ACI MATERIALS JOURNAL
Title no. 109-M10
Performance of Portland/Silica Fume Cement Concrete
Produced with Recycled Concrete Aggregate
by Mukesh Limbachiya, Mohammed Seddik Meddah, and Youssef Ouchagour
The use of recycled aggregate in concrete industry has a great
potential to reduce demand for natural aggregate and the amount
of solid waste dumped at landfill sites. The main objective of this
study is to design a concrete made with different proportions of
coarse recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) having a similar 28-day
design strength to corresponding natural aggregate concrete.
Recycled coarse aggregates, obtained by crushing concrete debris
from various sources, were used in three proportions of 30, 50, and
100% (by weight) to produce concrete with various water-cement
ratios (w/c) and different compressive strength grades.
The key mechanical properties and durability performance of
concrete produced with portland silica fume (PSF) and RCA were
investigated. The RCA used showed inferior mechanical properties
(crushing and impact values) than the natural aggregates (NA)
and, hence, RCA concrete exhibited slightly lower performance
than NA concrete. The results showed that up to 30% coarse RCA
had no major effect on the compressive strength of concrete and,
thereafter, a gradual reduction in strength with an increase in RCA
content was observed. Reducing the w/c of concrete treated with
the RCA has led to an enhanced compressive strength, higher
resistance to carbonation, and chloride ion ingress. It was also
found that, when properly designed, portland cement silica fume
(PC-SF) concrete made with different proportions of coarse
RCA as substitute of NA may contribute to enhance the durability
performance of concrete.
Keywords: carbonation; chloride ingress; drying shrinkage; durability;
mechanical properties; recycled concrete aggregate; silica fume; strength;
sulfate attack; sustainable concrete
INTRODUCTION
It is now widely acknowledged and acceptable that the
use of recycled aggregates in concrete production offers
an environmentally responsible and economically viable
sustainable route. In recent years, concrete made with
recycled aggregate has started to become a practical reality,
gained general acceptance, and is considered to be one
of the most promising solutions to reduce the amount of
construction and demolition waste (CDW) that may end up
in landfills. With an estimated amount of more than 50% of
the total generated wastes, CDW combined to an excessive
extraction of nonrenewable mineral resources is largely
contributing to a permanent environmental degradation.
Over the last decades, the amount of CDW has increased
considerably in line with increased construction activities
and due to the demolition and restoration of old buildings.
Meanwhile, the substantial demand of new constructions
are recorded, which leads to an extensive use of natural
resources, especially natural aggregate (NA), as it represents
approximately 70% of the total volume of concrete. It is
believed that the taxes on landfilling and quarrying nonre-
newable materials, a shortage of raw materials, and a reduc-
tion in the dependency on primary materials and the cost of
ACI Materials Journal/January-February 2012
TECHNICAL PAPER
new construction may play an important role in promoting
the use of recycled aggregates in the concrete industry.
Sustainable construction has become one of the key
requirements of today’s concrete. A wide range of recycled
aggregate has been steadily introduced in a range of civil
engineering and construction applications as partial replace-
ment of natural aggregates in concrete.1-5 While various
types of recycled aggregates, such as bricks,3 tiles,4,5 and
glass might be incorporated in concrete, RCA is still consid-
ered to be the most available for use as secondary aggregates.
It is well recognized that concrete is the second-most-
consumed material, with an estimated worldwide consump-
tion6 in 2006 of approximately 31 billion tonnes (6.8 ×
104 billion lb), accounting for 20 to 50% of all resources
explored. Using different types of industrial by-products and
recycled materials in concrete industry would significantly
contribute to achieving sustainability in construction, as it
has a potential to reduce landfill charges and the exploration
and extraction of nonrenewable materials.
Previous work on the use of recycled concrete aggre-
gate (RCA) in concrete production concluded that:
1) the source7 and strength8-13 of the parent concrete used
to produce RCA has no effect on the grading of the RCA
but may have great influence on the strength characteristics
of the new concrete14; 2) for the same workability, RCA
requires more mixing water than NA concrete; 3) a reduc-
tion in the compressive strength of concrete made with RCA
as compared to concrete with NA has been reported8,15-18;
and 4) the replacement ratio strongly affects the mechanical
properties and durability performance of the new concrete
made with RCA.16 On the other hand, one of the major diffi-
culties with recycled aggregates is the variability in their
properties due to composition, contents, and proportions
largely linked to the original source of debris, which conse-
quently results in the variability of concrete produced.
Although significant research has been done on concrete
using different types of recycled aggregates including RCA,
a lack of information can still be observed regarding RCA
concrete durability performance and its use in blended cement
concrete. This paper presents various properties of concretes
made with portland cement (PC) and portland cement silica
fume (PCSF), designed with different proportions (30, 50,
and 100%) of the RCA obtained from different sources
of parent concrete. An appropriate experimental program
was undertaken to explore the feasibility and potential of
ACI Materials Journal, V. 109, No. 1, January-February 2012.
MS No. M-2010-320.R2 received July 7, 2011, and reviewed under Institute
publication policies. Copyright © 2012, American Concrete Institute. All rights
reserved, including the making of copies unless permission is obtained from the
copyright proprietors. Pertinent discussion including author’s closure, if any, will be
published in the November-December 2012 ACI Materials Journal if the discussion is
received by August 1, 2012.
91

