sustainability
Article
Static Load Test and Numerical Analysis of Influencing Factors
of the Ultimate Bearing Capacity of PHC Pipe Piles in
Multilayer Soil
Xusen Li 1,2 , Jiaqiang Zhang 3 , Hao Xu 4 , Zhenwu Shi 1 and Qingfei Gao 3, *






Citation: Li, X.; Zhang, J.; Xu, H.;
Shi, Z.; Gao, Q. Static Load Test and
Numerical Analysis of Influencing
Factors of the Ultimate Bearing
Capacity of PHC Pipe Piles in
Multilayer Soil. Sustainability 2021, 13,
13166. https://doi.org/10.3390/
su132313166
Academic Editor: Gianluca Mazzucco
Received: 14 September 2021
Accepted: 25 November 2021
Published: 27 November 2021
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
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iations.
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Sustainability 2021, 13, 13166. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132313166
1 School of Civil Engineering, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China; lixusen@nefu.edu.cn (X.L.);
shizhenwu@nefu.edu.cn (Z.S.)
2 Heilongjiang Provincial Longjian Road and Bridge the First Engineering Co., Ltd., Harbin 150028, China
3 School of Transportation Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China;
20S132064@stu.hit.edu.cn
4 Heilongjiang Transportation Investment Engineering Construction Co., Ltd., Harbin 150040, China;
xuhao@hljsjt.com.cn
* Correspondence: gaoqingfei@hit.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-137-0361-6436
Abstract: Prestressed high-strength concrete (PHC) pipe piles have been widely used in engineering
fields in recent years; however, the influencing factors of their ultimate bearing capacity (UBC) in
multilayer soil need to be further studied. In this paper, a static load test (SLT) and numerical analysis
are performed to obtain the load transfer and key UBC factors of pipe piles. The results show that the
UBC of the test pile is mainly provided by the pile shaft resistance (PSR), but the pile tip resistance
(PTR) cannot be ignored. Many factors can change the UBC of pipe piles, but their effects are different.
The UBC of the pipe pile is linearly related to the friction coefficient and the outer-to-inner diameter
ratio. Changes in the pile length make the UBC increase sharply. Low temperatures can produce
freezing stress at the pile–soil interface. The effect of changing the Young modulus of pile tip soil is
relatively small.
Keywords: PHC pipe pile; ultimate bearing capacity; static load test; load transfer; multiple fac-
tor analysis
1. Introduction
Pile foundations have the advantages of a high bearing capacity, small settlement,
convenient construction, strong resistance to complex loads and great applicability to
various geological conditions [1,2]. They have been widely used in bridge engineering
in China, accounting for more than 40% of the total number of bridge foundations [3].
As a new form of pile, a prestressed high-strength concrete (PHC) pipe pile adopts the
assembly construction method, which has the advantages of high industrialization, easy
quality assurance, short manufacturing cycles and low resources; it has been popularized
on a large scale in recent years [4]. However, the practice of utilizing PHC pipe piles is not
based on theory; experience is considered more important than the relevant science and
technology, therefore, the wide use of PHC pipe piles at large scales does not fully utilize
advanced technology. In the process of their popularization and application, there are still
many theoretical and technical problems that need to be studied in depth [5], such as how
to determine the ultimate bearing capacity (UBC) of pipe piles, the deviation of piles, the
poor shear capacity caused by prefabrication and assembly, the floating of piles and their
buckling instability [6–9].
Among them, the UBC, as the most critical factor affecting the use of pipe piles, has
gradually become a research hotspot in recent years. Malik [10] and Abu-Farsakh [11]
found that the bearing capacity of pipe piles is superior to that of other piles under the same
conditions. Paik [12] and Saleem [13] suggested that the method of pipe pile installation
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability
Sustainability 2021, 13, 13166 2 of 18

Sustainability 2021, 13, 13166 found that the bearing capacity of pipe piles is superior to that of other piles under 2 ofthe
17
same conditions. Paik [12] and Saleem [13] suggested that the method of pipe pile instal-
lation is the key point affecting the bearing capacity. Some scholars have conducted SLTs
on pipe piles to obtain the UBC of pipe piles, comparing the results with those from the
is the key
existing point affecting
calculation theory,the
andbearing capacity.
modifying Some scholars
the relevant formulashave conducted
[14–16]. Soil plugs SLTs on
on the
pipe piles
interior of to obtain
pipe pilesthe UBC of
produce pipe piles,
additional comparing
friction, whichthe results the
improves withUBC
thoseto from the
a certain
existing calculation theory, and modifying the relevant formulas [14–16]. Soil plugs on
extent and has also been studied by many scholars [17–20]. The variations in pile bearing
the interior of pipe piles produce additional friction, which improves the UBC to a certain
capacity with service time [21,22] and different soil conditions [23–25] have also received
extent and has also been studied by many scholars [17–20]. The variations in pile bearing
extensive attention.
capacity with service time [21,22] and different soil conditions [23–25] have also received
However, to date, research on the UBC of pipe piles has been conducted in mostly
extensive attention.
single-layer soil; few studies have been conducted in multilayer soil [11,25,26]. In addition,
However, to date, research on the UBC of pipe piles has been conducted in mostly
most of the previous studies focused on testing. Although the test process can represent
single-layer soil; few studies have been conducted in multilayer soil [11,25,26]. In addition,
the actual performance of the pipe pile, it is complex, time-consuming and expensive;
most of the previous studies focused on testing. Although the test process can represent
thus, it is currently impossible to conduct a more comprehensive analysis on the influenc-
the actual performance of the pipe pile, it is complex, time-consuming and expensive; thus,
ing factors of the UBC of pipe piles. Thus, the load transfer and key UBC factors of pipe
it is currently impossible to conduct a more comprehensive analysis on the influencing
piles in multilayer soil cannot be suitably studied. In this paper, first, we conduct a static
factors of the UBC of pipe piles. Thus, the load transfer and key UBC factors of pipe piles in
load test (SLT)
multilayer to obtain
soil cannot the loadstudied.
be suitably transfer In
of this
the paper,
pipe pile inwe
first, multilayer
conduct soil. Second,
a static we
load test
establish a pile–soil interaction model to explore the key factors affecting the UBC
(SLT) to obtain the load transfer of the pipe pile in multilayer soil. Second, we establish a of pipe
piles. Then,
pile–soil we summarize
interaction model tothe results,
explore thesupplement
key factors the research
affecting the on theofUBC
UBC pipeofpiles.
pipeThen,
piles
in multilayer
we summarizesoil theand provide
results, a theoretical
supplement basis for
the research onfurther
the UBC engineering
of pipe pilesapplications
in multilayer of
pipe piles.
soil and provide a theoretical basis for further engineering applications of pipe piles.

2. Project Overview
In the Harbin to Zhaoyuan expressway
expressway project,
project, aa K50
K50 ++ 230.5 vehicular overpass
overpass with
with
good transportation conditions was selected for the pilot project of the pile SLT. The span
SLT. The span
of the K50 + + 230.5 vehicle overpass was 30 + 40 + 30 == 100 100 m. The superstructure
m. The superstructure of of the
the
consisted of three prestressed
bridge consisted prestressed concrete
concrete small
small box
box girders,
girders, and
and the
the bridge
bridge width
width was
was
8.5 m. The substructure adopted PHC pipe pipe piles.
piles. The left
left abutment
abutment foundation
foundation pile
pile was
was
selected as the test pile; it was made of C80 concrete,
concrete, with
with aa pile
pile length
length of
of 36
36 m.
m. Its section
section
size and reinforcement
reinforcement areare shown
shown inin Figure
Figure 1.
1.

Figure 1. Section size and reinforcement of the

the pipe
pipe pile.
pile.

According
According toto the drilling data,
the drilling data, the
the physical
physical and
and mechanical
mechanical properties
properties of
of the
the founda-
founda-
tion
tion soil
soil where
where the
the test
test pile
pile was
was located
located are
are shown
shown in
in Table
Table1.1.

