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UHPC Evolution, Development, and Utilization in Construction: A Review

M.A. Bajaber, I.Y. Hakeem

PII: S2238-7854(20)32127-X
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2020.12.051
Reference: JMRTEC 2551

To appear in: Journal of Materials Research and Technology

Received Date: 12 August 2020

Revised Date: 2 December 2020
Accepted Date: 17 December 2020

Please cite this article as: Bajaber MA, Hakeem IY, UHPC Evolution, Development, and Utilization
in Construction: A Review, Journal of Materials Research and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.jmrt.2020.12.051.

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 1 UHPC Evolution, Development, and Utilization in Construction: A Review

2 Bajaber, M. A. a* and Hakeem, I. Y. a

a
3 Civil Engineering Department, Najran University, King Abdulaziz Road, P.O Box 1988 Najran,
4 Saudi Arabia
*
5 Corresponding author: md.bajaber@gmail.com

6 ABSTRACT

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7 An advanced development in construction industry was achieved by applying ultra-high-performance

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8 concrete technology (UHPC). Intensive research efforts had been concentrated in construction to

9 produced amazing levels of qualities with strength greater than 150 MPa and high durability that had

10
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never been thought possible before. With this technology, it is possible to construct structures beyond
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11 the usual designs but with limited use in construction since it is not commercially viable to replace
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12 conventional concrete in most applications. This is attributed to the high cost of materials, the lack of
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13 their availability, limited design codes, and complicated manufacturing and curing techniques. This

14 paper reviews the evolution of UHPC and the suggested ideas to replace its expensive composites by
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15 cementitious materials. However, concrete made with these alternative materials will not be of the
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16 same quality as the standard UHPC. Another promising choice, which seems to be more practical and

17 easier to promote UHPC technology in construction, is looming on the horizon. It is based on the

18 utilization of UHPC in hybrid structures by combining UHPC with other construction materials. The

19 cost of production will hopefully be reduced with such composite structures that have the advantages

20 of the combined materials. Therefore, it is recommended to continue research into this choice which

21 will increase the potential of UHPC to be more accepted in many different construction applications.

22 Keywords: Ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC), fundamental, raw materials, properties,

23 application.

1
24 1. Introduction

25 Historically, concrete has been used in construction since Roman times. Roman

26 concrete consisted of aggregates such as pieces of rocks, bricks, or ceramic tiles,

27 with gypsum and quicklime as a binding material, and volcanic dust called

28 pozzolana to resist salt water [1]. It was used in many Roman structures, like the

29 Colosseum, an open-air venue [2], and the Pantheon, a former Roman temple [3].

30 After that, the use of Roman materials was reduced, with builders depending on the

use of stones and mortar.

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31

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32 However, modern concrete was introduced in the 19th century. It was developed

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extensively during the 20th century, as a major component of most construction and
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34 building operations. It has become one of the most frequently used materials
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35 everywhere in construction. By the turn of this century, an amazing advanced

36 development in concrete was accomplished by applying ultra-high-performance

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37 concrete technology, known by the acronym, UHPC. This new technology allowed
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38 amazing levels of qualities that had never been thought possible before. The major
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39 significance of this paper is to: represent all important components and

40 characteristics of the ultra-high performance concrete; highlight the UHPC

41 applications in construction; and introduce the field of designing structures either by

42 UHPC alone or UHPC with other construction materials that are friendly to the

43 environment, less costs, and more strong and durable. Figure 1 shows the

44 breakdown structure of this brief review including three basic headings: modern

45 concrete and UHPC evolution; the supplementary materials used to enhance UHPC

46 in construction; and the general applications and hybrid utilization of UHPC in

47 construction.

2
 UHPC Evolution, Development and Utilization in Construction: A Brief Review

2 3 4
1 5
Modern Concrete & UHPC Alternative UHPC Applications and
Introduction Conclusion
Evolution Materials for UHPC Hybrid Innovations

3.1 4.1
2.1 2.2
Supplementary General UHPC
Traditional New Generation of Modern
Cementitious Applications in
Production Concrete
Materials Construction

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2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.2.4 3.2 4.2
Principles & UHPC UHPC Basic UHPC Alternative fibre Utilization of UHPC in
Definition Components Characteristics Standards Materials Hybrid Structures
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Figure 1 Breakdown structure for the brief review
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48 2. Modern Concrete and UHPC Evolution

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49 2.1 Traditional Production

50 Modern concrete began with sand and different sizes of gravel, which were mixed in the

51 presence of water with the great binding material, Portland cement, which binds all

52 aggregates together into stone-like material [4]. Portland cement was invented by Joseph

53 Aspdin in 1824; it is made by heating and grinding the minerals of limestone and clay with a

54 small addition of gypsum. Later, it was advanced by his son, William Aspdin in the 1840s

55 [5]. The plain concrete made of Portland cement and aggregates is usually considered as the

56 first generation of concrete [4].

57 However, this concrete was associated with a lack of tensile strength and ductility, leading

58 to failure in beam and slab structures. Accordingly, this led to the second generation of

3
59 concrete, in which reinforcement with steel bars was thought to be a solution to these

60 problems. Joseph Monier and Francois Coignet were the first pioneers of concrete

61 reinforcement during the second half of the 19th century. They granted many patents for

62 reinforcing different types of structures. Since then, the combination of steel bars and

63 concrete was the dominant construction material throughout the 19th and 20th centuries.

64 Figure 2 shows the increase in the compressive strength of concrete during the 20th century.

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Compressive strength (Mpa)

Compressive strength (ksi)

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Figure 2 The increase in compressive strength of concrete

over 100 years (Spasojevic, [7])

65 As shown in the figure, the compressive strength was between 20 to 40 MPa during the first

66 half of the century [6].

67 After the middle of the 20th century, a challenge arose to increase the strength to carry

68 greater loads for more advanced constructions. During those decades, the compressive

69 strength exceeded 40 MPa, as shown in figure 2 [4]. This was achieved through careful

70 selection of aggregates since weak ones may not be strong enough to carry heavy loads, and

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71 through decreasing the ratio of water to binder material. This ratio is inversely proportional to

Compressive strength (MPa)

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W/B
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Figure 3 The relationship of compressive strength with water:binder (w/b) ratio

(Yang et al., [9])
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72 the compressive strength, as shown by figure 3. The reduction of water content was possible
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73 through the invention of water-reducing admixtures [8] which enable the engineers to

74 increase the strength without affecting workability.

75 2.2 New Generation of Modern Concrete

76 2.2.1 Principles and Definition

77 In spite of the previous improvements, still there was a need for: (a) concrete

78 with higher strength; (b) a solution to stop the penetration of Chloride ions and

79 other harmful materials into the concrete which would lead to iron rebar corrosion

80 and poor concrete durability; and (c) alternative materials that could substitute

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81 Portland cement to reduce the CO2 emissions discharged into the atmosphere during

82 cement production.