Mukesh Limbachiya is a Professor and Head of the School of Civil Engineering
and Construction and the Director of the Sustainable Technology Research Centre
at Kingston University London, London, UK. He received his PhD from Sheffield
Hallam University, South Yorkshire, UK. His research interests include concrete
technology, sustainable construction, and the innovative use of recycled materials
in value-added applications.
Mohammed Seddik Meddah is a Research Associate at Kingston University London.
He received his PhD from the Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada.
His research interests include autogenous shrinkage and self-stress, internal curing,
the use of various supplementary cementitious materials and by-products in concrete,
sustainability, cement matrix microstructure, fiber-reinforced concrete, and durability
of concrete.
Youssef Ouchagour received his PhD in civil engineering from Kingston University
London. His research interests include the use of recycled materials in concrete and
sustainable construction.
large amount of CDW, shortage of landfills, and permanent
exploration of natural materials could be detrimental for
the environment.
Whereas RCA has gained a wide acceptance as a potential
alternative for NA, concrete treated with RCA needs to
perform quite comparably to NA concrete. A proper mixture
design with a low water-cement ratio (w/c) and the use of
mineral admixtures such as silica fume (SF) are suggested to
enhance mechanical properties and durability performance
of concrete made with coarse RCA; hence, its use is
promoted in construction. The results have proven that up
to 30% of coarse RCA could successfully be used to replace
NA in normal-strength concrete, whereas previous work
suggests—with some cautionary actions—the use of RCA
in high-strength concrete.18

Table 1—Chemical composition of portland EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS

