base64="8yTXdOIkp/4WjjqQsYCWdtrDgPA=">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</latexit>
For the linearly convergent scheme, this means that |p n | |p̃n |
|pn 0| = |pn | ⇡ 0.5 |pn 1 | ⇡ (0.5)2 |pn 2 | ⇡ . . . ⇡ (0.5)n |p0 |


Illustration:
|pn+1 | |p̃n+1 |
⇡ 0.5 2 ⇡ 0.5
<latexit sha1_base64="8yTXdOIkp/4WjjqQsYCWdtrDgPA=">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</latexit>
For the linearly convergent scheme, this means that |p n | |p̃n |
|pn 0| = |pn | ⇡ 0.5 |pn 1 | ⇡ (0.5)2 |pn 2 | ⇡ . . . ⇡ (0.5)n |p0 |
For the quadratically convergent scheme

<latexit sha1_base64="O5QNEkdvz7iYQfvcHzrivniKkKU=">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</latexit>
⇥ 2 ⇤2
|p̃n 0| = |p̃n | ⇡ 0.5 |p̃n 1 | ⇡ (0.5) 0.5 |p̃n 2 | = (0.5)3 |p̃n 2 |4
2
⇥ ⇤4
⇡ (0.5)3 (0.5) |p̃n 3 |2 = (0.5)7 |p̃n 3 |8
n n
⇡ · · · ⇡ (0.5)2 1
|p̃0 |2

Illustration:
|pn+1 | |p̃n+1 |
⇡ 0.5 2 ⇡ 0.5
|pn | |p̃n | n n
|p̃0 |2
<latexit sha1_base64="NgE/1YIszJKn/a2xDhjSaeXZ4w4=">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</latexit>
|pn n
0| ⇡ (0.5) |p0 | |p̃n 0| ⇡ (0.5)2 1
<latexit sha1_base64="6O5bG/Y4aPAdd6DKq7U612YeEP0=">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</latexit>
Linear Convergence Quadratic Convergence

<latexit sha1_base64="XoA8e9czOu+EI+rgJGhTeFg4f1g=">AAAFL3icfVNNb9MwGM7aAiN8bXDcxWIdGgiiOG3a7oA0aRcOHDaxsUlLVzmO21pznOA4g8rKmRu/hV+DxAVx5Qdwx6kLNO06S1WfvM/7vB9+X4cpo5l03e9rtXrj1u0763fte/cfPHy0sfn4fZbkApMTnLBEnIUoI4xyciKpZOQsFQTFISOn4eVByZ9eEZHRhB/LSUr6MRpxOqQYSW0abNa+BCEZUa4kCnOGRKEYxoUdjMuA4Bl4q/+QAAcJ11FGhOPSeJSjSOgAuGIPAvsd+ZBPcTNgZCgDlQ4ULwJBR2MZFBq/dosLFVA+lJOiqSMtCQJJWURUWtwo1KmavNQ3d13Hf36hfee/vNLwChpH04oNS953XH2AThKTDED3Qk29VjNab3sl7zn+CiV0PP96ZesGWjNdpwc9v8K0jLBd0p1loWeELcf1Ya/C+EboG1qHvVbYdjp+p1OtxTXKjqnV7yxU5P1t0u21vapyzyi7q1uZ3muv211g9uYHA+yA8Ojf+g02tt3pKHTrywDOwLY1O4eDzbXPQZTgPCZcYoay7Bx6qewrJPR+MqJXOc9IivAlGpFzDTnShfTV9OUUYEdbIjBMhP5xCabWeYVCcZZN4lB7xkiOs0WuNK7i5DguQDW9HPb6ivI0l3rpTfZhzoBMQPk2QUQFwZJNNEBY0PKB4TESCEv9giuRjmFflRWXYSp5w/j6jl9GVzTNDMyuRgboS2ekrz6Zy6jo/rvP8Zx8lGOSCBK/UDNQqOMZsPXo4OKglsGp58C2A+GRt73fmk1x3dqynlq7FrS61r71xjq0Tixc+13fqjfrO42vjW+NH42fxrW2NtM8sSqn8esPO2OUoQ==</latexit>
Sequence {pn }1
n=0 Sequence {p̃n }1
n=0
n n
n (0.5) (0.5)2 1
1 5.0000 ⇥ 10 1 5.0000 ⇥ 10 1
2 2.5000 ⇥ 10 1 1.2500 ⇥ 10 1
3 1.2500 ⇥ 10 1 7.8125 ⇥ 10 3
4 6.2500 ⇥ 10 2 3.0518 ⇥ 10 5
5 3.1250 ⇥ 10 2 4.6566 ⇥ 10 10
6 1.5625 ⇥ 10 2 1.0842 ⇥ 10 19
7 7.8125 ⇥ 10 3 5.8775 ⇥ 10 39
Illustration of the relative speed of convergence of the sequences pn to 0

