Case Studies in Construction Materials 17 (2022) e01318

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Case Studies in Construction Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cscm

Future directions for the application of zero carbon concrete in

civil engineering – A review
Muhammad Wasim a, *, Aref Abadel b, B.H Abu Bakar c, Ibrahim M.H. Alshaikh c
a
School of Engineering, Department of Infrastructure Engineering, The University of Melbourne, 3010 Parkville, Victoria, Australia
b
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, King Saud University, Riyadh 11421, Saudi Arabia
c
School of Civil Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 14300 Nibong Tebal, Penang, Malaysia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The emission of CO2 from the construction and concrete industry poses a serious threat to human
Sustainable concrete health and drastically impacts the environment. Therefore, there is an urge towards green or CO2
Zero carbon emission free concreting and construction by the United Nations by 2050. Researchers around the globe are
Microstructure
exploring the best sustainable and alternative materials for cement and concrete with minimum to
Durability
Structural application
net zero CO2 emissions. Despite this, the research on zero-carbon concrete is still in the earlier
stages with some interesting and prospective sustainable concrete solutions have been developed.
The current paper presents a comprehensive review of the research carried out so far for
achieving concrete technology with minimum to zero-carbon emissions. The main objectives of
this review are to highlight the research directions for future research in the field of zero-carbon
technology. Various search engines such as SCOPUS predominantly, Google Scholar, Engineering
Village, Web of Science were adopted to explore the articles on zero-carbon concrete. The selected
articles for review were divided into three key sections in this paper, i.e., 1) Formulations and
microstructure of the sustainable concrete, 2) Durability of sustainable concrete, 3) Structural
applications of sustainable concrete. The gaps and future research directions are elicited and
presented in this paper. Finally, the key conclusions and recommendations are provided at the
end of this paper.

1. Introduction

Concrete is the most utilised construction material as compared to other materials such as steel and timber globally [1]. The ease of
availability of ingredients, durability and cost-effectiveness are the major attributes of employing concrete construction universally.
However, the majority of the convention concretes used for construction contain cement which emits a significant amount of carbon
dioxide (CO2) during its production [2]. Although concrete emits less CO2 compared to the other building materials like steel, timber
and glass [3], it is reported that one tonne of portland cement production generates a nearly exact amount of CO2 [4]. Consequently,
the concrete industry and its construction impact the global socio-ecological environment quite badly. Besides, the consumption of raw
materials required for the production of portland cement is nearly doubled its quantity [5]. Thus, to overcome these serious issues,
sustainable and alternate concrete solutions are deemed necessary.

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: mwasim@unimelb.edu.au (M. Wasim), aabadel@ksu.edu.sa (A. Abadel), cebad@usm.my (B.H Abu Bakar),
Ibrahimalshaikh86@gmail.com (I.M.H. Alshaikh).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2022.e01318
Received 30 December 2021; Received in revised form 8 July 2022; Accepted 15 July 2022
Available online 16 July 2022
2214-5095/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
M. Wasim et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 17 (2022) e01318

Nomenclature

UN United Nation.
CO2 Carbondioxide.
GPC Geopolymer concrete.
BOLIG Building in Denmark constructed with zero carbon concrete.
Melink Building in US constructed with zero carbon concrete.
PRISMA Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses.
FRP Fibre reinforced polymer.
CFRP Carbon fibre reinforced polymer.
BFA Blast furnace ash.
OP Ordinary portland.
Port Portlandite.
Etr Ettringite.
RCal Rhombohedral calcite.
Gyp Gypsum.
EGA elephant grass ash.
EGC elephant grass cameroon.
EGN elephant grass napier.
SF Silica fume.
PP Polypropylene.
BLA Banana leaves ashes.
RSA rice straw ash.
CSA cotton stalks ash.
SCM supplementary cementitious materials.