83 Accordingly, Ultra-High-Performance Concrete or UHPC was developed as a new

84 concrete technology that could meet the desired criteria. Its development is based on the

85 understanding that lowering the water to cement ratio is not enough alone to achieve the

86 required properties. In addition, an optimized packing is required of fine and ultrafine

87 particles; the size distribution, as well as the shape and texture quality of these particles must

all be carefully controlled [10, 11].

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88

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89 Figure 4 illustrates the difference of the packing system between UHPC and conventional

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concrete. As shown in the figure, the density of the UHPC matrix is more enhanced. This
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91 requires coarse aggregates to be eliminated and ultrafine particles to be distributed at the
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92 microstructure level to fill the voids between larger particles [12]. Improvement in the UHPC

93 packing system will surely increase strength and enhance durability and the overall
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P
h<H Conventional
UHPC
Concrete
P

Conventiona
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H Concrete
UHPC h

Figure 4 Traditional concrete versus UHPC (Mishra and Singh, [13])

6
 94 performance of UHPC concrete.

95 In fact, UHPC is a new form of concrete with a new type of composite

96 construction material. Its high compressive strength and ductility are achieved by an

97 optimized packing of fine and ultrafine particles, as well as the inclusion of steel

98 fibres. This optimization, in particular, will evenly distribute all particles at the

99 micro scale to pack the spaces, surrounded by larger particles. Accordingly, a dense

100 matrix is achieved with low permeability, to provide a concrete with superior

properties [10, 14, 15, 16].

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102 Different definitions have been given to UHPC. Some researchers define the term based

103 -p
on its major components. For example, Farzad et al. [17] defines UHPC as a cement-based
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104 material formed with an enhanced gradation of granular components, a water-to-cementitious
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105 materials ratio less than 0.2, and a significant portion of internal fibers. Mishra & Singh [13]

106 define UHPC as a special type of concrete that consist of highly fine-grained reactive
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107 admixtures (i.e. silica fume and fine quartz), fibers and superplasticizers while having more
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108 binder content and low water-to-binder ratio. Azmee & Shafiq [18] define the term as a fiber
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109 reinforced, superplasticized, silica fume-cement mixture with a very low water to cement

110 ratio (W/C), characterized by the presence of a very fine quartz sand that ranges from 0.15–

111 0.60 mm in diameter, instead of the ordinary aggregate. Ahmad et al. (2016) define UHPC as

112 a mixture produced by using high contents of cement, silica fume (0.1–1 um) and

113 superplasticizer along with very fine quartz sand (0.15 to 0.60 mm), quartz powder (smaller

114 than 10 um) and fibres without coarse aggregate. Nematollahi et al. [19] defines UHPC as a

115 cement based composite material which consists of fine materials with optimized grading

116 curves, very high strength discrete micro steel fibers and a very low water cement ratio less

117 than 0.25. Other researchers define the UHPC based on its superior mechanical and durability

118 properties. For example, Aroraa et al. [20] defines UHPC as a multi-scale microstructure-

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119 designed material tailored for very-high compressive strength, high flexural and tensile

120 strength, and high ductility. Li, J. et al. [21] defines the term as an innovative composite

121 material that can serve as a potential candidate for concrete structures exposing to aggressive

122 environments.

123 Based on the above definitions, we could come up with a definition which combines UHPC

124 major component and superior properties along with the basic technologies behind the UHPC

125 production. Thus, UHPC is a new generation of cement-based construction material tailored

for very high compressive strength, high ductility, and sustainability based on: micro-scale

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126

optimization of fine and ultrafine aggregates (silica fume and sand), lower content of water to

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127

128 cement ratio with added superplasticizer, and reinforcement with high-strength steel fibers.
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129 2.2.2 UHPC Components
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130 High-strength, ductile, and sustainable UHPC concrete is made up of constituent materials
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131 like fine-grained sand, Portland cement, silica fume, water, superplasticizer, and steel fibres,
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132 as shown in figure 5 [19, 22].

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Sand

Steel
Cement
Fibres

Basic
Components

Superpl Silica
asticizer Fume

Water

8
Figure 5 Basic components of UHPC Material
133 Details of these constituent materials are given in the following subsections. Typical mix

134 proportions of these materials for one cubic meter of UHPC are presented in Table 1 and

135 presented graphically in Figure 6.

136 Table 1 Optimum Mix Proportions for 1 m3 of UHPC Mixture 1

Mix component Weight Typical Range (Kg) 2

Premix Materials Fine dune sand 1005 490 – 1390

Portland cement 900 610 – 1080

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Silica Fume 220 50 – 334

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Water 163 126 – 261
Superplasticiser -p 40 9 – 71
Steel Fibres 157 40 – 250
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Total Weight 2485
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1
137 Ahmad, Hakeeem, and Maslehuddin [22]
2
138 Tayeh et al. [23]
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Cement

36.22% Silica Fume

Sand
8.85%
Steel Fibres

Superplasticiser
40.44%
Water

6.32%
1.6%
6.56%

Figure 6 Optimum Proportions for 1 m3 of UHPC Mixture

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139 Fine Aggregate

140 Fine aggregate is an essential constituent material for UHPC strength and

141 workability. It maintains the stability of the concrete due to its ability to carry

142 greater loads. It can, also, resist weathering due to its inertness. Its granular size is

143 the largest size in the UHPC matrix, ranging from 150 µm to 600 µm [16]. It can be

144 silica sand, quartz sand, or natural sand [13].

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145 Table 2. Physical and chemical/mineralogical properties of the dune sand

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Property Range (%)

Fineness modulus
-p 0.9 – 3.0
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Coefficient of uniformity 2.0 – 4.0
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Specific gravity 2.6 – 2.7

Water absorption 0.4 – 0.5
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SiO2 (quartz) 80 – 98
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CaSO4 2H2O (gypsum) 4 – 14

CaCO3 (calcite) 3 – 12
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146 Silica sand is expensive for UHPC. Quartz sand, on the other hand, is

147 available but it takes time to be crushed from coarse aggregates or natural

148 rocks [24]. Natural sand, in contrast, can be used easily and effectively as

149 a fine aggregate for UHPC. The Eastern province of Saudi Arabia, for

150 instance, has fine dune sand with specific properties shown in Table 2 and

151 particle size distribution shown in Table 3 [22].