<latexit sha1_base64="5jz7n4szdgNTE5FmPk7yAf8g488=">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</latexit>
if |p0 | = |p̃0 | = 1.

Ø One can obtain the order of convergence by using the formula
<latexit sha1_base64="Z/HX24VPyfFNygadUQDlvxPBCzw=">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</latexit>
↵ xn+1
limn!1 (↵ xn )p
=C
Questions:
1. Does such p always exist ?
2. Will it be unique ? How one can find it
<latexit sha1_base64="P1mS5X6sNfGs07FjAsd6FYy6i9E=">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</latexit>
↵ xn+1
limn!1 ↵ xn
=0
What is p ?
limn!1 ↵↵ xxn+1
<latexit sha1_base64="GGRQTM9GuDrqDde3gEQNYygIVnw=">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</latexit>
n
=1

↵ xn+1
limn!1 (↵ xn )p
=C
Questions:
1. Does such p always exists ?
<latexit sha1_base64="P1mS5X6sNfGs07FjAsd6FYy6i9E=">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</latexit>
↵ xn+1
limn!1 ↵ xn
=0 Superliner convergence
What is p ?
limn!1 ↵↵ xxn+1
<latexit sha1_base64="GGRQTM9GuDrqDde3gEQNYygIVnw=">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</latexit>
n
=1

↵ xn+1
limn!1 (↵ xn )p
=C
Questions:
1. Does such p always exist ?
One can show that for each {xn } there is a unique exponent p 0 such
<latexit sha1_base64="INjTeBH+nuOrcqK8xXmCsHeWHt8=">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</latexit>
that 8
0, q < p
xn+1 <
lim q = C, q = p
n!1 xn :
1, q > p

↵ xn+1
limn!1 (↵ xn )p
=C
Example:
un+1
For an = 1/n, we have p = 1 and C = 1 since limn!1 = 1 . In fact,
<latexit sha1_base64="92w4Dn25e4rJ935Rn/OEAh9X3xw=">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</latexit>
an
8
an+1 np < 0, p < 1
= ! 1, p = 1
apn n+1 :
1, p > 1

↵ xn+1
limn!1 (↵ xn )p
=C
Example:
un+1
For an = 1/n, we have p = 1 and C = 1 since limn!1 = 1 . In fact,
<latexit sha1_base64="92w4Dn25e4rJ935Rn/OEAh9X3xw=">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</latexit>
an
8
an+1 np < 0, p < 1
= ! 1, p = 1
apn n+1 :
1, p > 1
For an = 2 n
, we have p = 1 and C = 1/2, because an+1 = 12 an In fact,
<latexit sha1_base64="6LlVrxKP3e+rsjlOXwx0OyuqllU=">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</latexit>
8
an+1 < 0, p<1
pn n 1
p = 2 ! 1/2, p = 1
an :
1, p > 1