cement and silica fume used Materials
Percentage, %
Concrete mixtures were produced using PC CEM I 42.5N
conforming to BS EN 197-1. Binary concrete (PCSF) was
Constituents Portland cement Silica fume made using blended cement containing 10% SF as a partial
SiO2 21.40 96.00 replacement by mass of PC. The SF used was in slurry,
Al2O3 4.70 0.50 which contained 50% of SF powder mixed with 50% water.
The chemical composition of PC and SF used is presented in
Fe2O3 2.70 0.42 Table 1. The coarse NA used were natural siliceous gravel
CaO 65.20 0.30 with a nominal size of 5 to 20 mm (0.196 to 0.79 in.), and
MgO 1.00 0.87
natural river siliceous sand with a maximum size of 5 mm
(0.196 in.) was used as fine aggregate. It should be noted
SO3 2.90 0.25 that for all mixtures investigated, no chemical admixtures
K2O 0.64 0.41 were added.
Na2O 0.13 0.15
Production of RCA
Loss on ignition 0.90 1.10 To ensure the research covers a wide range of practical
CDW debris, laboratory-cast concrete, demolished concrete
Table 2—Constituents of RCA used and BS 8500-2 structures, rejected structural precast concrete elements,
requirements for RCA airport pavement, masonry concrete blocks, and curbs and
pavers were used to produce coarse RCA. All debris was
Constituents of RCA Proportions, % Maximum allowance, % clean and free from detrimental levels of chemical impurities
Concrete *
92.13 — and harmful constituents. A recycling plant, comprising
Masonry 1.56 5 primary jaw and secondary cone crushers, electromagnetic
and air separation systems, and screens, was used. During
Asphalt 1.57 5
this process, large pieces of wood, steel, and plastics were
Fines 3.41 5 manually removed and debris was fed into a primary crusher
Foreign materials† 0.85 1 for production of 75 mm (2.95 in.) maximum pieces and
Lightweight materials‡ 0.48 0.5 screening on a 10 mm (0.394 in.) scalping. At this point, fine
*
Requirements set in BS 8500 for coarse RCA: Minimum of 83.5% for content of
materials were removed by an air blower and reinforcement;
concrete. and other metals were eliminated using an electromagnet
†
Class, wood, plastic, and metal. belt. The remaining large pieces were then passed through a
‡
Materials with r < 100 kg/m3.
Note: 1 kg/m3 = 1.686 lb/yd3. secondary cone crusher and screen to produce clean coarse
RCA of 20 to 5 mm (0.79 to 0.196 in.) size fractions with
using demolished concrete debris to replace NA. Different grading corresponding to crushed rock, as per BS 882.
properties of fresh and hardened concretes made with NA The RCA composition was determined in accordance with
and various proportions of coarse RCA were examined. BS 8500:Part 2. The results were well within the standard
specified limits, as shown in Table 2.
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE In general, the RCA was found to be equidimensional
To minimize environmental damage, sustainable and but more coarse, porous, and rough than natural gravel. The
durable construction has become one of the major require- physical and mechanical properties of both the NA and RCA
ments of the 21st century. Because concrete is the second used in this study were determined using the current European
most-consumed material (after water) and is also the main and British standard tests; the results are summarized in
source of CDW generated, recycling old concrete debris Table 3. The aggregate crushing value (ACV); impact value
and blocks is a key issue in promoting sustainable construc- (AIV); and 10% fines value (TFV), which give a relative
tion. The increasing demand for new construction has led measure of the resistance of an aggregate to mechanical
to an extensive use of natural mineral resources, whereas degradation, were the main differences between the NA
a considerable amount of CDW has to be landfilled. The and RCA used. The mechanical properties of aggregates,

92 ACI Materials Journal/January-February 2012

including ACV, AVI, and TFV, were determined according Table 3—Physical and mechanical characteristics
to BS 812:Part 110, Part 111, and Part 112, respectively. of aggregates used
The lower the ACV and AIV, the stronger the aggregate and, Characteristics Sand NA RCA
hence, the greater its ability to resist applied compressive
loads. In fact, the low density, high water absorption, ACV, Maximum size, mm 5 20 20
and AIV of the RCA compared to NA are mainly due to the Density, g/cm 3