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152 Table 3. Particle size distribution of dune sand

ASTM sieve no. Size (mm) Percentage passing (%)

4 4.75 100
8 2.36 100
16 1.18 100
30 0.6 75
50 0.3 10
100 0.15 5

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153 Portland cement

154
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Ordinary Portland cement is the primary binding material which, when mixed with water,
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155 hydrates and becomes a solid that binds all aggregates of the UHPC concrete. It is produced
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156 mainly from two basic raw materials; limestone and clay. After crushing and grinding, these
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157 materials are heated in a kiln to produce cement clinker, which is ground further, with a small

158 amount of gypsum into fine powder [4]. It is about double (600-1000 kg/m3) the content that
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159 is used in ordinary concrete [25] with an average diameter of 15 µm. Therefore, it is
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160 considered the second largest particle size in the UHPC matrix [16]. The part of the cement

161 that is not hydrated, due to the small proportion of water, will be used with other aggregates

162 for packing optimization.

163 Silica Fume

164 Silica fume, or micro silica, is a waste by-product material coming from the

165 furnace smoke of the production of silicon metal and ferrosilicon alloys [4]. The

166 rounded particles of silica fume have a diameter of 0.15 µm on average, and most of

167 the particles are less than 1 µm [26]. Thus, they are the smallest particles in the

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168 UHPC matrix, 100 times smaller than cement particles. This is why it is considered

169 an excellent filler to fill the voids between larger particles in the UHPC matrix.

170 Using this ultrafine material leads to a dense matrix which enhances the mechanical

171 and durability properties of the concrete [4, 16, 27].

172 Silica fume can be used in UHPC mixtures within a range of 150–250 kg/m3 (10–30% of

173 the cement mass) [28, 29]. Figure 7 shows the relationship between compressive strength and

174 silica fume content in UHPC concrete. As shown in the figure, concrete of a strength up to 81

MPa can be obtained without silica fume. However, by increasing the content of silica fume,

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the compressive strength is rapidly increased. One of the main disadvantages of this material

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177 is that it requires more water because of its extremely fine particles, but with
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Compressive strength (MPa)

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Silica fume content (%)

Figure 7 Relationship between compressive strength and silica fume content

(Shihada & Arafa [30])

178 superplasticizers, the same water content can be maintained [26].

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179 Water

180 Water is an essential material for making UHPC. Potable water is suitable, as is usually

181 used for ordinary concrete. The quantity of water must be enough to complete the hydration

182 process and to maintain workability [6]. The minimum water to cement (w/c) ratio for

183 ordinary concrete is about 0.4 to 0.5, including water for workability [6, 24]. The amount of

184 water is inversely proportional to the compressive strength, i.e., if water increases, the

185 strength decreases [9]. Excess water, not used in hydration, would develop voids in the

concrete mixture, which would increase permeability and reduce the strength of the concrete.

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187 In UHPC technology, using a high-range water-reducing admixture helps to maintain

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workability without the need for excess water [31]. Accordingly, the w/c ratio will be reduced
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189 to an optimum level within a range of 0.14 to 0.22 [13, 24]. This leads to increased
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190 compressive strength and enhances all other properties of the concrete.
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191 High-Range Water Reducer

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192 Since the workability of the concrete mix is reduced when it is mixed with low water
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193 content, a water reducer or superplasticizer, like polycarboxylate, is required to be added to

194 the UHPC concrete during the mixing process to improve its workability [31]. With respect

195 to the impact of the chemical content, it should be within the range of 0.5 to 2.0%, as shown

196 by Courtial et al. [32]. However, the optimum content, as revealed by many researchers, is

197 1.5 to 2.4 [13].

198 Steel Fibres

199 Concrete without reinforcement is liable to fracture, since it is brittle in nature and cracks

200 cannot be stopped. Therefore, steel fibres are used to reinforce the UHPC matrix to provide a

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201 better resistance towards crack generation and a better tensile strength and resistance to

202 fracture [19]. Steel fibres are characterized by their shape, length, diameter, volume,

203 orientation, and strength. The mechanical properties of steel fibres are shown in Table 4 [19,

204 23].

205 Table 4. Mechanical Properties of Steel Fibres

Length (mm) Diameter (mm) Volume (%) Strength (MPa)

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10 – 20 0.10 – 0.25 2 > 2000

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206
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Deformed fibres, such as hooked-end fibres are much better than straight ones. Also, long
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207 fibres are better than short ones. With respect to the fibres’ volume, an increase will improve
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208 ductility up to a certain limit, beyond which additional content will not be beneficial [33]. A
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209 content of 1 to 2 percent of the expensive fibres has been proved to be enough to achieve the
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210 required properties at a wise economy. Also, fibres with a good orientation (i.e., along the
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211 direction of the tensile load) lead to a good homogeneous distribution of fibres, which will

212 improve the mechanical properties of the concrete [34, 35].

213 2.2.3 UHPC Basic Characteristics

214 Durability Properties

215 One of the major goals of UHPC concrete is to be durable, like rock, that can exist for a

216 long time without significant deterioration in quality. Generally, concrete structures can be

217 set in a place to be stick to the direct environments and might be exposed to severe conditions

218 that cannot be avoided such as: water penetration, chemical attacks, steel corrosion, alkali-

219 silica reaction, freeze-thaw cycles, and carbonation [21]. Long exposure to such severe

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220 conditions may deteriorate concrete structures leading to increase the costs of structure

221 maintenance [36]. The key point of these durability issues is the permeability of the concrete

222 matrix. The concrete will be more durable if it is less permeable. The types of constituent

223 materials as well as the new technologies used for UHPC concrete will be able to develop

224 concrete with superior durability that can stands severe environment for a long service life.

225 The main factors that control permeability are the density microstructure and the porosity

226 of the concrete matrix [37, 38]. The exclusion of coarse aggregates, inclusion of fine and

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227 ultrafine particles such as dune sand and silica fume, and the lowering of water to binder ratio

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228 along with diluted superplasticizer will work together to homogenate the mixture,

229
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substantially decreasing its fine pores [39, 40].
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230 The water absorption capacity is the permeability coefficient of UHPC concrete and can

231 be considered an indication of its high durability. A decrease in the water absorption capacity
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232 of the concrete means a drop of the concrete matrix pores. These pores will be reduced when
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233 the water to binder ratio is lowered [21]. Since the water to binder ratio of the UHPC concrete
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234 is much lower than that of the conventional concrete, the water absorption coefficient of the

235 UHPC, as shown by the investigation of Dobias et al. [41], is five times lower than that of the

236 conventional concrete. The matrix of the UHPC concrete will be impermeable when the pores

237 are less than one-tenth of those in normal concrete [42].