↵ xn+1
limn!1 (↵ xn )p
=C
Example:
Let xn = n1k for some fixed k > 0. Then we know this sequence converges to 0 .
<latexit sha1_base64="wBYSlMP7jYrUnwPCL5BQ5v9fyqA=">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</latexit>
Compute the rate of convergence:
<latexit sha1_base64="sImsx+vRZ8aj4TEUDx/vwmgHiPw=">AAAEY3iclVPZbtNAFHXaAMVlaQtvCGlEU6ksiuIgCi+VKsEDEjwUqZtUp9F4cp2MMovxXLcJU38oH9D/YLzQ1q1AcCXb5567zXIcJYIb7PV+thYW23fu3lu67y8/ePjo8crq2oHRWcpgn2mh06OIGhBcwT5yFHCUpEBlJOAwmn4s4oenkBqu1R7OExhIOlY85oyio4YrF52OHwouydAqEqZ8PEGapvqMhFzFOM9JGKeU2VBAjOczl/Q6yKu08/ySVTVzElKRTGi+/S8dy3eQ203X8uXJNM+vKHViq07E0X/vVi5hs6pUv+dfW6Xr7Hc6w5X1XrdXGrkNghqse7XtDlcX4nCkWSZBIRPUmOOgn+DA0hQ5E5D7YWYgoWxKx3DsoKISzMCW95GTDceMSKxT9ygkJXu9wlJpzFxGLlNSnJibsYL8Uwwnsjl9dMoTU8+fVQto1IDKJEdwVRv/U4bUTE2TilyPZk5ZF+lZkz/OMP4wsFwlGYJi1XnEmSCoSaFBMuIpMBRzByhLuTtSwibUXSE6pfohTkCn4LY6F2ATQbkq+is4qwOvbA1yu1eDZliAlE4FX8tPMzSCmCteaD+3n66w39yAjzohzrbJ2y6Tb/xII2pZur3CL0RXhvuVX0rt0h/YMWgJmM7dcAPun1RjnNgQYYZnfOTu1gbvikQ31ikzuKnD2+Cg3w22ulvf+us7/VqjS94z74W36QXee2/H++ztevsea31pfW/9aNnFi/Zye639tEpdaNU1T7yGtZ//AsTxejA=</latexit>
1 ✓ ◆k
|xn+1 | (n+1)k n↵
lim ↵ = lim 1 = lim
n!1 |xn | n!1 n!1 n+1
n↵k
<latexit sha1_base64="Qox8xH/E2GbDwHVHgVyNU4HmhBc=">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</latexit>
We get convergence for ↵ = 1, but not ↵ = 2, so this sequence converges linearly to 0 .
This is interesting- Sequences like the following:

<latexit sha1_base64="RdnXinml3NXXb9VfKcubSsHH+T8=">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</latexit>
1 1 1
xn = , xn = , xn = ,...
n n2 n3
all converge linearly to 0.

↵ xn+1
limn!1 (↵ xn )p
=C
Example:
2n
<latexit sha1_base64="HcSiqp8MCrLOn6TDQCLuuHIPQZ4=">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</latexit>
Let xn = 10 (which converges to 0 ). Compute the rate of convergence:

2n+1
|xn+1 | 10
lim ↵ = lim 2n ·↵
n!1 |xn | n!1 10
<latexit sha1_base64="M5Xc5iOh5bAe+2zk6geCoZshpdA=">AAADtniclVJLb9NAEN7GPIp5pXDksiKtQKiKYiO1uVSqBAeQOBSpaSslIVpvxvYq+7C84yaRlb/Cr+EKd/4Na8cC3IoDI1n+Zr557DyiTAqLg8HPnY535+69+7sP/IePHj952t17dmFNkXMYcSNNfhUxC1JoGKFACVdZDkxFEi6jxbuKv7yG3Aqjz3GdwVSxRItYcIbONOsOP+IrS4HZNUVDLQDFlCEVMd2fMJml7CTcP6RLoAkg5Ua7XAloDv1ZtzfoD2qht0HQgB5p5Gy214knc8MLBRq5ZNaOgzDDaclyFFzCxp8UFjLGFyyBsYOaKbDTsm5xQw+cZU5jk7tPVy9x1r8jSqasXavIeSqGqb3JVcZ/cZiqdvX5tchsU3+1fUArBnShBIKLOvifMGR2YdumyOVo+9RxkVm17eMC4+G0FDor0I1/O4+4kNXSqrXSuciBo1w7wHgu3EgpT1nOOLrl+xNMweTgWl1LKDPJhK7ya1g2xJuyAZvyvAFtWoJSbFN+qn9tag6x0KI6p035/g/22w34aDLq5IS+7XN16EcG0ahaHVS6hBhrOtzquUhS/K1PywSMAszXrrgFd+Y6wbScIKxwKeZut2VwXDm6su4yg5t3eBtchP3gqH/0Oeydhs2N7pIX5CV5TQJyTE7JB3JGRoSTr+Qb+U5+eEPviwdesnXt7DQxz0lLvOwXWR02hQ==</latexit>
It’s easy to see that if ↵ = 2, we get convergence.