United Nations (UN) has a set goal for zero carbon emissions for the industries by 2050 to prevent global warming temperature
reaching 1.5 C and exceeding above [6]. With the rapid urbanisation and growing population, the utilisation and demand of concrete
could easily be expected exponentially high by the given deadline of the UN. Nevertheless, researchers are demonstrating that by
replacing clinkers from the concrete and cement production with waste materials, the emissions of CO2 can be minimised [7]. The
amalgamation of calcinated clay and fillers have been incorporated to replace clinkers used in the production of cement and concrete
[8–10]. Moreover, the intellects with the help of engineers and researchers are continuously developing and improving policies and
strategies to achieve the UN’s target of zero carbon emissions in various parts of the world [11–16].
Very recently, a case study has been conducted in Sweden on zero carbon emissions for road construction [17]. Factors like steel,
concrete and asphalt production and utilisation, construction processes and heavy transport, were evaluated for impacting the road
construction from environmental perspectives. The strategies for the coordination and collaboration among these factors for achieving
zero carbon emissions goals were considered. The measures that need to be taken in various sectors, the development of policies and
the importance of integrated industrial climate were highlighted to achieve zero carbon emission by 2045.
To achieve the target of zero carbon emissions, apart for utilizing zero carbon concrete, energy efficient homes with net zero carbon
emission are now started to build in developed countries [18–21]. Green buildings were constructed in various parts of the world in the
last couple of years. For example, Hong Kong’s Construction Industry Council [22], Singapore’s Construction Authority Academy [23],
US’ Melink [23], Australia’s Pixel carbon-neutral building [24] and Denmark’s the BOLIG [25] are the notable zero carbon emission
buildings. The latest review on green buildings by incorporating environmentally friendly materials and structural systems can be
accessed in literature [26].
It is worth mentioning that many cement replacement materials have been tried in concrete by researchers and engineers. Sus­
tainable Geopolymer concrete (GPC) that utilises industrial wastages like slag and fly ash with little to no cement content, is exhibiting
promising results that can potentially pave the way to zero carbon emission concreting meeting the structural and other requirements
with future improvements [27–29]. Researchers are exploring the best design for the GPC to obtain its superior strength, durability,
enhanced sustainability and greater energy savings for construction applications [30–33]. However, considerable research is still
needed to be carried out to achieve zero carbon emissions geopolymer or similar other concrete technology.
Therefore, considering the limited research and the literature on zero-carbon concrete, the current comprehensive review is carried
out. The main aim was to find gaps and directions for future research in the field of zero-carbon concreting taking into account the
material, microstructure, durability and structural aspects which has very limited literature.

2. Methodology

To collect the available literature on the zero carbon concrete, the modified PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic
Reviews and Meta-Analyses) procedures were adopted for the holistic review in the current research. The ‘SCOPUS’ database was
selected for searching the articles in the current research mainly including other search engines as well. The keyword “zero-carbon

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concrete” produced 242 documents in SCOPUS. This search was refined by selecting journals, reviews, books and chapters, published
in English language. Notably, this refined search produced many articles covering articles on geopolymer concrete as a sustainable
concrete with very little specifically on term ‘zero carbon concrete’ was observed.

2.1. Analysis of publications

The network of most occurring keywords on zero-carbon concrete were found to be; greenhouse gases, global warming, geo­
polymer, sustainability, concrete strength, temperature, environmental impact, carbon dioxide, energy utilization, energy, life cycle
assessment etc. The trend of publications (Fig. 1) shows that the publications on the selected topic started to increase from early 2000
and it is continuing.
The SCOPUS revealed a very limited number of articles published in quality journals. The key journals that published two and more
articles on zero-carbon concrete are shown in Table 1. This table illustrates that most articles are published in Construction and
Building Materials (11) followed by Advanced Materials Research (8). While other journals have 3 or fewer articles as can be seen in
Table 1. Besides, the articles having zero carbon and zero energy mentioned in their titles were found to be very limited, as shown in
Table 2.
Upon screening the articles from the SCOPUS, it was found that the number of articles was not even related to the zero-carbon
concrete. There were more than 10 articles were found in this search related to fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) and carbon fibre
reinforced polymer (CFRP) strength and confinement of concrete elements. Therefore, further sorting of the relevant articles and
search from other engines was also carried out. After careful selection of articles and reviewing them, the review was organised into
key sections for thoroughly understanding zero-carbon concrete. The first main section titled “composition of net zero carbon con­
crete” presents various formulations and the mechanical properties of zero-carbon concrete are presented. The second section presents
“Durability of zero carbon concrete” is presented. The “Structural applications of net zero carbon concrete” are presented in the third
main section. The last section is on “Gaps and potential areas for future research on zero-carbon concrete” is presented. The “Con­
clusions” is the last section which summarises the key findings and proposes recommendations for future research.