238 Another indication of good durability is the concrete’s ability to resist chemical attacks

239 such as chloride ions. In case the concrete matrix is permeable, chloride ions can penetrate

240 through the matrix, damage the passivation of the steel, and facilitate the beginning of the

241 corrosion process. Steel are protected from corrosion by a passive alkaline layer which will

242 be damaged by the aggressive action of the chloride ions. However, UHPC concrete has

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243 shown a good resistance for the steel corrosion due to the negligible penetration of the

244 chloride ions because of the densified and impermeable matrix of the UHPC concrete [43, 44,

245 45].

246 Different environmental exposures, such as freeze-thaw and weather actions have been

247 studied by many researchers. Freeze-thaw actions happened when the particles of water that

248 entered in the concrete matrix freeze and expand beyond the concrete pores [21]. Many

249 researchers have observed almost no deterioration after several hundreds of freeze-thaw

cycles up to 800 cycles with negligible loss of mass [46]. Also, wet-dry and heat-cool cycles

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were studied by Hakeem, Azad, and Ahmad [33]. They showed that UHPC maintains its

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251

252 strength with possible applications in aggressive exposure conditions. The concrete matrix, in
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253 fact, will be durable enough to last for a long time without being coated or painted.
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254 Mechanical Properties

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255 The experimental investigation conducted by [47] showed the excellent

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256 mechanical properties of UHPC as a construction material. Compressive strength is

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257 the main mechanical property of the UHPC concrete, which is essential to ensure

258 that the structure can carry the assigned loads. It is also considered an indication of

259 other mechanical properties, as well as high durability. In fact, high concrete

260 strength is a result of two main principles: packing of the material particles and

261 water to binder ratio [13]. Figure 3 shows the impact of the water to binder ratio on

262 the compressive strength of UHPC [9]. Compressive strength can also be enhanced

263 by the content of silica fume, as shown in figure 7 [30]. The method of curing also

264 has a significant effect on compressive strength, with steam curing being better than

265 normal curing.

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266 Steel fibres do not have a significant effect on compressive strength, but they could, on

267 the other hand, enhance the tensile strength of the UHPC concrete. With steel fibres, the

268 tensile strength of the UHPC is usually within the range of 15 to 20 MPa, a value that is

269 almost double the tensile strength value of UHPC without steel fibres [13]. This value is

270 almost one to two tenths of the compressive strength of UHPC concrete [48].

271 For the value of the compressive strength, some researchers stated that compressive

272 strength is usually greater than 120 MPa [30, 49, 50], while some others stated that it starts

from 150 MPa [13, 19, 22, 42]. In either case, it is incomparably greater than the strength of

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normal concrete. As revealed by these researchers, the compressive strength, and all

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274

275 mechanical properties of UHPC are much superior to those of normal concrete. Table 5
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276 shows a comparison between normal and UHPC concretes in some of their important
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277 mechanical properties.
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278 Also, the flexural strength of UHPC is shown as a value up to 30 MPa which is achieved
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279 either in high temperature curing regime or under prolonged 28 days normal regime. This
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280 value has already been mentioned in many references. It was mentioned over 30 MPa [19],
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281 up to 40 Mpa [13], or within the range of 30 to 50 MPa [22, 50]. Because of the result come

282 up with the investigation of reference [22] with an average 28-day flexural strength of 31

283 MPa, and the rule of thumb of reference [13] which states that flexural strength of UHPC is

284 more than five times of the normal concrete, the flexural strength of UHPC is shown in our

285 table as a value up to 30 MPa.

286 The split tensile strength of UHPC is shown in the table as a value up to 20 MPa. This

287 value has already been mentioned in many references. For example, ref. [13] states that

288 “UHPC matrix with fibers addition, generally have a tensile strength in the range of 15–20

289 MPa”. Also, ref. [22] states that “mixtures are reported to possess splitting-tensile strength in

290 the ranges of 8–15 MPa”. The tensile resistance of UHPC can be considered as one-tenth of

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291 its compressive strength i.e. 15 MPa tensile strength if the compressive strength is 150 MPa

292 [51].

293 Table 5. Mechanical Property Comparison between normal and UHPC concretes

Normal Concrete UHPC Concrete

Compressive Strength 20 – 40 MPa 120 - 200 MPa

Split Tensile Strength < 5 MPa Up to 20 MPa [13, 22, 51]

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Flexural Strength < 6 MPa Up to 30 MPa [13, 22, 50]

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Durability Weak Extremely high durable

Ductility Weak -p Extremely high ductility

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294 UHPC tensile properties are distinct from those of conventional concrete due to the

295 increased tensile cracking capacity of the cementitious composite matrix and the crack-
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296 bridging behavior of the fiber reinforcement. In contrast to fiber-reinforced conventional

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297 concretes, UHPC can exhibit significant, sustained post-cracking tensile capacity prior to
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298 crack localization, fiber pullout, and loss of tensile capacity [52].

299 With the growing use of UHPC in modern construction, determining its tensile and

300 compressive properties is essential in the study of its structural behavior, numerical

301 modelling and fracture mechanics [53].

302 Doo et al. [Strain 34] stated that the characteristics of fibers such as fiber content, shape,

303 aspect ratio, orientation, and distribution are considerably affect the tensile performance of

304 fiber-reinforced ultra-high performance concrete [54-59]. Increasing the amount of fiber is

305 the most convincing method to improve the tensile performance including tensile strength

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306 and fracture energy capacity. This means that the demanded tensile strength can be achieved

307 by using adequate amount of fiber.

308 Habel et al. [60] show a schematic of the three distinct tensile behaviors that UHPC can

309 exhibit: I) linear-elastic behavior before cracking; II) post cracking strain hardening behavior

310 and dispersed discrete cracking; and III) softening behavior during strain localization across

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Figure 8: Tensile behavior of UHPC [60].

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311 specific cracks (Figure 8).

312 The addition of steel fibers to UHPC matrices successfully increased the fracture

313 toughness, tensile strength, ductility and energy absorption capacity of UHPCs, although their

314 performance were various according to the types of fiber [61].

315 Nguyen et al. [61] investigated the direct tensile stress versus strain response of Ultra-

316 High-Performance Concrete (UHPC) with various sizes and geometries. The UHPFRC used

317 in their research contained 1% macro twisted and 1% micro smooth steel fibers by volume.

318 The effects of gauge length, section area, volume and thickness of the specimens on the

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319 measured tensile response of the UHPC were experimentally discovered. They found out that

320 the different sizes and geometries of specimens did not generate significant influence on the

321 post cracking strength of UHPC whereas they produced clear effects on the strain capacity,

322 energy absorption capacity and multiple cracking behavior of UHPC. The strain capacity,

323 energy absorption capacity and the number of multiple micro cracks within unit length

324 obviously decreased as the gauge length, section area and volume of UHPC specimens

325 increased. In contrast, as the thickness of the specimen increased, different tendency was

326 observed.