↵ xn+1
limn!1 (↵ xn )p
=C
<latexit sha1_base64="Ryk3FHRtawzl4fjG+v5ccSW5GnI=">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</latexit>
Let {an } is a positive sequence converging to 0. Prove the Following:
1. If limn!1 an+1
anp is finite and positive, then lim n!1
log an+1
log an
= p. The con-
verse is not true (consider an = n n ).
log an+1
p
2. If limn!1 log an = p, then limn!1 n |log an | = p. The converse is not
2k k
and a2k+1 = e 2 1 ). true (consider a2k = e
p
3. The limit inferior limn!1 n |log an | 1. In particular, the order of
convergence is always greater than or equal to 1.
Order of Convergence:
A sequence of iterates {xn | n 0} is said to converge with order p

<latexit sha1_base64="l5cTNCLxbU2cX9510+Kr6IwPIDg=">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</latexit>
1
to a point ↵ if
|↵ xn+1 |  c |↵ xn |p n 0
for some c > 0. If p = 1, the sequence is said to converge linearly to a. In that
case, we require c < 1; the constant c is called the rate of linear convergence
of xn to ↵.
Algorithm: Bisection Method
1. Given an initial interval [a0 , b0 ] = [a, b], set k = 0 and proceed as

<latexit sha1_base64="0qpcnYMnHYoUtwhNsNknU3FnsT4=">AAAETHicjVPdbtMwFM7aMUb528YlNxYN0mClSioQE2LSYBfA3RArm9RGleOctFYdJ7JPOyor1zwMz8ID8BxcIiScn4l2GxKWIn85P9/n43McZoJr9Lwfa43m+o2Nm5u3Wrfv3L13f2t757NOZ4pBn6UiVWch1SC4hD5yFHCWKaBJKOA0nB4V/tM5KM1TeYKLDIKEjiWPOaNoTaPttW/DEMZcGpCzBBRFyFtDjpAQ8o7PQRIqCZccORV2R1BzC9yhgBgHdGS8vEPCYhsqPp5gcDCg1hB0XKIBiTs98FzLEJFMpQwgIlSTOBUiPdevWqTSOUqTbIZAXDYy0z0/P7C003xvGCvKjJ+bXl6q7YaF+VnprMSeuPVJP8TEjaugmqMOILV1Oem153aqw9FlvbKM8rem+G/ycIX8ovILtrAip9eT97OIFqVPq1sapwRT8gkhI26PdG0UyGipM6Otttf1ykWuAr8Gbadex7a9X4dRymy+RCao1gO/l2FgqELORNHqmYaMsikdw8BCSRPQgSnHKiePrSWy/VL2k0hK63KGoYnWiyS0kQnFib7sK4z/8uEkycmqPMb7geGyGAbJKvV4JoobKQaXRFwBQ7GwgDJlJ5IRNqF2SOxQrtAPTvzAFCcuaFZ0w+T6ijvRnGe6gno+rgBS+4YC86W6jJW8v+FLfgnnOIFUQfLU1CA3JzVo2db5lxt1FZz2uv7zru9/7LUPX9Rd3HQeOo+cXcd3XjqHznvn2Ok7rLHT2G+8abxtfm/+bP5q/q5CG2t1zgNnZa1v/AGpO2ed</latexit>
follows:
2. Compute ck+1 = ak + 12 (bk ak )
3. If f (ck+1 ) f (ak ) < 0, set ak+1 = ak , bk+1 = ck+1
4. If f (ck+1 ) f (bk ) < 0, set bk+1 = bk , ak+1 = ck+1
5. Update k and go to Step 2.

Bisection Convergence and Error:
Theorem. Let [a0 , b0 ] = [a, b] be the initial interval, with f (a)f (b) < 0.
<latexit sha1_base64="r6sY6jnvvRzaZxuCKrtkGiXqfmg=">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</latexit>
Define the approximate root as xn = cn = (bn 1 + an 1 ) /2 Then there exists

a root ↵ 2 [a, b] such that
✓ ◆n
1
|↵ xn |  (b a)
2
Moreover, to achieve an accuracy of
|↵ xn |  ✏
it suﬃces to take
log(b a) log ✏
n .
log 2