3. Composition and microstructure of net zero carbon concrete

This section covers articles search on the SCOPUS, Google Scholar and other various engines to get knowledge about the mixture,
composition and microstructure development of the concrete that can potentially lead to sustainable applications and zero-carbon
objectives. In addition, the articles that specifically mentioned the terms zero cement and zero-carbon concrete are tacitly
mentioned in this section.
Recently, a comprehensive review on the use of hemp in concrete as a ‘carbon negative’ is published [34]. This review shows that
one meter square of unrendered hemp-lime formulation of 30 mm thickness can sequester 82.7 kg of CO2. For making hemp concrete,
hemp shives, a binder such as lime, and activators such as calcium chloride and sodium sulphate are used. Hemp concrete goes through
the processes of heating and chemical treatment for curing and hardening which adds to its manufacturing cost. In addition, the low
strength of the hemp concrete is the other major problem for its application as compared to the conventional concrete. Despite that, the
ductility of the hemp concrete is found to be comparable with the normal concrete. Future research can result in better strength,
tougher and more ductile hemp concrete for construction applications.
Rajeev et al. [35] researched the use of concrete with zero cement for the application of sewer pipes have been investigated
recently. Formulations with slag (of 25, 30 kg) and higher fly ash (of 70, 75 and 65 kg) proportions in the concrete’s mix ingredient
along with coarse and fine aggregates to cementitious materials ratios of 1.15/1.1 and 1.5, respectively with zero cement were found to
achieve durability against 3.5 % sulfuric acid environment. The microstructural images (M3, M4, M7, M8) in Fig. 2 represent

Fig. 1. Published documents on keyword ‘zero-carbon concrete’ between 1951 and 2021 (search Dated 6th Dec 2021 in SCOPUS).

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Table 1
Selected journals that published articles on zero-carbon concrete as per
SCOPUS.
Journals No of articles

Construction and Building Materials 11

Advanced Materials Research 8
Composites Part B: Engineering 3
Journal of Building Engineering 3
ACI Structural Journal 2
Applied Mechanics and Materials 2
Cement and Concrete Research 2
Composite Structures 2

Table 2
Selected articles searched in Scopus with ‘zero carbon’ and ‘zero energy in their title.
Authors Title Year Source title

Miller R. [9] Sustainable concrete – A zero carbon future? 2008 Concrete (London)
Ghauri A., Hameed M., Hughes A.J., Numerical analysis of a zero energy villa in the UAE 2018 Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering
Nazarinia M. [21]
Iyiegbuniwe E.A. [20] Net-zero energy: A case study on renewable energy and policy issues at 2014 International Journal of Energy
Richardsville Elementary School, Kentucky Technology and Policy
Marsh G. [19] Zero energy buildings: Key role for RE at UK housing development 2002 Refocus

Fig. 2. Microstructure of the specimens with cement and without cement after 28 days of exposure in 3.5 % sulfuric acid.