attached mortar on the RCA. Whereas RCA has more fine Oven-dry 2.44 2.51 2.34
particles than NA, both aggregate types are within the limit
of grading for coarse aggregate set by BS 882 and EN 12620, Surface-dry 2.46 2.54 2.43
as shown in Fig. 1. Unit volume weight, kg/L — 1.48 1.28
Water absorption, % 0.77 1.4 5.3
Mixture proportions and concrete mixing
All concretes investigated were designed following Solid content — 59.1 56.8
BS 8500 requirements. For mixtures made with PC, four Shape — Round Spherical
concrete grades were tested: GEN 3, with a nominal 28-day Shape index, % — 20 to 22 14.4 to 16.2
design compressive strength of approximately 20 MPa
(2900.75 psi); RC 30; RC 35; and RC 40, with a nominal Flakiness index, % 13 to 16 7 to 9
28-day design compressive strength of 30, 35, and 40 MPa Fineness modulus 2.4 7.1 6.7
(4351, 5076.3, and 5801.5 psi), respectively. For mixtures
Surface texture — Smooth Rough and porous
containing SF, only two concrete grades were investigated:
RC 30 and RC 35. Table 4 provides the mixture proportions Mechanical properties
of all concretes investigated. For both PC and PC/SF concrete Crushing value, % — 12.4 23.4
types, NA was substituted by RCA at three replacement
Impact value, % — 6.3 to 7.3 18.3 to 23
ratios of 30, 50, and 100% (by mass). For practicability,
the RCAs have been used in surface-dry conditions and as 10% fines value, kN — 155 131
received from the recycling plant. Notes: 1 kN = 0.225 kips; 1 kg/m3 = 1.686 lb/yd3; 1 g/cm3 = 0.0361 lb/in.3; 1 mm =
0.0394 in.
As the densities of NAs and RCAs were different,
the actual amounts of fine and coarse aggregates in the
mixtures were slightly different, whereas the effective
water content was kept constant at 180 kg/m3 (303.5 lb/yd3)
for all the mixtures. The total mixing water was adjusted
to account for NA and RCA moisture content. To meet
BS 8500-2 requirements for the minimum compressive
strength of each concrete grade and to achieve a comparable
compressive strength for concrete made with RCA, the w/c
of 50 and 100% RCA concrete was reduced by an increase
in binder content.
Concrete were produced in a laboratory concrete mixer and
each mixture was appropriately labeled, as shown in Table 4.
Aggregates (NA, RCA, and fines) were first put in the mixer
and dry mixed for 1 minute, followed by the addition of
cement/SF, and mixed for another 1 minute. Water was then
added, followed by an additional mixing period of 3 minutes.
Immediately after mixing, fresh concrete properties were
determined using slump and compacting factor (CF) tests; Fig. 1—Grain size distribution of aggregates used. (Note:
the results are given in Table 4. Generally, the slump value 1 mm = 0.0394 in.)
varied between 20 and 120 mm (0.79 and 4.72 in.), and the
air content was limited to the entrapped air with values of
approximately 1.5 ± 0.5%. prior to exposure in specified conditions, unless otherwise
stated. The main curing regimes adopted for different tests
Specimen casting and curing are given in Table 5.
Concrete was cast in metal molds (cubes, cylinders, and
prisms) in three layers and compacted with a plate vibrator, Mechanical properties
as specified by BS 1881:Part 108:1983. Afterwards, all Cubes measuring 100 x 100 x 100 mm (3.94 x 3.94 x
concrete specimens were kept in their molds in a laboratory 3.94 in.) were used for compressive strength and tested at 3,
environment at 20 ± 2°C (68 ± 6.8°F) and 55 ± 5% relative 7, 14, 28, 56, 91, and 365 days, as specified in EN 12390-3.
humidity (RH) for the first 24 hours. Specimens were then Cylindrical specimens measuring 150 x 300 mm (5.9 x
demolded and cured under the specific curing conditions 11.81 in.) were used to measure the modulus of elasticity
adopted (Table 5) prior to testing. at 28 days in accordance with BS EN 1352:1997. Flexural
strength was measured under four-point loading at 28 days
Testing procedures in accordance with EN 12390-5 using 100 x 100 x 500 mm
Three specimens from each concrete type were tested (3.94 x 3.94 x 19.7 in.) prisms. For compressive and flexural
at different ages and the average value was recorded. All testing, the specimens were loaded during the testing at a
specimens were cured underwater at 20 ± 2°C (68 ± 6.8°F) constant rate until failure.

ACI Materials Journal/January-February 2012 93

Table 4—Mixture proportions and fresh concrete properties
Constituent, kg/m3 Fresh properties
Aggregates
Designated mixture,
(target 28-day strength) RCA, % PC SF Water NA RCA Sand w/c Slump, mm CF*
0 275 0 180 1260 0 625 0.66 70 0.97
30 275 0 180 882 378 625 0.66 70 0.98
GEN 3 (20 MPa)
50 295 0 180 635 635 595 0.61 60 0.98
100 310 0 180 0 1240 610 0.58 40 0.96
0 330 0 180 1245 0 585 0.55 70 0.97
30 330 0 180 872 373 585 0.55 60 0.98
50 355 0 180 623 623 560 0.51 80 0.98
100 372 0 180 0 1252 536 0.48 120 0.98
RC 30 (30 MPa)
0 261 29 180 1234 0 636 0.62 30 0.95
30 261 29 180 864 370 636 0.62 40 0.95
50 279 31 180 629 629 592 0.58 40 0.94
100 318 35 180 0 1247 560 0.51 20 0.94
0 355 0 180 1245 0 560 0.50 40 0.95
30 355 0 180 872 373 560 0.50 20 0.95
50 385 0 180 613 613 550 0.47 60 0.98
100 409 0 180 0 1226 525 0.44 50 0.95
RC 35 (35 MPa)
0 279 31 180 1258 0 592 0.58 40 0.94
30 279 31 180 881 377 592 0.58 30 0.93
50 300 33 180 626 626 575 0.54 30 0.95
100 338 37 180 0 1241 544 0.48 20 0.92
0 375 0 180 1241 0 544 0.48 30 0.95
30 375 0 180 869 372 544 0.48 10 0.90
RC 40 (40 MPa)
50 405 0 180 624 624 508 0.44 40 0.96
100 426 0 180 0 1241 494 0.42 20 0.93
*
CF is compacting factor; 1 mm = 0.0394 in.; 1 kg/m3 = 1.686 lb/yd3; 1 MPa = 145 psi.