Proof: It is trivial to see that
1
<latexit sha1_base64="uGj7ydYQ2n39Wyj70fjY2oH2bkw=">AAAC2nicdZHNjtMwEMfd8LWEj+3CkYtFF2lBbFVXrEBISCtx4bhILV2piSrHdRprbSeyJ10qKwdOCHHlAXgarnDlbXCaSGx2YaQ4P81/xuOZSQopLIxGv3vBtes3bt7auR3euXvv/m5/78EHm5eG8SnLZW5OE2q5FJpPQYDkp4XhVCWSz5Kzt7U+W3NjRa4nsCl4rOhKi1QwCt616L8O9/fDZOF0dUjr802UGsocqdy4iiRP4aAWD0kj+39kxCqDpz5t0R+MhqOt4atAWhig1k4We73P0TJnpeIamKTWzsm4gNhRA4JJXoVRaXlB2Rld8blHTRW3sds2WeEn3rPEaW78pwFvvRczHFXWblTiIxWFzF7Wauf/NMhUhbvlIX0VO6GLErhmTfW0lBhyXI8RL4XhDOTGA2VG+AYwy6gfHfhhd26akNjVL66v6dRN1L87fr5ci8I2aNerBoD6jcbuYzOMTt7f8Au65ueQ8dxw9cy1ULlJC6FfHbm8qKswGw/JiyEh78eD46N2izvoEXqMDhBBL9ExeodO0BQx9B39QD/Rr2AefAq+BF+b0KDX5jxEHQu+/QHZQuj8</latexit>
bn an = (bn 1 an 1 )
2
<latexit sha1_base64="PUZt3h7TJW5xNQkumyiCdzWkfSs=">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</latexit>
✓ ◆n
1
=) bn an = (b0 a0 )
2
Therefore,
1
<latexit sha1_base64="EHGa/uHJiLipPH2370hRk9Bohio=">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</latexit>
|↵ xn |  (bn 1 an 1 )
2
1
<latexit sha1_base64="onjLxIgXPzMYbxSF5lHnaRB1PKc=">AAADl3icdVJLb9NAEF7XPIp5pXBB4rIioSqIRHYEgguoEhLqsZUSUqk20Xo9tlddr413ExptfeLABX4gv4Qr69ioedCRLH+a+b6ZnUdYcCaV6/62duwbN2/d3r3j3L13/8HDzt6jzzKflRTGNOd5eRoSCZwJGCumOJwWJZAs5DAJzz/W8ckcSslyMVKLAoKMJILFjBJlXNPOH6fXc/wQEiY04SwREFWOzzJTGyT2OcTq0ie8SEn/YqpF5ZcsSdUl3q9jX7Efl4Rqr9LDask9CA2p71V90vwb+gvs+87++y3yqqMhfmlU/1K5y0TuRprrtdcqHR9EdNVgrzftdN2BuzS8DbwWdFFrx9M964cf5XSWgVCUEynPvGGhAk1KxSgHM7SZhILQc5LAmYGCZCADvdxQhZ8bT4TjvDSfUHjpXVVokkm5yELDzIhK5Wasdl4XU2lW4fXyKn4XaCaKmQJBm+rxjGOV4/oGcMRKoIovDCC0ZKYBTFNi5qnMpaxlGnmBrl9cp1mrG2b/7/hVNGeFbKCcJw1QxJxjoC+aYazprugrcQHfVAp5CdlL3YJKj1rgmNV5m4vaBpPhwHs98LyTYffwTbvFXfQUPUMHyENv0SE6QsdojKgVWN+tn9Yv+4n9wf5kHzXUHavVPEZrZp/8BaVULMw=</latexit>
=) |↵ xn |  (bn 1 an 1 )
2
✓ ◆n 1
1 1
= (b0 a0 )
2 2
✓ ◆n
1
= (b0 a0 )
2

Proof: It is trivial to see that Bound on the number of iterations
<latexit sha1_base64="uGj7ydYQ2n39Wyj70fjY2oH2bkw=">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</latexit>
1 ✓ ◆n
<latexit sha1_base64="8MniFPp+9O0tcenDYfWX6D+HzHU=">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</latexit>
bn an = (bn 1 an 1 ) 1
2 (b a)  ✏
<latexit sha1_base64="PUZt3h7TJW5xNQkumyiCdzWkfSs=">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</latexit>
✓ ◆n 2
1
=) bn an = (b0 a0 )
=) |↵ xn |  ✏
<latexit sha1_base64="lopm7nMJB1iAQLfAI8pRPKXD0xA=">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</latexit>
2
Therefore, <latexit sha1_base64="ep35Lq7+8ixdolA7mS1pZWbLCFM=">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</latexit>
log(b a) log ✏
1 =) n .
<latexit sha1_base64="EHGa/uHJiLipPH2370hRk9Bohio=">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</latexit>
|↵ xn |  (bn 1 an 1 ) log 2
2
1
<latexit sha1_base64="onjLxIgXPzMYbxSF5lHnaRB1PKc=">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</latexit>
=) |↵ xn |  (bn 1 an 1 )
2
✓ ◆n 1
1 1
= (b0 a0 )
2 2
✓ ◆n
1
= (b0 a0 )
2
Example: Determine the number of iterations necessary to solve f (x) = x3 + 4x2