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specimens without cement indicating the dense microstructure with the presence of fewer microcracks.
The composites with nearly zero CO2 emissions are recently developed [36]. The optimum quantity of nano CaCO3 fillers was found
to be 2 % in this research. The better compressive and flexural strengths were obtained by introducing these fillers into cement mortar
as compared to the standard mortar. The microstructure characterisation of this mortar revealed the presence of nanoparticles with
calcite formation. The presence of nanofillers compacted the cement mortar structure leading to improve mechanical properties of
composites.
Recently, Thomas et al. [37] reviewed the application of agricultural waste i.e., biochar in the making of sustainable cement
(ordinary portland) and its replacement concrete (geopolymer). The articles in which cement was replaced with ashes of the bamboo
and, banana leaves, plantain peel, wastages of olive, corn cob, white and rice straw for achieving zero waste and zero-carbon tech­
nologies were thoroughly reviewed. The compositions of sustainable cementitious materials and their contents were reviewed for
concrete applications and drawbacks. Moreover, the adequacy of biochar for sustainable geopolymer concrete and the replacement of
cementitious materials was highlighted. The composition of various ashes that can be potentially used for zero-carbon concrete for
construction is listed in Table 3.
In pursue of sustainability and achieving minimum possible carbon emissions, Researchers [45] investigated the use of biochar fly
ash replacing coal ash by 30 %, can improve the compressive strength. The increasing quantity of the Blast furnace ash (BFA) in the
concrete matrix was able to provide more compactness increasing strength. The microstructure of the BFA in Fig. 3a, and the various
microstructural phases formed in the composites by the addition of varying quantities of BFA at the 28 days of curing are illustrated in
Fig. 3b. The bulk density and the porosity were found to be increased for the mortar with a higher quantity of BFA at 28 days. The
porosity was then decreased after 28 days. The compressive strength improved slightly, while the flexural strength decreased with the
increase of BFA at 90 and 180 days. The flexural and compressive strengths of the sustainable concrete with biomass fly ash of varying
quantities replacing cement showed good results upon comparing with reference conventional concrete as shown in Fig. 4 [45].
Date palm ash as a sustainable replacement of cement in the concrete mortar has been investigated recently [46]. In this study 10 %
and 100 % of cement was replaced with DPA, however, the initial testing carried out in the study revealed 10 % as adequate
replacement of cement with no environmental and human health issues. Earlier microstructural investigations of date palm fibres
sections (Fig. 5) have also shown the presence of porous structure with irregular surface and filaments enabling a good bond between
the fibres and the other concrete’s ingredients [47]. Also, elephant grass ash (EGA) types i.e., Cameroon (EGC) and Napier (EGN) were
investigated for cement replacement. These ashes were found to have a porous and irregular microstructure structure. After 60 days of
curing, the pozzolanic reaction caused the CSH gel to be circular along with the presence of flakes (1, Fig. 8a), sponge type (2, Fig. 6a,
b) and unreacted silicon particles with the CSH phases in samples containing silica fume (SF) (3, Fig. 6a, b). Besides, banana leaves
ashes (BLA) were also investigated for achieving sustainability in pursue of zero-carbon concrete goals [40]. The 10 % addition of BLA
by replacing cement was found to be adequate with acceptable properties in concrete and mortar with time. The microstructural
features of CSH gel formation and quantification for the specimen with BLA tested after 56 days of curing are shown in Fig. 7. The
concrete with 10 % BLA as a replacement of cement was practically used for casting cross arms for electrical distribution.
The rice straw ash (RSA) and cotton stalks ash (CSA) has pozzolanic properties and has been able to replace 5% of concrete [48].
The 10 % of RSA as cement replacement has been found to produce compact microstructure, but the higher strength was achieved by
5 % [49]. The microstructure of RSA and CSA reveals, irregularity and porosity (Fig. 8). 10 % of RSA and CSA were used in lightweight
self-compacting concrete (LWSCC), the microstructure of control Fig. 9(a), with RSA (Fig. 9b) and CSA (Fig. 9c) is shown in Fig. 9 [49].
The LWSCC shows the presence of microcracks and microvoids (Fig. 9a), however with the addition of RSA containing SiO2 these voids
are reduced (Fig. 9b). The distribution of CSH is wide in CSA containing LWSCC (Fig. 9c) as compared to the other two samples (Fig. 9a
and b). The CSA acted as a filler to reduce more voids (Fig. 9c). Furthermore, concrete admixed with 5 % micro silica and 10 % RSA
showed better durability against acidic and carbonated environments [50].
The incorporation of wheat straw ash (WSA) and corn cob ash (CCA) for achieving sustainability and zero-carbon concrete has been
investigated recently. The replacement of cement by WSA percentages of 8, 16 and 24 were found to compressive strength at 180 days,
flexural strength at 28 days and superior durability in the sodium sulfate environment, respectively [51]. The 20 % replacement of
OPC with WSA of various types caused the dense C-S-H microstructure due to the filling effect in concrete Fig. 10(b–d) [52]. While the
mortar with 0 % WSA showed voids and porous structure (Fig. 10a). Besides, the inclusion of CCA in the concrete did not show better
results in terms of strength and durability [53], however the results needs to be established and further explored.
The research on the use of 100 % recycled construction waste with the intention of zero carbon emissions in the big sporting events
in Brazil was conducted in 2016 [51]. 50 % of demolition waste and 20 % of sugarcane ash was used along with aggregates. The
proportions of various mixes are shown in Table 4. The microstructure of this concrete is demonstrated in Fig. 11 after immediate and a

Table 3
Composition of various ashes that can be used for sustainable concrete from literature.
Article Refs. Ash type Al2O3 SiO2 Fe2O3 MgO CaO SO3 Na2O K2O P2O5 LOI TiO2