Table 1. Physical
Table 1. Physical and
and mechanical
mechanical properties
properties of
of foundation
foundationsoil.
soil.
Thickness Thickness
Density Internal Young’s
NameName Density
Internal Friction Angle Friction
(◦ ) Cohesion
Cohesion Force
Force (kPa) Young’s
(m) (kg/m3 ) Modulus (MPa)
(m) (kg/m )3 Angle (°) (kPa) Modulus (MPa)
Silty Silty
clay clay 12.7 12.7 1800 1800 25 25 10 10 40
40
Coarse grit 2.5 1950 33 2 42
Coarse grit
Weathered 2.5 1950 33 2 42
6.7 1900 32 50 50
sandstone
Mudstone 14.1 2500 37 150 2000
Weathered
Sustainabilitysandstone
2021, 13, 13166 6.7 1900 32 50 3 of50
18
Mudstone 14.1 2500 37 150 2000

Sustainability 2021, 13, 13166 3 of 17

Weathered sandstone 3.6.7
Static Load Test1900 32 50 50
Mudstone 14.1Test Loading Device
3.1. 2500 37 150 2000

The test Test

3. Static method used here was the slow maintenance load method, and a kentledge
3. Load Test
device
3.1.
was used for loading. The counterforce device consisted of a counterforce beam
3.1. Test
Test Loading
LoadingDevice
Device
four secondary beams, a jack and weight, its general layout is shown in Figure 2.
The
The test
test method
method used
used here
here was
was the
the slow
slow maintenance
maintenance load
load method,
method, and
andaakentledge
kentledge
device
device was used for loading. The counterforce device consisted of a counterforce beam,
was used for loading. The counterforce device consisted of a counterforce beam,
four
four secondary
secondary beams,
beams, aa jack
jack and
and weight,
weight, its
its general
generallayout
layoutisisshown
shownininFigure
Figure2.2.

Figure 2. General layout of the test.

Figure 2.
Figure 2. General
General layout
layout of
of the
the test.
test.
3.1.1. Counterforce Beam and Secondary Beam
3.1.1.
3.1.1. Counterforce
Counterforce BeamBeam and
and Secondary
Secondary Beam
Beam
The
The
counterforce
counterforce
beam
beam and
and secondary
secondary beam
beam
formed
formed
aasteel
astructure
steel structure
with
with aoflength o
aalength
The counterforce beam and secondary beam formed steel structure with length of
888 m
mandand three
m andthree
spliced I-shaped
threespliced
splicedI-shaped
sections.
I-shapedsections. Ten
sections.
Ten concrete
concrete
Ten concreteround
round
round
piers were
piers
piers were
poured
were
poured
around
poured the around
around
the pile
test test topile to support
support the counterforce
the counterforce beambeam
andbeam and secondary
secondary beams. Thebeams.
concreteThe concrete
round pier round
the test pile to support the counterforce and secondary beams. The concrete round
pierawas
was C30 aplain
C30concrete
plain concrete structure,
structure, with a pierwith a pierofdiameter
diameter 1.0 m andof 1.0 m
a pier and of
height a pier
1.0 m.height o
pier was a C30 plain concrete structure, with a pier diameter of 1.0 m and a pier height of
1.0
1.0 m. The center distance between the concrete round pier and the test pile was 2.55 m, 2.55 m
The m. The
center center
distance distance
between between
the concretethe concrete
round round
pier and pier
the test and
pile the
was test
2.55 m,pile
andwas
the
layout
and is shown
thelayout in Figure
layoutisisshown
shown 3.
and the in in Figure
Figure 3. 3.

Figure 3. Layout of the counterforce beam and secondary beam.

Figure3.3.Layout
Figure Layoutofof
thethe
counterforce beam
counterforce and secondary
beam beam.beam.
and secondary
tainability 2021, 13, 13166 4 of

Sustainability 2021, 13, 13166 4 of 17

Sustainability 2021, 13, 13166

3.1.2. Hydraulic Jack and Weight 4 of 18
A 400-ton
3.1.2. hydraulic
Hydraulic Jack and jack was used for loading; the jack was connected to an oil pum
Weight
through an oil distribution
A 400-ton hydraulic jackpipe,
wasand
usedthe
for counterforce
loading; the jackofwas
theconnected
jack wastoborne by the weig
an oil pump
3.1.2. Hydraulic
The materials
through anused Jack and
oil distribution Weight
for the weight
pipe, andwere HRB400 reinforcement
the counterforce andby
of the jack was borne soil
thebags
weight.used in t
The materials
A 400-ton used for
hydraulic the weight
jack was were
used HRB400
for reinforcement
loading; the jack was and soil
connected bags
project, and the total mass of the weight was required to be slightly greater than the mato used
an oil in the
pump
project, and
an oilthe total masspipe,
of the
andweight was required tojackbe slightly greater than the
imumthrough
load grade. distribution
The jack arrangement the counterforce
is shownofinthe Figurewas4. borne by the weight.
maximum
The loadused
materials grade.
for The jack arrangement
the weight is shown
were HRB400 in Figure and
reinforcement 4. soil bags used in the
project, and the total mass of the weight was required to be slightly greater than the max-
imum load grade. The jack arrangement is shown in Figure 4.

(a) (a) (b) (b)

Figure 4. Loading jack. (a) Hydraulic jack. (b) Pressure gauge.
Figure
Figure 4. Loading
4. Loading jack.(a)
jack. (a)Hydraulic
Hydraulic jack.
jack.(b)(b)
Pressure gauge.
Pressure gauge.
3.2.
3.2. Arrangement
Arrangement of
of the
the Displacement
Displacement and
and Strain
Strain Measurement
Measurement Points
Points
3.2. Arrangement
3.2.1. of theofDisplacement
3.2.1. Arrangement
Arrangement of the andMeasurement
the Displacement
Strain Measurement
Displacement Measurement Points
Points
Points
3.2.1. Arrangement
Four
Four linear of the Displacement
linear variable
variable differential Measurement
differential transformers
transformers (LVDTs) Points
(LVDTs) and four dial indicators were
fixed onon the
thereference
referencebeam
Four linear variable beam with
with
differential a magnetic
a magnetic gaugegauge
transformers base
base(LVDTs)and symmetrically
and symmetrically
and four arranged
arranged
dial along
indicators we
along the circumference
the circumference of the of the
pile topile to measure
measure the displacement.
the displacement. The measurement
The measurement range range
of the
fixedofonthethe
LVDT LVDT reference
was ±was
20 mm,
beam
±20 the
mm, the with a magnetic
measurement
measurement errorerror
gauge
was
was 0.1% 0.1% base
FS,
FS, the theand symmetrically
resolution
resolution wasmm
was 0.1 0.1 mm
and
arrang
alongandthesensitivity
the circumference
the sensitivity
was was of
20 the
20 mV/mm. pile
mV/mm.ThetoThemeasure the
measurement
measurement displacement.
rangerange ofdial
of the dialThe
the indicator measurement
indicator
was 30was 30
mm, ran
of themm,
LVDT
and the was ±20 was
andresolution mm,0.01
the resolution themm.
was measurement
0.01 mm. errormeasurement
The displacement
The displacement wasmeasurement
0.1% FS, the resolution
section
section was was
0.5 m0.5 was
m 0.1 m
from
from
and the thetop.
the pile pileBoth
sensitivity top.was
Both20
ends ends
of the of the reference
reference
mV/mm. beamindependently
beammeasurement
The were were independently
range connected
of theconnected to the
to theindicator
dial circular was
circular
concreteconcrete pier by welding
pier by welding without contacting
without contacting the test
the test pile. The pile.
layoutThe
of layout of the dis-
the displacement
mm, and the resolution was 0.01 mm. The displacement measurement section was 0.5
measurement
placement points and points
measurement reference
andbeam are shown
reference beam inareFigure
shown5.in Figure 5.
from the pile top. Both ends of the reference beam were independently connected to t
circular concrete pier by welding without contacting the test pile. The layout of the d
placement measurement points and reference beam are shown in Figure 5.