<latexit sha1_base64="ImhbWPA0/01JZE4ySp8kMRBlmz8=">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</latexit>
10 = 0 with accuracy 10 3 using a1 = 1 and b1 = 2.

Num Root Finding 1

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Num Root Finding 1

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Numerical Solutions of Non-linear Equations: Root Finding

For a given function f (x), find a number ↵ such that

There exists an interval [a, b] such that the function f : [a, b] ! R is

=) there exists ↵ 2 [a, b] such that f (↵) = 0.

Let c be the midpoint of the interval [a, b], i.e.,

Iterative Method: Bisection Method

Let c be the midpoint of the interval [a, b], i.e.,

is between a and c, i.e., ↵ 2 [a, c].

2. f (a)f (c) = 0; if we assume that we already know f (a) 6= 0, this means

that f (c) = 0, thus ↵ = c and we have found a root.

interval, i.e., ↵ 2 [c, b]

Algorithm: Bisection Method

1. Given an initial interval [a0 , b0 ] = [a, b], set k = 0 and proceed as

2. Compute ck+1 = ak + 12 (bk ak )

3. If f (ck+1 ) f (ak ) < 0, set ak+1 = ak , bk+1 = ck+1

4. If f (ck+1 ) f (bk ) < 0, set bk+1 = bk , ak+1 = ck+1

5. Update k and go to Step 2.

Bisection Method : Stopping criteria

say, p1 , . . . , pN until one of the following conditions is met:

3. |f (pN )| < ".

Bisection Method : Stopping criteria

say, p1 , . . . , pN until one of the following conditions is met:

3. |f (pN )| < ".

Bisection Method : Stopping criteria

say, p1 , . . . , pN until one of the following conditions is met:

3. |f (pN )| < ".

There are sequences {pn }1

n=0 with the property that the di↵erences pn pn 1

Bisection Method : Stopping criteria

say, p1 , . . . , pN until one of the following conditions is met:

3. |f (pN )| < ".

There are sequences {pn }1

n=0 with the property that the di↵erences pn pn 1

Bisection Method : Stopping criteria

say, p1 , . . . , pN until one of the following conditions is met:

3. |f (pN )| < ".

Bisection Method : Stopping criteria

say, p1 , . . . , pN until one of the following conditions is met:

3. |f (pN )| < ".

whenever n > 1 but that |p pn | < 10 3 requires that n > 1000.

Bisection Method : Stopping criteria

say, p1 , . . . , pN until one of the following conditions is met:

3. |f (pN )| < ".

Bisection Method : Stopping criteria

Bisection method to determine an approximation to the root that is accurate to at least

• Continuing in this manner gives the values:

|p p13 | < |b14 a14 | = |1.365234375 1.365112305| = 0.000122070

|p p13 | |b14 a14 |

Speed of Convergence or Order of Convergence:

Let {an } be a sequence of positive numbers converging to 0. We would

like to measure how fast the terms an converge.

an = |xn ↵| of an approximation process xn ! ↵. Knowing the speed of

Assume that for some number p the condition

is satisfied. We will then say that the order of convergence of {an } is p.

Speed of Convergence or Order of Convergence: an+1 ⇡ Capn

and that {p̃n }1

Speed of Convergence or Order of Convergence: an+1 ⇡ Capn

and that {p̃n }1

For simplicity we assume that for each n we have

Speed of Convergence or Order of Convergence: an+1 ⇡ Capn

For the linearly convergent scheme, this means that |p n | |p̃n |

|pn 0| = |pn | ⇡ 0.5 |pn 1 | ⇡ (0.5)2 |pn 2 | ⇡ . . . ⇡ (0.5)n |p0 |

Speed of Convergence or Order of Convergence: an+1 ⇡ Capn

For the linearly convergent scheme, this means that |p n | |p̃n |