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Hassan et al. [53] concluded that the steel fiber content in UHPC had a significant effect

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327

328 on improving the tensile strength by almost double compared to those of UHPC without
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329 fibers. This is a significant benefit for concrete structures where punching shear failure is an
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330 important consideration such as with bridge deck designs. Moreover, ductility in both tension
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331 and compression were improved substantially. In contrast, their influence on the compressive
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332 strength and modulus of elasticity was relatively small. They reported that the Maximum
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333 tensile strain attained at peak strength was in range of 1.5–3% compared to the values of
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334 0.15–0.25% for the UHPC (without fibers).

335 Kay et al. [58] conducted a research work on the optimization of strength and ductility of

336 ultra-high performance concretes (UHPC) under direct tensile loading. In their research they

337 focused on the development of strain-hardening UHP-FRC characterized by: (1) a relatively

338 high tensile strength (exceeding 13 MPa, (2) a high ductility, expressed by the strain at peak

339 stress εpc in tension exceeding 0.3%, and (3) a relatively low fiber content (not exceeding

340 2.5% by volume). Their results show that, with appropriate high strength steel fibers, and 1%

341 fiber volume fraction it is sufficient to trigger strain hardening behavior accompanied by

342 multiple cracking, this characteristic essential to achieve high ductility. Also, by improving

343 both the matrix and fiber parameters, an UHP-FRC with only 1.5% deformed steel fibers by

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344 volume resulted in an average tensile strength of 13 MPa and a maximum post-cracking

345 strain of 0.6%.

346 The researchers also illustrated a simplified response of strain-hardening FRC comprising

347 Part I (Elastic behavior up to 90–95% of cracking strength, followed by development of

348 micro cracks and activation of fibers; Part II (Strain hardening behavior with multiple

349 cracking, small crack width, and inelastic strain); and Part III (Softening behavior) (Figure 9).

350 They concluded that by improving the fiber bond behavior through: (1) increasing matrix

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351 density and strength (up to 200 MPa), (2) increasing fiber strength (up to 3100 MPa), and (3)

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352 improving the mechanical bond of the fiber through fiber deformation (end hook or twisted),

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an UHP-FRC can be designed to achieve a relatively high tensile strength (up to 15 MPa) and
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Figure 9: Idealized simplified response of strain-hardening FRC composites in

tension [58]

354 ductility (εpc = 0.6%) with a low fiber volume fraction (about 2%).

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355 Workability

356 In general, water is necessary for the workability of concrete. For UHPC concrete,

357 however, the strength has to be increased by reducing water, which will affect workability as

358 a result. In spite of this, UHPC can still be made workable by removing coarse aggregates

359 from the mixture, using ultrafine powders, and adding an optimum amount of superplasticizer

360 to the fresh concrete [31]. Adding this kind of high-range water reducer agent will allow an

361 adequate flow which will enable the mixture to be cast, even in very slender shapes.

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362 Aesthetic and Engineering

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With UHPC technology, it is possible to construct beyond usual designs. The densified
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364 ultrafine particles and strong fibres which are distributed in a homogeneous and flowable
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365 mixture will enable the construction of irregular shapes of aesthetic appearance and surfaces

366 of extraordinary finish. It is also possible to set up innovative engineering designs, such as
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367 structures with a longer span or structures lighter than ordinary concrete [42].
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368 Eco-friendly Product

369 By using UHPC technology, the concrete will be friendly to the environment. Replacing

370 cement by waste materials such as silica fume, will reduce CO2 emissions into the

371 atmosphere from cement production. This gas emission is considered to be a major factor in

372 global warming [13, 42].

373 2.2.4 UHPC Standards

374 There are no code or standard exist on UHPC materials that provides a clear definition nor

375 guidance on categorizing UHPC, so that there is a need to develop new standards that provide

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376 meaningful test results for a full range of UHPC material properties. These standards are

377 necessary in order to categorize different UHPC’s and to provide reliable and reproducible

378 material properties for structural engineers to use in the design of UHPC structures.

379 Only technical guides and professional recommendations were previously available in

380 some countries like France, Japan, the United States and Switzerland. These guides did not

381 have an “official” status, which made referencing and using them in projects difficult. Their

382 standardization now will allow clear and codified specifications to be established.

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383 The following UHPC codes and standards were collected from all the available

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384 references in different places all over the world presented here.

385
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1. CSA , December, 2015, the Canadian Standards Association (CSA) formed a new
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386 “Working Group on UHPC” under A23.1, Chapter 8, with the mandate to develop a new
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387 annex on UHPC materials (CSA A23.1, 2014). The new annex cover everything on

388 UHPC materials [62].

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389 2. NF P18-470, July 2016 French standard, related to UHPC specification, performance,
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390 production and conformity. It is a self-supporting document with distinct scope, however
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391 with the same outline as NF EN 206/CN, the French standard for ordinary structural

392 concrete consistent to the European standard. Appendices detail test protocol adaptations

393 as well as standardized methods associated to the determination of relevant UHPC

394 characteristics. It covers both structural and non-structural UHPC [63].

395 3. NF P18-710, April 2016, French standard Stands as a national complement to Eurocode 2

396 for the design of UHPFRC structures (both buildings and bridges). It covers UHPFRC

397 with metallic fibers and characteristic compressive strength higher than 150 MPa. It is

398 provides design rules for structures in UHPFRC”, according to NF P18-470 (2016) [64].

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399 4. NF P18-451, Dec. 2018, French standard , Concrete - Execution of concrete structures -

400 Specific rules for UHPRFC. Deals with the execution of UHPFRC structures, which

401 provides complements, precisions or amendments to the execution standard NF EN

402 13670/CN. It is being prepared and sets out the provisions to be implemented for

403 executing structures in UHPFRC”, according to NF P18-470 (2016). The standard NF

404 P18-451 will also increase the knowledge but also encourage contractors to use UHPFRC

405 when it exists a standard for executing of structures in UHPFRC. The NF P18-451

406 Standard gives general indications based on the gained industrial experience in this

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407 domain, detailed precasters’ skills beyond the standard are clearly associated to the

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408 success of such UHPFRC applications, as a result of the material sensitivity to its placing

409
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process and early-age treatment and restraints.[65]
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410 5. ACI committee 239 (ACI 239C) 2018, Ultra-High-Performance Concrete: An Emerging
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411 Technology Report (ETR) on the Structural Design of UHPC. ACI Committee 239 has
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412 made advances in the testing, design, and specification for the use of UHPC. This new
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413 sub-committee, a diverse group of international industry experts, has commenced the task
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414 of writing a Terms of Reference (TOR) for the new ETR on the Structural Design of

415 UHPC. However, their efforts have been focused on structural applications for bridges

416 (led by the Federal Highway Administration) and primarily UHPC manufactured with

417 metallic fibers and compressive strength higher than 150 MPa. A portion of the activities

418 of this committee, in collaboration with the American Society for Testing and Material

419 (ASTM) was to provide a new standard practice for fabrication and testing specimens of

420 UHPC (ASTM C1856/C1856M, 2017) reinforced with metallic and non-metallic fibers.

421 Nevertheless, again this new standard is only applicable to UHPC with a specified

422 compressive strength of at least 120 MPa, with nominal maximum size aggregate of less

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423 than 5 mm and a spread flow between 20 and 25 cm, as measured by the modified flow

424 table test method described in ASTM C1437 and ASTM C230/C230M [66].