(a) (b)
Figure 5. Arrangement
Figure 5. Arrangementofofthe
the displacement
displacement measurement
measurement points.
points. (a) Displacement
(a) Displacement metersmeters
and dialand dial indicators.
indicators. (b) Refer-
(b) Reference beam.
ence beam.

(a) (b)
Sustainability 2021, 13, 13166 5 of 18
Sustainability 2021, 13, 13166 5 5of
of 18
17

3.2.2. Arrangement
3.2.2. Arrangement of the the Strain Measurement
Measurement Points
3.2.2. Arrangement of of the Strain
Strain Measurement Points Points
The purpose
The purpose of of measurement
measurement via via embedded
embedded resistance
resistance strain
strain gauges
gauges was was to to deter-
deter-
mine The
the purpose
strain ofof measurement
each section to via embedded
calculate the resistance
axial force strain
and gauges
shaft was to of
resistance determine
the pile
mine the strain
the strain of eachof each section
section to calculate
to calculate the the
axial axial
force andforce and
shaft shaft resistance
resistance ofthe
thesoil
pile offrom
the pile
the
from
from the
the strain.
strain. In combination
In combination with the distribution
with the distribution characteristics
characteristics of
of thethe layer,
soilfirst
layer, the
the
strain. In
first section combination
section in in this
this test with the distribution
test was selected
selected toto be characteristics
be 3.6
3.6 m
m from
from the of the
the pile soil
pile top, layer,
top, and the section
the other sections
sections
first
in this test was selectedwasto be 3.6 m from the pile top, and the other and
sectionsother
were selected
were
were selected every 3.6 m along the pile length direction. A total of 10 test sections were
everyselected every
3.6 m along 3.6pile
the m along
lengththe pile length
direction. direction.
A total A total
of 10 test of 10were
sections test selected.
sections wereFour
selected. Four
selected. Four resistance
resistance strain
strain gauges
gauges were
were evenly
evenly arranged
arranged around
around the the circumference
circumference of of
resistance strain gauges were evenly arranged around the circumference of the pile on the
the
the pile
pile on the
on thefor inner
inner surface for each section, and the wires were led out to the pile top.
inner surface eachsurface
section,for
andeach
the section, andled
wires were theoutwires were
to the pileled outThus,
top. to the pilewere
there top.
Thus, there
Thus, there were
were 40 40 resistance
resistance strain
strain measurement
measurement points
points for
for the
the test
test pile.
pile. The
The resistance
resistance
40 resistance strain measurement points for the test pile. The resistance of the strain gauge
of the
the strain
strain gauge
gauge waswas 120
120 ±± 0.5
0.5 Ω,
Ω, the
the sensitivity
sensitivity coefficient
coefficient was
was 20 20 ±± 0.01
0.01 and
and the the tem-
of
was 120 ± 0.5 Ω, the sensitivity coefficient was 20 ± 0.01 and the temperature rangetem-
was
perature range was −20 °C–80 °C. The strain gauge arrangement is shown in Figure 6.
−20 ◦ C–80
perature ◦ C. was
range −20 °C–80
The strain gauge°C.arrangement
The strain gauge arrangement
is shown in Figure is6. shown in Figure 6.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure 6. Arrangement of the strain measurement points. (a) Single strain gauge. (b) Strain gauge connection.
Figure 6. Arrangement
Arrangement of the strain measurement points. (a) Single strain gauge. (b) Strain gauge connection.

3.3. Connection
3.3. Connection
3.3. Connection ModeMode of
Mode of Measurement
of Measurement Points
Measurement Points
Points
The test
The test
The data
test data acquisition
data acquisition device
acquisition device was
was aaa Donghua
device was Donghua data
Donghua data acquisition
data acquisition instrument.
acquisition instrument. The wire
instrument. The wire
wire
connection
connection mode
mode was
was
connection mode was based based
based on
on the
the principle
principle of
of Wheatstone
Wheatstone bridges.
bridges.
Wheatstone bridges. The
The displacement
displacement
measurement
measurement points
measurement points were
wereconnected
were connectedby
connected byaaaWheatstone
by Wheatstonehalf-bridge,
Wheatstone half-bridge,
half-bridge, and
and the
thethe
and strain
strain meas-
measure-
strain meas-
urement
ment points
urement points
were
points were
were connected
connected
connected by
by aby a Wheatstone
Wheatstone
a Wheatstone quarter-bridge.
quarter-bridge. DH3815
DH3815
quarter-bridge. V2.0
V2.0V2.0
DH3815 software
software was
software
was
was used
usedused for data
for data
for data reading.
reading. The
TheThe
reading. connection
connection modes
connection modes of the
of the
modes of the measurement
measurement
measurement points
points are
areare
points shown
shown
shownin
in Figure
Figure 7.
in Figure 7. 7.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
7. Connection mode
Connectionmodemode of measurement points. (a) Connection mode of displacement measurement points. (b) Con-
Figure 7.
Figure Connection of of measurement
measurement points.
points. (a) Connection
(a) Connection mode mode of displacement
of displacement measurement
measurement points.
points. (b) Con-
nection mode
(b) Connection of strain measurement points.
nection mode ofmode
strainofmeasurement
strain measurement
points. points.
Sustainability 2021, 13, 13166 6 of 17

3.4. Test Scheme

3.4.1. Loading and Settlement Observation
This test adopted equal graded loading, and the loading amount of each level was
1/10 of the test load. Under the action of a certain load level, when the corresponding
settlement value within 1 h was less than 0.1 mm, the settlement of this level was deemed
stable. Subsequently, the next load level was loaded. The settlement reading time under
each load level was 0, 5, 15, 30, 45 and 60 min, and then every 1 h until the settlement
reached the standard of stability. The loads at all grades of the test pile are shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Current stage load and total load of the test pile.

Current Stage Load Cumulative Load Current Stage Load Cumulative Load
Load Grade Load Grade
(kN) (kN) (kN) (kN)
1 700 700 6 700 4200
2 700 1400 7 700 4900
3 700 2100 8 700 5600
4 700 2800 9 700 6300
5 700 3500 10 700 7000

3.4.2. Unloading and Rebound Observation

Unloading was also carried out in grades, and the unloading amount of each grade
was the value of two load grades. After each grade of load was unloaded, three readings
were taken, the first two at an interval of 15 min and the third at an interval of 30 min,
before proceeding to the next level of unloading. After complete unloading, readings were
taken every 30 min for at least 3 h.

3.4.3. Principles of End Loading

The principles of end loading are as follows [27]:
1. The settlement of the tested pile under a certain load level is greater than five times
that of the previous load level, and the total settlement of the pile top is greater than
40 mm.
2. The settlement of the tested pile under a certain load level is greater than twice that
of the previous level, and it is not stable after 24 h. The total settlement of the pile top
is greater than 40 mm.
3. When the P-s curve slowly changes, the pile can be loaded to the total settlement of
the pile top of 60~80 mm.
4. When the engineering pile is accepted, the load has reached 2.0 times the allowable
bearing capacity or the maximum load required by design, and the settlement has
reached stability.