Table 5—Curing conditions applied

Code Curing conditions Property tested
CU1 20°C (68°F), 95% RH Compressive and flexural strengths, modulus of elasticity
CU2 20°C (68°F), in water Compressive and flexural strengths, modulus of elasticity, expansion
CU3 Air at 20°C (68°F), 55% RH Drying shrinkage, sulfate attack
CU4 CU2 for 28 days and CU3 for 14 days Carbonation resistance
CU5 CXU2 for 3 days and CU3 for 14 days Chloride ion ingress

Expansion and drying shrinkage were measured on 75 x
75 x 300 mm (2.95 x 2.95 x 11.8 in.) prisms with stainless
steel points fixed on two sides of the specimen. The samples
were stored under the CU2 and CU3 curing regimes, respec-
tively. For both tests, the specimens were continuously cured
for 90 days and a length change of the different sides of the
specimens was measured using a digital strain gauge.
Durability performance
Carbonation—An accelerated carbonation test was carried
out on cubes measuring 100 x 100 x 100 mm (3.94 x 3.94 x
3.94 in.) that were cured during the first 28 days under the
CU2 regime. The specimens were then conditioned under
the CU3 regime for 14 days. Afterwards, all sides of the
specimens were sealed using a bituminous coating paint,
except the top side of the specimen, which was exposed (in a
carbonation tank) to a CO2-enriched atmosphere contfaining
3.5% of CO2 at 20 ± 2°C (68 ± 6.8°F) and 60 ± 5% RH. The
depth of carbonation in the tested concrete was measured by
applying a phenolphthalein color indicator spray on a freshly
broken piece of the specimens after 2, 4, 8, 12, and 20 weeks
of exposure. This turns noncarbonated concrete pink and
remains colorless in carbonated concrete. The depth of the
uncolored zone of the concrete (the carbonated layer) from
the edges of the broken piece was measured at five points,

94 ACI Materials Journal/January-February 2012

and the average value of the five measurements is reported
(carbonation depth).
Chloride ingress—The chloride ion content was measured
on cubes measuring 150 x 150 x 150 mm (5.9 x 5.9 x 5.9 in.)
that were cured for 3 days under the CU2 regime and then
exposed to dry conditions under the CU3 regime for 14 days.
The specimen was sealed on each side—except the top
side—using a bituminous coating paint. On the top side
of the tested specimen, 1 mol of sodium chloride solution
(58.4 g/L of NaCl per liter of distilled water [0.4883 lb/gal.])
was ponded for 42 days allowing for the diffusion of moisture
and chloride into concrete mass. At the end of the exposure
period, the specimens were dried and drilled from the top
side. The dust samples collected at different depths from
the top side (5, 10, 15, and 20 mm [0.197, 0.394, 0.59, and
0.79 in.]) were then tested using the potentiometric method
as specified by BS 1881-124 to determine their acid-soluble
chloride content.
Sulfate attack—Prismatic specimens measuring 75 x Fig. 2—Compressive strength development of RC30 mixtures
75 x 300 mm (2.95 x 2.95 x 11.8 in.), with stainless steel versus time. (Note: 1 MPa = 145 psi.)
points fixed on each of the four sides of the specimen, were
used to monitor the length change of concrete exposed to
a sulfate solution. The specimens were cured under the
CU3 curing regime for 28 days. Thereafter, the specimens
were stored in tanks containing sodium sulfate solution
(0.3 g/L [0.506 lb/yd3] of Na2SO4), which corresponds to
the Class 1 exposure conditions as specified by EN 206-1.
The specimens were kept in the sulfate solution for 60 days
and the length change of the different specimens’ sides was
measured regularly.