[38] Corn cob 7.48 66.38 4.44 2.06 11.57 1.07 0.41 4.92 – – –
[39] Bamboo leaf 1.01 78.71 0.54 1.83 7.82 1 0.05 3.78 0.99 3.83 0.08
[40] Plantain leaf 2.6 48.7 1.4 – – – 0.21 – – 5.06 –
[41] Wheat straw 0.28 86.5 1.13 0.78 9.73 – 0.1 1.54 – 1.2 –
[42] Elephant grass 0.47 49.9 0.83 4.22 10.4 0.47 – 8.6 9.91 14.6 –
[43] Date palm 0.65 35.93 0.78 6.36 13.04 – 3.6 7.4 – 8.41 –
[44] Rice straw 1.13 79.82 0.245 7.54 0.37 – 0.501 1.07 3.75 – –

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Fig. 3. (a) Microstructure of BFA and (b) Composite concrete of 28 days’ cured specimens containing A – REF, B – BFA of 45 gm, C – BFA 90 gm, D –
BFA 135 gm, E – BFA 180 gm, F – BFA 225 gm, G – BFA 270 gm, H – BFA 310 gm, with phases; Port (portlandite), Etr (ettringite), scalenohedral
calcite, C2S, CSH, RCal (rhombohedral calcite), BFA, Gyp (gypsum) [45].

Fig. 4. The (a) flexural and the (b) compressive strength of BAF composite mortars [45].

few hours of curing.

Geopolymer concrete is also sustainable concrete utilizing industrial wastes and contains very low to zero cement and hence zero
carbon in its ingredients [52–55]. Das et al. [56] recently studied the microstructural development in geopolymer concrete having lime
and silica replacing fly ash. The compact and denser microstructure was developed 28 days because of the formation of sodium/­
calcium aluminosilicate hydrate within it. The microstructure of fibre reinforced geopolymer with 40 % of ground granulated slag was
also found dense [57]. Similarly, there are some other studies on geopolymer with no cement [58–63].
The flexural and mechanical strength of sustainable GPC containing synthetic fibres showed improved energy of fracture, modulus
of rupture, compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, toughness, indirect tensile strength as compared to the OPC [64]. Similarly,
Albitar et al. [65] found the sustainable GPC that provided superior tensile, compressive, splitting and flexural strengths in aggressive
environments compared to OPC.

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Fig. 5. Microstructural view of the date palm fibres [47].

Fig. 6. The microstructural formation of samples after 60 days of curing in pastes with lime and pozzolan containing (a) EGC (b) EGN and (c) SF.

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Fig. 7. Microstructural and XRD analysis of a sample containing 10 % BLA after curing of 56 days. XRD (A) showed gel composition with Si/
Ca = 1.10 and Al/Ca = 0.38, while XRD (B) showed gel composition with Si/Ca = 0.65 and Al/Ca = 0.25.

4. Durability of net zero carbon concrete

This section covers the selected and the most adequate articles on the durability of sustainable concrete with nearly zero carbon
emissions.
Recently, a review on the durability and mechanical properties of the concrete with nearly zero emissions as compared to the OPC
has been published [66]. The review covers articles on the performance of ordinary portland, supplementary cementitious materials
(SCM), composite portland cement, and alkali-activated based concrete at low temperatures. Similarly, the review on the properties of
sustainable concrete with low carbon emissions achieved by adding blast furnace slag and fly ash in GPC is published recently [67].
There is another study investigating the durability of the sustainable concrete having ground granulated blast furnace slag and the fly
ash along with the little content of the cement [68]. The coupled effect of fly ash and slag in GPC provided durability against the freeze
and thaw [69] and with the inclusion of fibres superior resistance was observed [70]. Similarly, the inclusion of blast furnace and
Elazığ ferrochrome slags in GPC provided durability against the hydrofluoric, hydrochloric, sulfuric, phosphoric acids [71]. Similarly,

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Fig. 8. The microstructure of (a) RSA and (b) CSA [49].