3.4.4. Evaluation Methods of the Vertical UBC of Pipe Piles

The evaluation methods of the UBC are as follows [27]:
(1) The UBC is determined according to the characteristics of settlement changing with
load: for a steeply changing P-s curve, the load value corresponding to the starting
point of the steep drop is taken.
(2) The UBC is determined according to the characteristics of settlement changing with
time: the load value of the previous grade with prominent downward bending at the
tail of the s-lgt curve is taken.
(3) When the settlement of the tested pile under a certain grade of load is greater than
twice that of the previous grade and is not stable after 24 h and the total settlement
of the pile top is greater than 40 mm, the load value of the previous grade should
be taken.
(4) The slowly changing P-s curve can be determined according to the settlement: the
load corresponding to the pile settlement of 40 mm is taken.
 (4) The slowly changing P-s curve can be determined according to the settlement: the
load corresponding to the pile settlement of 40 mm is taken.
Sustainability 2021, 13, 13166 7 of 17
3.5. Test Results Analysis
3.5.1. Analysis of the Load-Settlement Relationship
3.5. Test
TheResults Analysis
settlement of the test pile under various loads and the cumulative settlement are
3.5.1. Analysis
shown in Tableof
3.the Load-Settlement Relationship
The settlement of the test pile under various loads and the cumulative settlement are
Table 3.
shown in Table 3. Summary of the settlement results.

Load Current Stage Table 3.

Cumulative Load
Summary of the settlement results.
Current Stage Cumulative
(kN) Settlement (mm) Settlement (mm) (kN) Settlement (mm) Settlement (mm)
Load 0 Current Stage0 Cumulative 0 Load5600 Current Stage
2.33 Cumulative
13.16
(kN) 700 Settlement (mm)
1.21 Settlement (mm)
1.21 (kN) 6300 Settlement (mm)
2.62 Settlement
15.77(mm)
0 1400 0 1.26 0 2.47 56007000 2.33 2.93 13.16
18.71
700 2100 1.21 1.31 1.21 3.78 63005600 2.62−0.76 15.77
17.95
1400 1.26 2.47 7000 2.93 18.71
21002800 1.31 1.47 3.78 5.25 56004200 −0.84
−0.76 17.11
17.95
28003500 1.47 1.65 5.25 6.90 42002800 −0.85
−0.84 16.26
17.11
35004200 1.65 1.85 6.90 8.75 28001400 −0.85
−0.95 16.26
15.31
42004900 1.85 2.08 8.75 10.83 1400 0 −0.95
−1.20 15.31
14.11
4900 2.08 10.83 0 −1.20 14.11
The deformation is positive in the downward direction. The data in the table are the readings of the displacement meter
The
whendeformation
loading or is unloading
positive in the
fordownward direction.
2 h, but the Thecorresponds
last item data in the table are the readings
to unloading for 3ofh.the displacement meter when loading or
unloading for 2 h, but the last item corresponds to unloading for 3 h.

According to the corresponding relationship between the load and settlement under
According to the corresponding relationship between the load and settlement under
various
various loads, the P-s
loads, the P-s curve
curve and
and s-lgt
s-lgt curve
curve are
are drawn,
drawn, as
as shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 8.
8.

(a) (b)
Figure 8. Load-settlement relationship. (a) P-s curve. (b) s-lgt curve.

shown in
As shown inTable
Table33andandFigure
Figure8,8,the
thesettlement
settlement of of
thethe pipe
pipe pilepile increases
increases with
with in-
increasing load. When the load does not exceed 2100 kN, the
creasing load. When the load does not exceed 2100 kN, the settlement of the settlement of the pipe pile
exhibits a linear growth relationship with the load, indicating that the pile is in the elastic
stage. When
When thethe value
value is
is greater
greater than
than 2100
2100 kN,kN, the
the growth
growth rate
rate increases
increases continuously,
showing that
showing that the
the pipe
pipe pile
pile enters
enters thethe plastic
plastic working
working state. When the
state. When the load
load grade
grade is
is the
the
maximum, the
maximum, the settlement
settlement is is 18.71
18.71 mm,
mm, and
and there
there isis no
no sharp
sharp increase
increase inin the
the slopes
slopes of
of the
the
P-s curve
P-s curve and
and s-lgt
s-lgt curve,
curve, demonstrating
demonstrating that that the
the soil
soil around
around the
the pile
pile does
does not yield under
not yield under
maximum loading and that the pile has a good bearing capacity. The
maximum loading and that the pile has a good bearing capacity. The final rebound is 4.6 final rebound is
4.6 mm, and the rebound rate is 75.4%, indicating that the settlement of this
mm, and the rebound rate is 75.4%, indicating that the settlement of this test is mainly due test is mainly
due
to to plastic
plastic deformation
deformation of the ofsoil
the around
soil around the pile.
the pile.
3.5.2. Analysis of the Axial Force Transfer of a Pile
According to the strain data of each section of the pile shaft measured by the embedded
concrete strain gauge, the axial force corresponding to each load level can be calculated.
The calculation formula is [26]:
Pi = η A P σi (1)
 3.5.2. Analysis of the Axial Force Transfer of a Pile
According to the strain data of each section of the pile shaft measured by the embed-
ded concrete strain gauge, the axial force corresponding to each load level can be calcu-
Sustainability 2021, 13, 13166 8 of 17
lated. The calculation formula is [26]:

Pi = ηAP σi (1)

In formula, PPi iisisthe

In the above formula, theaxial
axialforce
forceofof the
the pile
pile under
under a grade
a grade i load,
i load, η is ηa is a
cor-
correction factor
rection factor andand is taken
is taken as 1.0,
as 1.0, AP isAPthe
is sectional
the sectional
areaarea ofpile,
of the the pile, σi isaverage
σi is the the average
com-
compressive stress
pressive stress of each
of each section;
section; its value
its value is equal
is equal to the
to the sectional
sectional strain
strain multiplied
multiplied by
by the
the corresponding Young’s
corresponding Young’s modulus. modulus.
The
The axial
axial force
force distribution
distributionisis obtained
obtainedby by arranging
arrangingthe thereadings
readingsof ofthe
thestrain
straingauges
gauges
embedded
embedded in in the
the pile
pile at
at different
differentdepths,
depths,as asshown
shownin inFigure
Figure9.9.

Figure 9.
Figure 9. Axial
Axial force
force distribution
distribution of
of the
the pile
pile along
along its
its depth.
depth.

According
Accordingto toFigure
Figure9, 9,the
the axial
axial force
forceofof the
the pile
pile atat the
the same
same depth
depth increases
increases gradually
gradually
with
with increasing
increasing loadload grade.
grade. Under
Under the
the same
same load
load grade,
grade, thethe axial
axial force
force (AF)
(AF) isisnegatively
negatively
correlated
correlated with
with increasing
increasing depth.
depth. The
The steepness
steepness of of the
the curve
curve indicates
indicates the
the change
change raterate of
of
the
the AF and the exertion degree of the pile shaft resistance (PSR). The steeper
exertion degree of the pile shaft resistance (PSR). The steeper the curve is, the curve
is,
thethe smaller
smaller thethe change
change in AF
in AF andand the degree
the degree of PSR.
of PSR. At theAtbeginning
the beginning of loading,
of loading, the
the curve
curve is generally
is generally steep,steep, indicating
indicating that
that the PSRtheisPSR is small.
small. As theAs theincreases,
load load increases, the curve
the curve grad-
gradually flattens,
ually flattens, indicating
indicating a greater
a greater degreedegree of PSR.
of PSR.
For
For the
the curve
curve under
under aa certain
certain load
load level,
level, the
the steepness
steepnessof ofthe
thecurve
curvein inthe
thedepth
depthrange
range
of more than 22 m is much greater than that in the depth range of less than
of more than 22 m is much greater than that in the depth range of less than 22 m, indicating 22 m, indicating
that
that the
the PSR
PSR below
below 22 22 mm is
is greater.
greater. The
The reasons
reasons forfor this
this trend
trend areare summarized
summarized as as follows:
follows:
the
the soil layer below 22 m is mudstone, with high cohesion and a large internal friction
soil layer below 22 m is mudstone, with high cohesion and a large internal friction
angle,
angle, and
and itit strongly
strongly interacts
interactswith
withthethepile,
pile,resulting
resultingin inPSR.
PSR.
3.5.3. Analysis of the PSR Distribution
3.5.3. Analysis of the PSR Distribution
The PSR can be calculated by using the pile shaft AF of each section. The calculation
The PSR can be calculated by using the pile shaft AF of each section. The calculation
formula is [26]:
formula is [26]: P − Pi
τi = i−1 (2)
U
PiP−1li− Pi
τi = (2)
In the above formula, τ i is the average UP li of section i, Pi and Pi −1 are the AFs
PSR
corresponding to section i and section i − 1, respectively, UP is the average circumference
In the
of a pile aboveand
section, formula,
li is theτilength
is the average
of the pile PSR of section
between i, Pi iand
section andPsection
i−1 are thei −AFs
1. corre-
sponding
The PSRto section
calculatedi and section
based i − 1,
on the AFrespectively,
of each section UP is
is the
shownaverage circumference
in Figure 10. of a
pile section,
Figure 10and li is the
shows thatlength of layer
for a soil the pile between
at the sectionthe
same depth, i and
PSRsection
is smalli −at1.the beginning
The PSR
of loading, andcalculated based on
with increasing loadthegrade,
AF oftheeach PSR section is shown
gradually in Figure
improves. Under10. the same
load grade, the shaft resistance below 22 m is the largest. For the soil above 22 m, the
pile–soil friction in the 7–12 m range is greater when loading at the first grade. With
increasing load grade, the soil layer in the 12–22 m range is mobilized, and the maximum
PSR area gradually moves downward. For the soil layer below 22 m, the PSR also follows
this development trend. The PSR in each soil layer is gradually exerted along with the pile
with increasing load.
Sustainability 2021,
Sustainability 13,13,
2021, 13166
13166 9 of 17