425 6. ASTM C1856 / C1856M – 2017, Standard Practice for Fabricating and Testing

426 Specimens of Ultra-High Performance Concrete. This practice includes procedures for

427 measuring properties of fresh UHPC and procedures for making and testing specimens of

428 hardened UHPC. The practice refers to existing practices and test methods and includes

429 modifications to these referenced standards for application to UHPC [67].

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430 3. Alternative Materials for UHPC

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To promote UHPC technology in construction, alternative materials are explored to
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432 replace Portland cement and other expensive materials, such as steel fibres. Therefore, this
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433 part of the paper presents some of these alternative materials which are naturally available or

434 obtained from the waste materials of other industries.

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435 3.1 Supplementary Cementitious Materials

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436 Supplementary cementitious materials, SCM, are alternative substances which can bind

437 aggregates in the same way as ordinary Portland cement [68]. These materials are, in fact, by-

438 products of other industries, in which they are usually treated as waste materials and sent to

439 landfills.

440 The issue was recognized after voices called for protection of the environment

441 from these waste landfills. The possibility of recycling waste in construction to

442 replace cement material opened the way to better options. First, such recycling

443 would enhance our environment by reducing landfills of these industrial wastes, as

444 well as reducing the impact of global warming due to the energy consumption and

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445 gas emissions involved in cement production [69]. Second, it would enhance UHPC

446 concrete by improving the workability and pumpability of fresh concrete. It would

447 also improve the matrix density of the solid concrete, which would strengthen the

448 mechanical properties of concrete, as well as the ability to resist chloride ions and

449 weathering activities [26]. Finally, it would reduce the cost of concrete production

450 and manpower costs due to the elimination of some labour-intensive processes. It

451 would cut, also, transportation and maintenance costs [70].

Table 6 describes the most important properties of some supplementary cementitious

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materials, including silica fume (SF), fly ash (FA), and Ground Granular blast-furnace slag

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454 (GGBS). -p
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455 Table 6 Properties of Some Supplementary Cementitious Materials
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Properties FA GGBS SF
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Workability Increased Increased Decreased 1

Fresh Concrete

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Properties

Heat of Hydration Reduced No effect 2

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Set time Increased Increased No effect

Strength Increased 3 Increased Increased

Hardened Concrete

Permeability and Reduced Reduced The most Reduced

Properties

Absorption

Chloride and Sulphate Good resistance Good resistance Good resistance

Resistance

Most of particles ≤ 45µm ≤ 45µm ≤ 1 µm

Dimension
Physical

Average 15-20 µm 0.1 µm 4

1
456 Need to use superplasticizer.
2
457 However, when superplasticizer is used with SF, it can be increased.
3
458 With a low rate of strength gain.
4
459 Which is about 1/100 of the cement particle diameter (10 µm).

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460 Silica fume (SF), as mentioned before, is the finest material among all other

461 cementitious materials. Therefore, it is the most preferred material to replace the

462 cement of UHPC concrete, especially when high strength and a high degree of

463 impermeability are required. However, it is an expensive material, and this is why

464 Ahmad, Hakeem, and Maslehuddin [71] utilized other waste materials existing

465 locally with low cost to replace such silica fume.

466 Fly ash (FA) is a fine powder by-product material produced from the smoke coming from

burning coal in the combustion process of electrical power stations. The mineral impurities

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are fused when they pass through the combustion chamber. With the exhaust gases, they are

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469 carried out and collected by a proper dust collection system into spherical particles, most of
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470 which are less than 45 µm, with an average of 15 to 20 µm [6].
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471 Fly ash, in general, is a pozzolan material which acts like Portland cement when it is

472 mixed with water. On one hand, it would improve the concrete’s workability, but on the other
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473 hand, it would reduce the early strength of the concrete. However, with the extended process
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474 of hydration, it would gain much more strength than it would have with Portland cement
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475 alone.

476 Ground granular blast-furnace slag (GGBS) is a by-product from the iron production

477 process when iron ore is coked in the blast furnace. After it is cooled, it is further crushed to

478 form fine particles, with a length less than 45 µm. This material, when it is mixed in the

479 presence of water, will hydrate and set in the same way as Portland cement [26]. GGBS has a

480 considerable effect on the setting time of the UHPC concrete. The setting time can be

481 retarded If UHPC mixture is mixed with the ground granular blast furnace slag [26].

482 Sitting Time

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483 Setting time of UHPC can be defined as the time when the mixture attains a stiffness of

484 1000 MPa and autogenous shrinkage initiates [72]. It usually takes from 6 to 12 hours based

485 on the Mix design [73, 74, 75]. The initial setting time is defined as the penetration resistance

486 of 3.45 MPa at 15 hour after casting while the final setting time is defined as a penetration

487 resistance of 27.60 MPa at about 18 to 20 hour [76, 77]. However, the setting time can be

488 retarded up to 30 to 40 hours by high superplasticizer dosage [31, 78, 79, 80]. Furthermore,

489 the setting time can be retarded if the surface of the fresh UHPC mixture is covered properly

490 [76].

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491 3.2 Alternative fibre Materials
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492 Fibres which can be spread uniformly and randomly are usually used to reinforce
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493 concrete. Asbestos fibres were used before. But due to the health risks associated with these

494 fibres, other materials were used, such as steel fibres, glass fibres, synthetic fibres, such as
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495 polypropylene, and natural fibres, such as palm tree fibres. They are used mainly to release
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496 stresses and to block the extension of cracks [81]. As a result, the concrete’s mechanical
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497 properties are improved, including tensile strength, flexural strength, and ductility

498 performance, which will save the structure from damage and breakage [82].

499 However, steel is the most common type of fibre that is used in construction to support

500 structures in general [83]. The reasons behind this are the superior mechanical properties of

501 these fibres, in addition to other reasons, such as economic feasibility, availability of

502 manufacturing facilities, and good resistance to different environmental conditions [84].