other researchers have found similar and better results of GPC against varying quantities of acids and their types [72–78]. GPC with fly
ash-based, GGBS and demolition aggregates was also found durable against the sulfate attack and the wetting and drying conditions
[79]. The life cycle and the durability assessment of the fly ash and GBFS containing alkali-activated self consolidated GPC was found
resistive against sulfate attack [80]. Sustainable composite geopolymer composed of polypropylene (PP), fly ash and aggregates was
subjected to highly acidic (22 % HCl) and temperatures (95 ◦ C) [81]. Findings of this research revealed more durability against high
acidic and varying temperature conditions.
Apart from studies on the acid attack of the sustainable concrete, the binding capacity and the chloride resistance of GGBS and fly
ashes containing GPCs were investigated that were cured at high temperatures [82]. The fly ash/slag alkali-activated concrete (GPC)
was also found resistant to carbonation and leaching of alkali in the alternate wet-dry curing as compared to ambient curing [83].
Moreover, the durability of precast sustainable concrete exposed to the atmospheric environment for eight years was determined [84].
Specimens in the form of culverts were prepared and the cores from them were subjected to carbonation tests, determination of pore
sizes and permeation. The durability of sustainable concrete against carbonation was found less effective as compared to the OPC.
The adequacy of the sustainable alkali-activated slag concrete containing fly ash against the sewer environments for longer du­
rations was found more durable as compared to fly ash based GPC [85]. Furthermore, carbonated ladle slag as fine aggregate
substituting sand was used in concrete to minimize the emissions of CO2 into the atmosphere [86]. Further details about the durability
of sustainable geopolymer concrete can be accessed elsewhere [59].

5. Structural application of net zero carbon concrete

The literature specifically on the use of zero-carbon concrete for structural applications is very limited. However, articles on fibre
reinforced concrete and geopolymer reinforced concrete can be found. This section covers articles that talks about the use zero carbon
concrete for structural applications.
Recently Hassan et al. reviewed the use of GPC for structural applications [87]. The articles on the bond strength [88–92], flexural

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Fig. 9. Microstructure of LWSCC (a) control, with (b) 10 % RSA and (c) 10 % CSA.

Fig. 10. The microstructure of the mortar at the 28 days having 20 % WSA ash types replacing cement.

and shear strength of reinforced beams [92–97], columns [97–99], walls [100,101] of GPC were reviewed. Moreover, the articles on
the application of GPC on metals for immobilizing their toxicity [102,103], marine construction [104–107], thermally resistive
pavements[108,109] and field applications of GPC [108] were summarised in that review.
Sustainable concrete with no cement has been utilised for making paver bricks that were cured at higher to ambient temperatures
and subjected to weather conditions and traffic loadings for 150 days [110]. At the end of testing, no leaching effect of sustainable
paver blocks was observed. Moreover, a model incorporating the elastic modulus for damage mechanism of sustainable concrete was
also developed with the data of 240 days of testing.
A study on the sustainable design model for the columns minimising CO2 emissions in the construction of high rise buildings by

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Table 4
Mix proportions for the recycled waste and sugarcane.
Mix Cement: kg/ Water: kg/ Added water: kg/ Water/cement Superplasticiser: kg/ Natural aggregate: kg/m3 Uncleaned Cleaned recycled
m3 m3 m3 ratio m3 recycled aggregate: kg/m3
aggregate: kg/m3

Sand Brita 0 Brita 1 Brita 0 Brita 1 Brita 0 Brita 1

11

0 (0 % recycled aggregate) 300 160 31.4 0.53 4.02 952.6 439.9 470.2 — — — —
A1 (25 % uncleaned recycled 45.4 951.7 439.5 — — 404.5 — —
aggregate)
A2 (50 % uncleaned recycled 71.8 950.4 — — 346.6 404.0 — —
aggregate)
B1 (25 % cleaned recycled aggregate) 42.4 951.8 439.8 — — — — 415.3
B2 (50 % cleaned recycled aggregate) 49.9 951.3 — — — — 403.1 415.1

Case Studies in Construction Materials 17 (2022) e01318

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Fig. 11. Microstructure of the sugarcane ash immediately after (a) burning and (b) 4 h of grinding.