Figure 10. PSR distribution.

Figure 10 shows that for a soil layer at the same depth, the PSR is small at the begin-
ning of loading, and with increasing load grade, the PSR gradually improves. Under the
same load grade, the shaft resistance below 22 m is the largest. For the soil above 22 m,
the pile–soil friction in the 7–12 m range is greater when loading at the first grade. With
increasing load grade, the soil layer in the 12–22 m range is mobilized, and the maximum
PSR area gradually moves downward. For the soil layer below 22 m, the PSR also follows
this development trend. The PSR in each soil layer is gradually exerted along with the pile
with increasing load.
Figure10.10.
Figure PSRPSR distribution.
distribution.

3.5.4. Analysis of PTR

Figure 10 shows that for a soil
In Figure 7, the AF of the pile at 36 mlayer
36 m underat
under
theload
each
each
same
load depth,
grade
grade
the PSRthe
can represent
can represent is small
the pile at th
pile
ning
tip of loading,
resistance (PTR). and with increasing
The variation curve of theload
PTR grade, the PSR gradually
percentage
and its percentage improves. Un
applied
of the load applied
same
with load
load grade,
grade the inshaft
is shown resistance
Figure
Figure 11.
11. below 22 m is the largest. For the soil abov
the pile–soil friction in the 7–12 m range is greater when loading at the first grad
increasing load grade, the soil layer in the 12–22 m range is mobilized, and the m
PSR area gradually moves downward. For the soil layer below 22 m, the PSR also
this development trend. The PSR in each soil layer is gradually exerted along with
with increasing load.

3.5.4. Analysis of PTR

In Figure 7, the AF of the pile at 36 m under each load grade can represent
tip resistance (PTR). The variation curve of the PTR and its percentage of the load
with load grade is shown in Figure 11.

(a) (b)
Figure 11.
Figure 11. Variation
VariationininPTR
PTRand
anditsitspercentage
percentageof of
thethe load
load applied
applied with
with load
load grade.
grade. (a) Value
(a) Value of PTR.
of PTR. (b) Percentage
(b) Percentage of
of PTR
PTR
to to loading.
loading.

Figure 11
11 show
showthatthatwith
withincreasing load
increasing grade,
load thethe
grade, PTRPTRgradually increases,
gradually the per-
increases, the
percentage of PTR
centage of PTR alsoalso
hashas
thethe
samesame change
change trend,
trend, andand
thethe relationship
relationship between
between thethe
twotwo
in-
increases exponentially.AtAtthe
creases exponentially. thebeginning
beginningofofloading,
loading,the
the pile
pile bearing
bearing capacity
capacity is mainly
mainly
provided
provided by
by the
the PSR,
PSR, and
and the
the PTR
PTR is 56.04 kN, accounting
accounting for
for only
only 8.01%.
8.01%. At the maximum
maximum
load grade tested, the PTR is 2009.14
2009.14 kN, accounting
accounting for 27.70%,
27.70%, which is is aa contribution
contribution
that cannot be ignored.

4. Numerical Analysis
In this section, ABAQUS V6.14 is used to establish the pile–soil interaction model.
The temperature, Young’s modulus of the soil at the pile tip, pile–soil friction coefficient,
pile length and the ratio of the outer diameter to the inner diameter are selected as control
factors(a)to explore their impact on the UBC of pipe piles to provide
(b) a reference for follow-
up studies.
Figure 11. Variation in PTR and its percentage of the load applied with load grade. (a) Value of PTR. (b) Percentag
PTR to loading.

Figure 11 show that with increasing load grade, the PTR gradually increases,
centage of PTR also has the same change trend, and the relationship between the
 4. Numerical Analysis
In this section, ABAQUS V6.14 is used to establish the pile–soil interaction model.
The temperature, Young’s modulus of the soil at the pile tip, pile–soil friction coefficient,
Sustainability 2021, 13, 13166 10 of 17
pile length and the ratio of the outer diameter to the inner diameter are selected as control
factors to explore their impact on the UBC of pipe piles to provide a reference for follow-
up studies.
4.1. Finite Element Model
4.1. Finite Element Model
4.1.1. Model Description
4.1.1. Model Description
Since the pile–soil structure is an axisymmetric structure and the research object is the
Since the pile–soil structure is an axisymmetric structure and the research object is
vertical bearing
the vertical bearing capacity of the
capacity pile,
of the to reduce
pile, to reduce the
thenumber
numberof of calculations,
calculations, aa1/2-pile-
1/2-pile-soil
model
soil model is established for research. The finite element model applied to the analysisadopts
is established for research. The finite element model applied to the analysis
hexahedral elementselements
adopts hexahedral called C3D8. The Young
called C3D8. modulus
The Young of concrete
modulus is 38is GPa,
of concrete thethe
38 GPa, Poisson
ratio is 0.3,ratio
and is
the density isdensity
2500 kg/m 3 . The soil model 72 mis×7236mm× ×
Poisson 0.3, and the is 2500 kg/m3. The soil is
model 36 18
m m,
× 18the
m,Mohr–
Coulomb yield criterion
the Mohr–Coulomb yieldiscriterion
adopted, and theand
is adopted, parameters, cohesion
the parameters, andand
cohesion internal
internalfriction
friction
angle used angle
are used
shown are shown
in Table in Table
1. The 1. The pile–soil
pile–soil interactionisissimulated
interaction simulated by byface-to-
face-to-face
face contact,
contact, its tangential
its tangential behavior
behavior adopts
adopts a penaltyfunction,
a penalty function, the
the friction
frictioncoefficient
coefficient is is 0.3,
and 0.3,
theand the normal
normal contact
contact type type
is is hardcontact.
hard contact. ToTosimulate
simulate thethe
state of the
state of pipe pile and
the pipe pile and
soil,
soil, thethe boundaryconditions
boundary conditions of ofthe
themodel
modelare setset
are as as
follows: the bottom
follows: layerlayer
the bottom of theofsoil
the soil
constrains the degrees of freedom in all directions, the sides of the soil constrain the de-
constrains the degrees of freedom in all directions, the sides of the soil constrain the degrees
grees of freedom in the normal direction, and the other degrees of freedom are free. The
of freedom in the normal direction, and the other degrees of freedom are free. The pipe
pipe pile constrains the lateral freedom only, and the other degrees are placed freely. The
pilemodel
constrains
is showntheinlateral
Figurefreedom
12. only, and the other degrees are placed freely. The model
is shown in Figure 12.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 12.12. Finite
Finite elementmodel.
element model. (a)
(a) Boundary
Boundaryconditions.
conditions.(b)(b)
Meshing.
Meshing.