503 Other fibres are not usually applied in construction materials, such as glass fibres which are

504 more often preferred to support structures for decorative applications and finishing surfaces

505 [85]. The main drawback of steel fibres is the cost of this material, since 1% of fibres will

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506 cost more than all the remaining materials combined [13]. That is why, economically, the

507 percentage of fibres should be the minimum as possible (i.e., 1% - 2%).

508 4. UHPC Applications and Hybrid Innovations

509 4.1 General UHPC Applications in Construction

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510 UHPC has been a major development in concrete technology in the first twenty years of

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Figure 10 Seonyu footbridge, Korea
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Figure 11 Some urban furniture and decorative arts made from UHPC

511 the 21st century. Because of its exceptional properties, UHPC offers new possibilities of

512 reduced-weight structures and new designs of structures for better aesthetics, engineering,

513 and economy [86]. Favorite constructions of UHPC can be seen all over the globe, including

514 structural and architectural works (Figure 10) as well as urban furniture and decorative arts

515 (Figure 11).

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516 4.2 Utilization of UHPC in Hybrid Structures

517 UHPC opens the door to new ideas and exciting opportunities to redesign construction.

518 Some research works on the utilization of UHPC in suggested hybrid structures are

519 summarised below.

520 Utilizing UHPC with Glass Fibre Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) was a suggested hybrid

521 idea that motivated many researchers at the state of the art. Elmahdy et al. [87] investigated

522 experimentally an innovative design utilizing UHPC in hybrid beams. The section of the

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523 beam was a GFRP hollow box. At the top, a thin cover of UHPC was used to carry

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524 compressive stresses.

525
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At the bottom, steel or carbon fibre reinforced polymer (SFRP/CFRP) sheets were used to
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526 carry tensile stresses. These different materials were connected to each other by shear stud
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527 connectors and epoxy glue to provide sufficient bond between them. The investigation
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528 revealed that the ability of the hybrid beam was increased significantly by including high

529 performance materials such as UHPC.

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530 Another hybrid beam with the same GFRP hollow box section design was investigated
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531 under static flexural loading by Chen & El-Hacha [88]. The study proved that UHPC was

532 essential to achieve higher strength with less weight and smaller structural elements. Also,

533 the hybrid UHPC-GFRP hollow box section with a base of SFRP or CFRP sheets was

534 investigated by Iskander et al. [89] to analyse the causes of failure under shear forces. The

535 study revealed that failure was partly due to the design of the fibre orientation at the corner

536 regions of such a hybrid beam.

537 Another hybrid idea, combining UHPC with ordinary concrete as a construction or repair

538 material, was investigated by many researchers. As a construction material, Hakeem [90] and

539 Azad & Hakeem [91, 92, 93] studied the structural behaviour of three different concepts for

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540 one-way simply supported precast floor units made of ordinary concrete cast with UHPC in

541 different forms of construction, such as: (i) units with a layer of UHPC at the bottom tension

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542 face as shown in figure 12. The figure shows the view of beam specimens with UHPC bottom

543 layer and ordinary concrete on top; (ii) units reinforced with precast UHPC deformed bars as

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544 shown in figures 13 and 14. The concept of using UHPC bars was introduced by Azad and

545 Hakeem [92, 93]. Figure 13 shows the UHPC bars placed in the hybrid structural mould

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Figure 12 Hybrid beams with bottom UHPC layer [90]
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Figure 13 UHPC bars in their moulds [92]

Figure 14 Hybrid specimens reinforced with two UHPC bars [92]

34
546 before casting ordinary concrete. The UHPC bars were heat-cured at a temperature of 900 C

547 for a period of 48 hours to accelerate curing and strength development. Figure 14 shows the

548 final hybrid specimen reinforced with two 50x50 mm UHPC bars; and (iii) hybrid hollow

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549 core units with top and bottom faces cast with UHPC layers as shown in figures 15, 16, and

550 17.

551 Figure 15 shows different cross sections of hybrid hollow core specimens of a beam cast

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Figure 15 Cross-sections of hybrid hollow core specimens [90, 91]

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Figure 16 hybrid hollow core specimens Figure 17 The final hybrid hollow core
before casting ordinary concrete [90, 91] specimens [90, 91]

552 with UHPC on top and bottom and sandwiched in between with ordinary concrete

36
553 surrounding the holes. Figures 16 and 17 shows hybrid hollow core specimens before and

554 after casting ordinary concrete. Types (i) and (iii) do not require any steel reinforcement.

555 Type (ii) may not require any steel reinforcement but for smaller widths.

556 The results of these studies confirmed that each of the three alternative concepts is

557 structurally promising and can be utilized in designing simply supported precast units for

558 residential and commercial buildings without the use of steel reinforcement. Further research

559 is needed to uphold this viewpoint. In corrosive environment, this may prove to have

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560 significant advantage worthy of consideration.

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561 For using UHPC as a repair material, Tayeh et al. [94] investigated the use of UHPC as a

562
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repair material for old normal concrete (NC). The interfacial bond and the permeability
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563 characteristics were evaluated. The results showed that the behaviour of the composite was
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564 firm and stable due to the UHPC overlay which bonded strongly with the old concrete. The
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565 study revealed that UHPC was efficient and stable for concrete repair. Also, Roy et al. [95]

566 used an effective mixture of UHPC as a repair material for normal concrete. The study was
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567 conducted to investigate the bond strength between UHPC and the substrate of normal
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568 concrete. The study revealed that UHPC was effective for repairing deteriorated structures.

569 Another utilization of UHPC in hybrid structure is in timber-concrete composites. The

570 two materials are bonded together either with mechanical fasteners or rigid connections.

571 Their advantages are utilized in one composite to achieve better performance. Detailed

572 reviews of this timber-concrete composite, including its connection systems, were carried out

573 by Yeoh et al. [96] and Rodriguez et al. [97].

574 Combining UHPC with wooden structures was also investigated by Ferrier et al. [98]. A

575 hybrid beam was made of glued-laminated (glulam) wood and UHPC planks. The

576 investigation showed that the use of UHPC was optimized with better performance and

37
577 efficiency based on greater bending stiffness and significant increase in the structure

578 capacity. With UHPC, it is possible to reduce the depth and to increase the span of the beam

579 without affecting the structure’s performance.

580 Also, Hajek et al. [99] studied the possibilities of using UHPC in timber-concrete

581 composite floor structures. They designed a composite consisting of a timber beam and a thin

582 lower-weight UHPC deck. Since it is difficult to use mechanical joints, they proved that

583 gluing is a good method to connect the two different materials. The study showed that the

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584 new type of composite would enable the design of a UHPC deck with a relatively small

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585 thickness (less than 30 mm).

586
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Holy & Vrablik [100] summarized the research findings on fabrication of timber-concrete
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587 composite structures and suitable methods of coupling between the two materials. They
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588 presented ways to develop pedestrian and cyclist footbridges using innovative hybrids with
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589 efficient materials and better construction methods.