utilising sustainable composite concrete was conducted [111]. The relationships between CO2 emissions and the loadings and material
strength of the columns was analysed and developed. It is found that the greater area, material’s strength and steel shape of the column
plays a significant role in minimising CO2 emissions during the application of axial loads. The methodology for the workflow adopted
in that research is shown in Fig. 12. In another study, columns of sustainable GPC with steel fibres demonstrated improved bending and
axial load capacities by modelling and validated by experiments [112]. Elchalakani al. [113] used low carbon emission and
waste-based sustainable concrete for square columns. These columns had longitudinal reinforcement of glass fibre reinforced polymer
(GFRP), GPC and stirrups. They were exposed to varying loading and corrosive conditions. Similarly, columns of a sustainable GPC
reinforced with basalt FRP and composed of fly ash and GGBS materials were investigated [114]. Moreover, sustainable concrete-like
GPC with little to zero carbon emissions has been used for structural repairs and strengthening [115–118].
Furthermore, recently researchers in Australia developed bricks of sludge derive ash (SDA) with 10 % of each cement and sand was
replaced by SDA, showing the considerable reduction in greenhouse gas emissions upon carrying out the life cycle assessment [119].
The outcome of this research reveals that about 13,339,549 tons of greenhouse gas emissions can be reduced by the adoption of such
brick walls in construction. Structurally, the developed bricks walls showed better results under compression because of the ductility
but weaker strength with the addition of SDA of 10 %.
The cutting of the rebars for construction produces considerable wastages and CO2 emissions. The emissions of CO2 from rebars is
reported to be 9.2 times higher than the production of concrete for construction [120]. Considering, this a literature review was carried
out to find the approaches for minimizing the wastages and the associated CO2 emissions from the rebar cutting [121]. Recently,
carbon textile reinforced concrete which is a sustainable concrete was investigated for its flexural strength [122]. Varying sizes of the
mesh with the highest being 20 mm were used for the preparation of the specimens in this study (Fig. 13). Specimens were subjected to
four-point bend tests. The finding of the tests revealed that mesh size of 2 mm enhanced the toughness and the flexural strength by
820 % and 380 %.
The sustainable autoclaved aerated concrete with fibre reinforcement was also used for the concrete panel [123]. Better structural
serviceability was obtained from this panel. Moreover, stiffness and the ultimate flexural capacities were enhanced by adding carbon
fibre reinforced polymers. Subsequently, 30 % of the cost was optimised. Apart from the structural application, the sustainable
concrete with fibre reinforcement was used for infrastructural application i.e., for concrete pipes [124]. By using fibre reinforcement,
the durability of the concrete pipes was enhanced. Moreover, a model for the contribution of the fibres for structural applications was
developed and validated by experimental data (Fig. 14).
From the above review, it is obvious that research on the application of sustainable and zero-carbon concrete for structural ap­
plications has been very limited. There is a big room for carrying out new research in the area of structural engineering which will be
highlighted in the section below.

6. Gaps and potential areas for future research on zero-carbon concrete

The literature on zero-carbon concrete was found to be very limited through this study. There are several prospective areas for
future research on zero-carbon concrete discussed in this section.
The term zero carbon concrete can cover concrete such as sustainable concrete with the inclusion of processed ashes from natural
sources, geopolymer concrete containing industrial waste, waste-based concretes containing rubber crumbs, plastics, glass pieces and
concrete without cement etc. These concretes have been explored extensively in the last decade or so from various aspects. However,
their practical applications for the construction practice is still very limited. There is a limited application of zero-carbon concretes for
the flooring of residential and commercial buildings. The aesthetically appealing flat slabs made of zero-carbon concrete can be tested
in the laboratory for their structural applications. Moreover, the load-carrying concrete walls made of zero-carbon concrete has not
been tested and applied for construction projects for their efficacy in projects. Though glass fibre reinforced concrete has been used to
some extent for the façade of the buildings, the other zero-carbon concretes containing rubber crumbs and plastics has not been tested
so for the construction of buildings. Similarly, zero-carbon concrete based prefabricated flooring, walls and the façade for residential

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Fig. 12. Flow chart for the sustainable design model of the high rise buildings [111].

and commercial buildings are to be investigated by industry and future research collaborations.
Zero carbon concrete has not been established for structural applications. The research on structural, acoustics and seismic
resistance of zero-carbon concretes has been very limited. The structural models for the buildings having reinforced zero-carbon
concrete columns, beams, shear walls and slabs have not been studied for seismic performances against a variety of structural
codes and standards. Furthermore, the bond strength and impact resistance of this type of concrete need to be investigated and

13
M. Wasim et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 17 (2022) e01318

Fig. 13. Preparation of textile specimen (a) concrete pouring (b) placing the textile frame (c) compaction of the textile mesh by rolling (d) final
concrete pouring [122].