4.1.2.
4.1.2. ModelVerification
Model Verification
To verify the accuracy of the model, the following steps are taken: the model is loaded
To verify the accuracy of the model, the following steps are taken: the model is loaded
Sustainability 2021, 13, 13166 step by step according to the grades in Table 2, and the resulting P-s curve is drawn and11 of 18
step by step according to the grades in Table 2, and the resulting P-s curve is drawn and
compared with the test results. A comparison of the results is shown in Figure 13.
compared with the test results. A comparison of the results is shown in Figure 13.

Figure 13. Comparison between model results and

and test
test results.
results.

As shown in Figure 13, the change trends of the test and model P-s curves are basi-
cally the same. The model settlement is 19.78 mm, the test settlement is 18.71 mm and the
relative error between them is 5.4%. Therefore, this model can accurately reflect the work-
Sustainability 2021, 13, 13166 11 of 17

As shown in Figure 13, the change trends of the test and model P-s curves are basically
the same. The model settlement is 19.78 mm, the test settlement is 18.71 mm and the
relative error between them is 5.4%. Therefore, this model can accurately reflect the
working situation of pipe piles.

4.2. Analysis of Key Factors

4.2.1. Influence of Temperature
The influence of temperature on the UBC of pipe piles cannot be ignored [28,29].
Based on the finite element model described in Section 4.1, a thermal load is applied on the
pile surface and soil surface to transfer the temperature along the depth of the soil to study
the variation in the pipe pile bearing capacity under the action of temperature.
In the ABAQUS model, the initial temperature of the soil is 0 ◦ C, and the temperature
of the lower surface of the soil is 0 ◦ C; the temperature of the upper surface of the soil is
changed to 0 ◦ C, −1 ◦ C, −2 ◦ C, −3 ◦ C, −4 ◦ C and −5 ◦ C. The thermal parameters of the
concrete and soil involved in this simulation are shown in Table 4.

Table 4. Thermal parameters of concrete and soil.

Volumetric Heat Capacity Thermal Conductivity Coefficient of Expansion

Name
(W/(m·◦ C)) (kJ/(m3 ·◦ C)) (1/◦ C)
Concrete 1.28 2425 1 × 10−5
Silty clay 0.26 1254 1 × 10−5
Coarse grit 0.98 1400 1 × 10−5
Weathered sandstone 1.09 1560 1 × 10−5
Mudstone 4.5 3560 1 × 10−5

Sustainability 2021, 13, 13166 The analysis is performed as follows: the calculation results of the model pile12 oftop
18
displacement are extracted and the UBC according to the evaluation method is listed in
Section 3.4.4. The results are shown in Figure 14 (the initial value is 10,400 kN).

(a) (b)
Figure 14. Variation in the UBC of pipe pile with temperature.
temperature. (a) P-s curve. (b)
(b) Ratio
Ratio of the current value to the initial
value.
value.

According
According to to Figure
Figure 14a, the low-temperature
low-temperature environment
environment has has an impact on the
UBC of
UBC of pipe
pipe piles that cannot be ignored. Under Under the same load, when the temperature is
lower than ◦ C, the settlement of
than 00 °C,
lower the settlement of the pile is less than that under a normal-temperature
environment, and
environment, and the settlement gradually decreases with decreasing temperature. The
reasons for this
reasons this trend
trendarearesummarized
summarizedasas follows:
follows:in in
thethe
low-temperature
low-temperature environment,
environment,the
soil soil
the freezes, and and
freezes, the freezing stressstress
the freezing between the pile
between theand
pilesoil
andproduces a certain
soil produces resistance,
a certain re-
which reduces the settlement of the pile. When the ground temperature is − 1 ◦ C, the
sistance, which reduces the settlement of the pile. When the ground temperature is −1 °C,
temperature
the temperature is transmitted downward,
is transmitted downward,and the
andsoil
thelayer near the
soil layer ground
near beginsbegins
the ground to freeze.
to
freeze. With decreasing temperature, the freezing depth deepens. When the ground tem-
perature is −5 °C, the depth of frozen soil around the pile reaches the maximum obtained
in this study, and the freezing strength between the pile and soil is also the maximum.
Thus, the load resistance capacity is the maximum and the settlement of the pile is the
 Sustainability 2021, 13, 13166 12 of 17

With decreasing temperature, the freezing depth deepens. When the ground temperature
is −5 ◦ C, the depth of frozen soil around the pile reaches the maximum obtained in this
study, and the freezing strength between the pile and soil is also the maximum. Thus, the
load resistance capacity is the maximum and the settlement of the pile is the minimum.
In Figure 14b, the UBC of a pipe pile gradually increases with decreasing temperature:
when the temperature is −1 ◦ C, the ratio is 1.02; when the temperature is −5 ◦ C, the ratio
is 1.30. In addition, the growth trend gradually increases. With the decrease in surface
temperature, the difference between the surface and the deeper soil increases, the transfer
rate of temperature in the soil accelerates and the soil within a larger depth range freezes
to enhance the UBC of the pile.

4.2.2. Influence of the Young Modulus of the Soil at the Pile Tip
The mechanical characteristics of the soil at the pile tip, as the bearing stratum of
pile foundations, play an important role in the UBC of pile foundations. Especially for
end-bearing piles, the UBC is mainly provided by the soil at the pile tip [30]. Based on the
finite element model in Section 4.1, the Young modulus of the soil at the pile tip is changed
to explore the variation in the UBC of the pile according to the P-s curves obtained under
different conditions. The values of the Young modulus of the soil at the pile tip considered
are shown in Table 5.

Table 5. Young’s moduli of the soil at the pile tip.

Condition Condition 1 Condition 2 Condition 3 Condition 4 Condition 5

Young’s modulus (MPa) 100 200 400 800 2000
Sustainability 2021, 13, 13166 13 of 18
The calculation results of the model pile top displacement are shown in the broken
line diagram in Figure 15 (the initial value is 10,400 kN).

(a) (b)
Figure 15.15.
Figure Variation
Variationininthe
theUBC
UBCof ofaapipe
pipe pile
pile with the Young
with the Youngmodulus
modulusofofthe
thesoil
soil
atat the
the pile
pile tip.tip.
(a)(a)
P-sP-s curve.
curve. (b)(b) Ratio
Ratio of of
thethe
current value
current valuetotothe
theinitial
initialvalue.
value.

Asshown
As shownininFigure
Figure15a,
15a, the
the effect
effect of of
thethe Young
Young modulus
modulus of the
of the soilsoil at pile
at the the pile tip
tip cannot
be underestimated. The larger the Young modulus is, the smaller the settlement of theof
cannot be underestimated. The larger the Young modulus is, the smaller the settlement pipe
thefoundation
pile pipe pile foundation
under theunder
same the
loadsame
level.load level. Conditions
Conditions 1–4 show1–4 show
steep steep changes,
changes, and condi-
and5condition
tion shows slow5 shows slowDue
changes. changes.
to the Due to the
fact that fact
the that the
Young Young
moduli ofmoduli
conditionsof conditions
1–4 are very
1–4 are very small, the excessive load causes shear failure at the pile–soil
small, the excessive load causes shear failure at the pile–soil contact interface and contact interface
a rapid
and a rapid increase in settlement. When the Young modulus of the soil at the pile
increase in settlement. When the Young modulus of the soil at the pile tip is large, the soil
tip is large, the soil can provide a strong PTR for the pile foundation, so there is no
can provide a strong PTR for the pile foundation, so there is no abrupt change.
abrupt change.
According to Figure 15b, the UBC gradually improves with increasing the Young
modulus. When the Young modulus is 100 MPa, the ratio is 0.48, and when the Young
modulus is 2000 MPa, the ratio is 1.00. Although the Young modulus increases by 20
times, the bearing capacity only doubles. The growth rate gradually decreases.