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590 Steel-UHPC composite bridge is also an important utilization of UHPC in

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591 hybrid structure. It is a current field of application for UHPC which attracts many

592 researchers to investigate the composite structure. Orthotropic steel deck, a deck

593 steel plate covered by a roadway surface, is used widely in many types of bridges,

594 especially, in long span steel bridge as shown in Figure 18 [101, 102]. Despite

595 having the advantages of lightweight and high load capacity, this type of structure

596 suffers from cracks due to the fatigue problem under the load [103, 104].

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Figure 18 Orthotropic Steel Deck Bridge
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597 Fatigue cracks are observed in many orthotropic steel deck bridges around the
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598 world such as: the Severn Bridge in England, the Sinntal bridge in Germany, the
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599 Westgate bridge in Australia, the bridge of Leverkusen in Germany [105]. This

600 fatigue problem has been studied by many researchers to improve its performance.
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601 One of the best prospective solution to resist this fatigue is to use UHPC overlay

602 as a deck pavement instead of the original pavement [106, 101]. The fatigue

603 response of using UHPC overlay with orthotropic steel deck was studied by Zhu et

604 al. [105]. The study showed that UHPC overlay can significantly reduce the

605 magnitude of the stress at the deck side. Also, the transversal bending behaviour

606 under bending moments of the steel-UHPC composite deck was studied by Luo et

607 al. [102]. The study found that the UHPC overlay has a considerable effect on the

608 ultimate load capacity of the deck.

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609 5. Conclusion

610 The new generation of concrete (UHPC) has an amazing level of qualities that had never

611 been thought possible before. After reviewing the subject thoroughly, the following

612 conclusions were found:

613 1. It was clear that most of the researchers at the state of the art emphasized that the

614 mechanical and environmental performance of UHPC surpassed all expectations,

615 creating a potential for wider applications in construction.

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616 2. The mechanical properties of the new generation of concrete are greatly superior to

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617 the properties of conventional concrete. These incomparable values are a function of

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water to binder ratio, ultrafine powders, optimized packing of particles, method of
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619 curing, and microstructural reinforcement.
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620 3. With this technology, it is possible to construct structures beyond usual designs,

621 which are lighter, larger, or with longer span. Its special workability enables the fresh
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622 concrete to be cast in irregular or very slender shapes to form structures with aesthetic
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623 appearance or extraordinary finish.

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624 4. However, the use of UHPC in construction is limited since it is not commercially

625 viable to replace conventional concrete in most applications for the following reasons:

626 a. An economic factor represented by the high cost of some of its constituent

627 materials, as well as the lack of their availability. For instance, the cost of steel

628 fibres can be greater than the rest of the matrix materials combined.

629 b. Some technical aspects, such as limited design codes and complicated

630 manufacturing and curing techniques.

631 c. The negative impact of cement production on the environment, since UHPC

632 production requires about double the amount of cement used in conventional

633 concrete.

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634 5. One of the suggested ideas to promote UHPC in construction is to explore alternative

635 materials to replace the expensive composites of UHPC. Waste materials with

636 cementitious properties were recommended to replace Portland cement and silica

637 fume with the following advantages:

638 a. reduce concrete production costs,

639 b. make concrete more friendly to the environment by reducing waste materials

640 and gas emissions from cement production,

641 c. improve the homogeneity and density of the concrete for better strength and

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642 durability.

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643 However, concrete made from these useful alternative materials will not be of the
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644 same quality as the standard UHPC. Therefore, a promising choice to promote the
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645 standard technology in construction is to utilize UHPC in hybrid structures by combining
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646 it with other construction materials. UHPC in hybrid structures is a choice that is more
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647 practical and easier to construct since the cost of production is likely to be reduced with a
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648 composite structure that has the advantages of both combined materials. It is recommend,
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649 therefore, to continue this field of research, since it has the potential to be accepted in

650 many different applications in construction. Based on that, the authors are working to

651 develop and investigate a new design of hybrid structure that combines UHPC with

652 conventional concrete. The results will be documented in a separate paper.

653 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

654 The authors would like to express their Gratitudes to the ministry of education and the

655 deanship of scientific research – Najran University – Kingdom of Saudi Arabia for their

656 financial and Technical support under code number (NU/ESCI/17/028). And also

41
657 acknowledge the support from the Research and Development Office, Ministry of Education,

658 Saudi Arabia in cooperation with Najran University in the form of post-doctoral fellowship.

659 REFERENCES

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663 [03] Moore, D. (1999) "The Roman Pantheon", [online] Available at:

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664 http://romanconcrete.com/ Retrieved 28 March 2020.

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665 [04] Li, Z. (2011) Advanced Concrete Technology, John Wiley & Sons.

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669 [07] Spasojevic, A. (2008) “Structural implications of ultra-high performance fibre-

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671 [08] Bye, G., Livesey, P. & Struble, L. (2011) Admixtures and Special Cements: Portland
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673 [09] Yang, J., Peng, G. F., Gao, Y.X., & Zhang, H. (2015) “Mechanical properties and
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675 Engineering Material, Vol. 629-630, pp. 96-103.

676 [10] Soliman, N. A. & Arezki, T-H., A. (2017) “Using particle packing and statistical
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679 [11] Chen, J., Chen, H. & Li, G. (2019) “Packing density improvement for improving
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681 [12] Wong, H. & Kwan, A. (2008) “Packing density of cementitious materials: part 1-
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684 [13] Mishra, O. & Singh, S.P. (2019) “An overview of microstructural and material
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687 [14] Kang, S-T, Lee, Y, Park, Y-D & Kim, J-K (2010) “Tensile fracture properties of an
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690 [15] Hakeem, I. Y., Azad, A. K., & Ahmad, Sh. (2013) “Effect of steel fibres and thermal
691 cycles on fracture properties of ultra-high performance concrete”, Journal of Testing
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693 [16] Tayeh, B. A. et.al (2019) “Properties of ultra-high performance fibre-reinforced

694 concrete (UHPFRC): A Review Paper”, AIP Conference Proceedings, Vol. 2157(1),
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696 [17] Farzad, M. Shafieifar, M., and Azizinamini, A. (2019) “Experimental and numerical
697 study on bond strength between conventional concrete and Ultra High-Performance
698 Concrete (UHPC)”, Engineering Structures, Vol. 186, pp. 297–305.

699 [18] Azmee, N.M. & Shafiq, N. (2018) “Ultra-high performance concrete: From
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49
Declaration of interests

☒ The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships
that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

☐The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered
as potential competing interests:

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Mohamad A. Bajaber
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(First and corresponding author)

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