established. The dynamic loadings including P delta effects and the fatigue analysis for zero-carbon concrete needs consideration for
future research. The use of zero-carbon concrete for the raft foundations can prove to be suitable, however, it has not been explored so
far. The phenomenon of progressive collapse [125], fire resistance [126], blast simulations [127] of the zero-carbon concrete has not
been investigated. Moreover, comparative studies for various types of zero-carbon concrete has not been performed to determine the
best type of zero-carbon concrete providing structural adequacy as well as cost-effectiveness for production. The development of
zero-carbon concrete composites and hybrids for structural applications needs to be investigated in future research. Besides, the
thermal performance and energy efficiencies of the structures built using zero-carbon concrete is also an area that remained unex­
plored so far for residential and commercial building applications.
The determination of durability against corrosion and environmental assisted cracking is the other area on which zero-carbon
concrete have to be explored further. Until now, no zero-carbon concrete has been established that can provide resistance to the
environmental induced degradation better than then conventional concrete. Structures are subjected to various environments such as
marine and atmospheric. Small to full-scale testing has to be carried out in accelerated and real environments to check the behaviour of
the zero-carbon concrete. In addition, the durability of this type of concrete against weather variations has not been explored which
may prove its suitability against some harsh weather conditions. Moreover, the durability of 3D printed vs conventional zero-carbon
concrete can be tested in future research. Furthermore, the zero-carbon concrete’s corrosion effectiveness for the repairs [128], long
term corrosion resistance vs other types of reinforced concrete in various environments [129], the effect of oxygen and moisture
transport, concrete cover, water-cement ratios [130] are the areas to be explored in depth. The influence of environments on the
reinforcing steel in zero-carbon concrete has not been explored [131]. The research on the influence of chemical admixtures on the
compressive strength of the zero-carbon concrete in hot and humid conditions is also missing in the literature [132]. It is also
interesting to determine how the microstructure of zero-carbon concrete behaves to the corrosive ions such as oxygen and chlorides
and hydrogen by Multiphysics simulations. The simulations of zero-carbon concrete under extreme loading conditions can be a po­
tential area of research that also has no previous research.
The application of zero-carbon concrete as pipes for the carrier of highly corrosive and acidic liquids and the storage tanks con­
taining biowaste and waste water has to be explored by the long-term testing. Furthermore, zero carbon concrete can be tested for the
application as the construction material for the water service pipes and transmission lines buried in the soil by laboratory and field
investigation. The application of reinforced zero carbon concrete for the efficient design of prefabricated products by applying
principles of Design for Manufacture and Assembly (DfMA) is another worth exploring area [133,134]. Finally, the development of
policies and strategies for zero carbon emissions in concreting unanimous for all countries has to be established.

7. Conclusions

This paper has presented a comprehensive review of zero-carbon concrete. The articles on the formulations and the microstructural
characteristics of sustainable concrete having ashes of bamboo and, banana leaves, plantain peel, wastages of olive, corn cob, white

14
M. Wasim et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 17 (2022) e01318

Fig. 14. The model vs experiment results [124].

and rice straw in their mixer, the durability aspects, and the available articles on the structural applications of sustainable concrete are
reviewed thoroughly. Based on the review, it is revealed that there is limited research carried out so far on zero-carbon concrete. Many
areas are highlighted for the future research directions on zero carbon concrete in this paper, some of these key areas are tacitly
summarised below:

• Analysis of reinforced zero-carbon concrete with waste materials against seismic, blast, impact, fire and dynamics needs to be
explored.
• The durability of zero-carbon concrete in various corrosive environments and weather conditions are the areas to be looked at in
future works.
• Prefabrication and precast concreting of structural and nonstructural components using zero-carbon concrete need further
exploring. The flooring systems and walls with zero carbon concretes can be tested for their efficacy in construction.
• The comparative studies of the 3D printed structures by zero-carbon concrete and conventional concrete have not been explored so
far.
• The influence of environments on the mechanical properties and service life of the zero-carbon concrete is the area of interest for
asset managers and owners. Therefore, needed to be explored.
• The use of zero-carbon concrete for infrastructure is still limited in the literature.
• There is a need for development of common and unanimous strategies and policies for zero carbon emissions with consensus from
all the countries to achieve the sustainability goals of the UN.
• Further investigations for the use of hemp concrete as a zero carbon concrete are still needed to be developed.
• The application of the zero carbon concrete for the buildings’ foundation are needed to be explored by future research.
• Investigations of the zero carbon concrete for energy efficiencies are still needed to be explored.

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M. Wasim et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 17 (2022) e01318

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

Data Availability

All data used in the current research is included and presented in this paper.

Acknowledgements

The funding from the University of Melbourne is gratefully acknowledged.

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