4.2.3. Influence Analysis of the Pile-Soil Friction Coefficient

 Sustainability 2021, 13, 13166 13 of 17

According to Figure 15b, the UBC gradually improves with increasing the Young
modulus. When the Young modulus is 100 MPa, the ratio is 0.48, and when the Young
modulus is 2000 MPa, the ratio is 1.00. Although the Young modulus increases by 20 times,
the bearing capacity only doubles. The growth rate gradually decreases.

4.2.3. Influence Analysis of the Pile-Soil Friction Coefficient

Based on the finite element model in Section 4.1, the pile–soil friction coefficient is
changed to explore the variation in the UBC of the pile according to the P-s curve under
different conditions. The values of the pile–soil friction coefficient considered are shown in
Table 6.

Table 6. Pile-soil friction coefficients.

Condition Condition 1 Condition 2 Condition 3 Condition 4 Condition 5

Friction coefficient 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

Sustainability 2021, 13, 13166 14 of 18

The calculation results of the model pile top displacement are shown in the broken
line diagram in Figure 16 (the initial value is 10,400 kN).

(a) (b)
Figure 16.16.
Figure Variation
Variationininthe
theUBC
UBCofofaapipe
pipe pile
pile with
with the pile-soil
pile-soil friction
frictioncoefficient.
coefficient.(a)
(a)P-s
P-scurve.
curve.
(b)(b) Ratio
Ratio of of
thethe current
current
value to to
value thethe
initial value.
initial value.

InInFigure
Figure16a,
16a, the
the P-s
P-s curves
curves of of different
differentfriction
frictioncoefficients
coefficientshave
havethethe
same
same change
change
trend, all showing a slow change. Under the same grade load, the larger
trend, all showing a slow change. Under the same grade load, the larger the friction coef- the friction
coefficient
ficient is, smaller
is, the the smaller
thethe
pilepile settlement.As
settlement. Asthe
thefriction
friction coefficient
coefficientincreases,
increases, thethe
PSRPSRof of
the same section also increases, which strongly resists pipe pile settlement.
the same section also increases, which strongly resists pipe pile settlement.
According to Figure 16b, the larger the friction coefficient is, the greater the UBC.
According to Figure 16b, the larger the friction coefficient is, the greater the UBC.
When the friction coefficient increases by 0.1, the ratio increases by approximately 0.13.
When the friction coefficient increases by 0.1, the ratio increases by approximately 0.13.
When the friction coefficient is 0.7, the ratio is 1.51. The trend is approximately linear. In
When the engineering
practical friction coefficient is 0.7,appropriate
applications, the ratio ismeasures
1.51. Theshould
trendbeis adopted
approximately linear.
to increase the In
practical engineering
friction coefficient. applications, appropriate measures should be adopted to increase
the friction coefficient.
4.2.4. Influence Analysis of Pile Length
4.2.4. Influence
When the Analysis of Pile of
bearing capacity Length
a pile is not sufficient to maintain the stability of the su-
perstructure
When theit bearing
is supporting, increasing
capacity of a pilethe pilesufficient
is not length is anto effective
maintainmethod of correcting
the stability of the su-
this issue [30]. Based on the finite element model in Section 4.1, the pile length is
perstructure it is supporting, increasing the pile length is an effective method of correcting changed
to explore
this theBased
issue [31]. variation in the
on the UBC
finite of themodel
element pile according
in Sectionto4.1,
the the
P-s pile
curve under
length isdifferent
changed to
working conditions. The values of the pile length considered are shown in
explore the variation in the UBC of the pile according to the P-s curve under different Table 7. work-
ing conditions. The values of the pile length considered are shown in Table 7.

Table 7. Pile lengths.

Condition Condition 1 Condition 2 Condition 3 Condition 4 Condition 5

Pile length 12 18 24 30 36
Sustainability 2021, 13, 13166 14 of 17

Table 7. Pile lengths.

Condition Condition 1 Condition 2 Condition 3 Condition 4 Condition 5

Pile length 12 18 24 30 36

Sustainability 2021, 13, 13166 15 of 18

The calculation results of the model pile top displacement are shown in the broken
line diagram in Figure 17 (the initial value is 10,400 kN).

(a) (b)
Figure17.
Figure 17.Variation
Variationininthe
the UBC
UBC of of a pipe
a pipe pilepile
withwith
pilepile length.
length. (a)curve.
(a) P-s P-s curve. (b) Ratio
(b) Ratio of theof the current
current value
value to to thevalue.
the initial initial
value.
According to Figure 17a, under the same load grade, the settlement decreases with
According
increasing to Figure
pile length. The17a,
P-sunder
curvesthe cansame load grade,into
be categorized the twosettlement
types: piledecreases
lengths withof
increasing
12 m and 18pile length. ThetoP-s
m correspond curves
steep can be
change; categorized
pile lengths of 24 intom,two30 m types:
and pile
36 mlengths
correspondof 12
to
m slow
and 18change. When thetopile
m correspond length
steep is 12 pile
change; m, the soil layer
lengths of 24where
m, 30the pile 36
m and is located is silty
m correspond
clay, which
to slow is a relatively
change. When theweak soil layer,
pile length is 12 and
m, theonlysoilthe PSRwhere
layer provides the capacity
the pile is locatedfor the
is silty
pile. When the load reaches a certain value, the soil around the
clay, which is a relatively weak soil layer, and only the PSR provides the capacity for the pile yields, the pile–soil
contact interface
pile. When undergoes
the load reachesshear sliding,
a certain andthe
value, thesoil
settlement
around the increases rapidly.
pile yields, theThis also
pile–soil
occurs
contactwith a pileundergoes
interface length of 18shear m. At 24 m, the
sliding, andpipe pile is supported
the settlement increasesby mudstone,
rapidly. This which
also
provides
occurs with a large
a pilePTR for the
length of 18pile
m.and hinders
At 24 m, theitspipe
settlement. Therefore,bythe
pile is supported corresponding
mudstone, which
settlement
provides acurvelarge does
PTR not change
for the pile sharply.
and hindersAs theitspile length increases,
settlement. Therefore, anthe
increasing length
corresponding
of the pile is embedded in the mudstone, resulting in friction
settlement curve does not change sharply. As the pile length increases, an increasing between the mudstone and
the pipe pile, which also hinders the settlement.
length of the pile is embedded in the mudstone, resulting in friction between the mud-
stoneAccording
and the pipe to Figure 17b, an
pile, which increase
also hinders in the
pilesettlement.
length can remarkably increase the UBC,
especially when the pile length increases from
According to Figure 17b, an increase in pile length 18 m to 24 m.canThe ratio increases
remarkably increase from the0.12
UBC, to
0.74, almostwhen
especially five-fold. Thelength
the pile reasonincreases
is that when
fromthe 18 pile
m tois24short
m. Theandratio
supported
increases by the
from weak
0.12
soil
to 0.74, almost five-fold. The reason is that when the pile is short and supported by the
layer, increasing the pile length essentially increases the friction area and improves the
PSR.
weakAs thelayer,
soil length of the pipe
increasing thepile
pileincreases, when it passes
length essentially increasesthrough the weak
the friction areasoil
and layer
im-
and intothe
proves thePSR.
hard Assoil
thelayer
length orofrock
the stratum,
pipe pilein additionwhen
increases, to theit friction resistance
passes through theofweakthe
upper soil layer, PTR arises, which greatly improves the UBC of the
soil layer and into the hard soil layer or rock stratum, in addition to the friction resistance pile.
of the upper soil layer, PTR arises, which greatly improves the UBC of the pile.
4.2.5. Influence Analysis of the Ratio of the Pile’s Outer Diameter to Inner Diameter
4.2.5.Increasing the pile diameter
Influence Analysis is also
of the Ratio of thea Pile’s
way to improve
Outer its UBC
Diameter [31]. Diameter
to Inner Based on the
finite element model in Section 4.1, the ratio of the outer diameter to the inner diameter is
Increasing the pile diameter is also a way to improve its UBC [31]. Based on the finite
changed to explore the variation in the UBC of the pile according to the P-s curve under
element model in Section 4.1, the ratio of the outer diameter to the inner diameter is
different working conditions. The values of this ratio considered are shown in Table 8.
changed to explore the variation in the UBC of the pile according to the P-s curve under
different
Table 8.working
Ratios ofconditions. The values
the outer diameter to the of thisdiameter.
inner ratio considered are shown in Table 8.

Condition ConditionTable
1 Condition
8. Ratios 2
of the outer Condition
diameter 3
to the inner Condition 4
diameter. Condition 5
Ratio 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9
Condition Condition 1 Condition 2 Condition 3 Condition 4 Condition 5
Ratio 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9

The calculation results of the model pile top displacement are shown in the broken
line diagram in Figure 18 (the initial value is 10,400 kN).
Sustainability 2021, 13, 13166 15 of 17

Sustainability 2021, 13, 13166 16 of 18

The calculation results of the model pile top displacement are shown in the broken
line diagram in Figure 18 (the initial value is 10,400 kN).

(a) (b)
Figure18.
Figure 18. Variation
Variationin
inthe
theUBC
UBCof ofthe
thepipe
pipepile
pilewith
withthe
theratio
ratioof
ofthe
theouter
outerdiameter
diameter to
to the
the inner
inner diameter.
diameter. (a)
(a) P-s
P-s curve.
curve.
(b)Ratio
(b) Ratioof
ofthe
thecurrent
currentvalue
valuetotothe
theinitial
initialvalue.
value.

As
As shown
shown in Figure 18a, the P-s P-s curves
curves of of the
the pile
pileunder
underthethefive
fiveconditions
conditionsshow
showa
aslow
slowchange.
change. Under
Under thethe
samesame
gradegrade
load,load, as outer
as the the outer diameter
diameter increases,
increases, thesettle-
the pile pile
settlement
ment gradually decreases because with the increase in the outer diameter, the pile pile
gradually decreases because with the increase in the outer diameter, the side
side
areaarea increases,
increases, the the pile–soil
pile–soil contact
contact area
area increases,and
increases, andthethePSR
PSR significantly
significantly increases,
increases,
which
whichhinders
hinderssettlement.
settlement.
According
According to to Figure
Figure 18b,
18b, the
the UBC
UBC gradually
gradually increases
increases with
with an
anincreasing
increasingdiameter
diameter
ratio.
ratio. When
When thethe ratio
ratio increases
increases from
from 1.5
1.5 to
to 1.9,
1.9, the
the ratio
ratio of
of UBC
UBC increases
increases from
from 1.16
1.16 to
to 1.77.
1.77.
The effect of increasing the pile diameter on the UBC is
The effect of increasing the pile diameter on the UBC is unambiguous.unambiguous.

5.
5. Conclusions
Conclusions
In
In this
this paper,
paper,first,
first, the
the load
load transfer
transfer ofof pipe
pipe piles
piles was
was analyzed
analyzed through
through an SLT. Then,
an SLT. Then,
pile–soil interaction models were established, and different control parameters are selected
pile–soil interaction models were established, and different control parameters are se-
to determine the influence of each parameter on the UBC of the pile in multilayer soil. The
lected to determine the influence of each parameter on the UBC of the pile in multilayer
results are as follows:
soil. The results are as follows:
(1) In this test, the maximum settlement of the pipe pile is 18.71 mm, the corresponding
(1) In this test, the maximum settlement of the pipe pile is 18.71 mm, the corresponding
load is 7000 kN, the final rebound after unloading is 4.6 mm, and the rebound rate is
load is 7000 kN, the final rebound after unloading is 4.6 mm, and the rebound rate is
75.4%. The soil layer below 22 m results in the largest pile–soil friction, a maximum of
75.4%. The soil layer below 22 m results in the largest pile–soil friction, a maximum
105 kPa, which plays the most important role in the UBC of pipe piles. The PTR and
of 105 kPa, which plays the most important role in the UBC of pipe piles. The PTR
its percentage in terms of the load applied increase exponentially with increasing load
and its percentage in terms of the load applied increase exponentially with increasing
grade. The maximum PTR and its percentage are 2009.14 kN and 27.7%, respectively,
load grade. The maximum PTR and its percentage are 2009.14 kN and 27.7%, respec-
and the effect of the PTR should not be neglected.
tively, and the effect of the PTR should not be neglected.
(2) A low-temperature environment can produce freezing stress at pile–soil interfaces.
(2) TheA low-temperature
lower the temperatureenvironment can produce
is, the stronger freezing
the freezing stress
stress andat the
pile–soil
greaterinterfaces.
the UBC
The lower the temperature is, the stronger the freezing
of the pile. The UBC of a pipe pile gradually increases with decreasing stress and the greater the UBC
temperature,
of the pile. The UBC of a pipe
and the growth trend gradually increases.pile gradually increases with decreasing temperature,
(3) and the growth
The smaller trend gradually
the Young modulus of increases.
the pile tip soil is, the smaller the UBC of the pipe
(3) pile.
The smaller
When thethe Young
Young modulus
modulus of is the
100pile
MPa,tipthe
soilratio
is, the
is smaller
0.48, and thewhen
UBC theof the pipe
Young
pile. When the Young modulus is 100 MPa, the ratio is 0.48,
modulus is 2000 MPa, the ratio is 1.00. Thus, when the Young modulus increases by and when the Young
modulus is 2000
20 times, the MPa,capacity
bearing the ratioonly
is 1.00. Thus,The
doubles. when the Young
growth modulusdecreases.
rate gradually increases by
20 times, the bearing capacity only doubles. The growth rate gradually
(4) The UBC of the pipe pile is linearly related to the friction coefficient. When the friction decreases.
(4) The UBC of
coefficient the pipebypile
increases 0.1,isthe
linearly related tobythe
ratio increases friction coefficient.
approximately 0.13. TheWhen theratio
largest fric-
tion coefficient
is 1.51, and the increases
corresponding by 0.1,friction
the ratio increasesisby
coefficient approximately 0.13. The largest
0.7.
ratio is 1.51, and the corresponding friction coefficient is 0.7.
(5) When the pile length increases from 18 m to 24 m, the ratio increases from 0.12 to
0.74, almost fivefold. This is because increasing the pile length changes the bearing
layer of the pipe pile and produces PTR.
Sustainability 2021, 13, 13166 16 of 17

(5) When the pile length increases from 18 m to 24 m, the ratio increases from 0.12 to 0.74,
almost fivefold. This is because increasing the pile length changes the bearing layer
of the pipe pile and produces PTR.
(6) When the ratio of the outer diameter to the inner diameter increases from 1.5 to 1.9,
the ratio of the UBC increases from 1.16 to 1.77, showing approximately linear growth.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, X.L., H.X. and Q.G.; methodology, X.L., Q.G. and Z.S.;
software, J.Z. and H.X.; validation, X.L., H.X. and Z.S.; formal analysis, X.L. and J.Z.; investigation,
H.X. and J.Z.; resources, X.L. and H.X.; data curation, J.Z. and Q.G.; writing—original draft prepara-
tion, X.L. and J.Z.; writing—review and editing, Z.S. and Q.G.; supervision, Z.S. and Q.G.; project
administration, X.L. and H.X.; funding acquisition, Q.G. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This study is supported by the Key Research and Development Program of Shandong
Province of China (Grant No: 2019JZZY010427).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interest or
personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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