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Fresh concrete properties
It is well recognized that workability is one of the essen-
tial properties of concrete and it is influenced by the mixture
design parameters. A partial or total substitution of NA by
different proportions of coarse RCA may affect the fresh
concrete properties, especially for mixtures with ultra-
fine particles, such as SF. The slump and CF values of all
concrete tested are given in Table 4. Generally, the slump
values ranged between 20 and 120 mm (0.79 and 4.72 in.),
which are within the specified tolerances of EN 206-1. In
general, adding RCA to both PC and PC-SF concretes has a
slight effect on the slump values.
The PC-SF concretes have exhibited lower slump values,
as compared to PC concretes. In fact, the ultrafine particles
of SF have substantially increased the surface area of binder,
which increases the water demand of concrete; hence, it
needs a water-reducing agent (WRA) or high-range water-
reducing admixture (HRWRA) to enhance workability
and ensure a better dispersion of the binder particles. The
absence of either WRA or HRWRA has resulted in a low
slump value for the SF/PC concretes. On the other hand, up
to 50% of RCA and beyond, the slump values of the PC
concretes were slightly improved. This could be attributed
to the rounded shape of the RCA compared to the flat shape
of the NA. Furthermore, the increase in the initial slump
with an increasing amount of RCA is due to the high water
absorption capacity of RCA leading to a larger amount of
initial free water used in the RCA mixtures as compared to the
control. This initial extra free water in the RCA mixtures has
greatly contributed to the initial workability enhancement of
these concretes. Loss of slump over time is expected when
the RCA starts to absorb part of the free water still available
Fig. 3—Compressive strength development of RC35 mixtures
versus time. (Note: 1 MPa = 145 psi.)
in the mixture.19 In fact, several studies20 have used recycled
aggregates in a saturated or prewetted state to prevent a rapid
loss in concrete workability.
The compacting factor values presented in Table 4 were
found to be between 0.90 to 0.99 and 0.92 to 0.95 for the
PC and PC-SF concretes, respectively. Due to the absence
of WRA or HRWRA and the low workability of the
PC-SF mixtures, these concretes showed a slightly lower
compacting factor as compared to their corresponding PC
mixtures. Using RCA in both concrete types has shown no
significant effect on the compacting factor.
Hardened concrete properties
Mechanical properties—The compressive strength test
results are illustrated in Fig. 2 to 4. It can be observed that
all the concrete mixtures designed with the two cement
types (PC and PC-SF) with NA and up to 100% coarse RCA
have achieved the targeted 28-day design strength required
for each concrete grade. Generally, the use of 30% coarse
RCA seemed to have a negligible negative effect on the
compressive strength development of both PC and PC-SF

ACI Materials Journal/January-February 2012 95


Fig. 4—Compressive strength development of GEN3
mixtures versus time. (Note: 1 MPa = 145 psi.)
concrete mixtures. A similar trend was previously observed
by other authors.18 With an increase in RCA beyond 30%,
however, a gradual reduction between 7 to 20% and 2 to 14%
in the compressive strength of the PC and PC-SF mixtures,
respectively, was compared to the control concrete. This
could indicate that, while the PC-SF mixtures have a higher
w/c than PC mixtures, the use of RCA in blended cement
concrete is generally more advantageous and may minimize
the strength loss as compared to the PC concrete.
For both concrete types and except for a slight decrease
of the compressive strength for the RC35 concrete’s
grade, using 30% RCA seems to be the maximum amount
of the RCA that could be added without having a major
negative effect on the compressive strength. In fact, for
each concrete’s grade, both the NA concrete and mixture
with 30% RCA have been designed with the same mixture
proportions. The compressive strength results of concrete
with 30% RCA may reveal the reliability of these alternative
recycled aggregates for use in concrete production. Using
30% RCA, it is possible to produce concrete that has a
quite comparable compressive strength to corresponding
NA concrete without any further adjustments in the mixture
proportions. Meanwhile, adding up to 50% coarse RCA has
resulted in a slight improvement of the compressive strength
of the PC mixtures Grades RC30 and RC35, besides an
average of a 16% reduction in the compressive strength for
the PC-SF mixtures RC35. It is believed that this reduction
of strength in the RC35 PC-SF cannot be considered as a
general trend but it is mainly due to the large variety of
sources and properties of the RCA used in this study and also
to the higher water-binder ratio (w/b) of PC-SF compared to
the corresponding PC mixtures.
The strength loss of RCA concrete is mainly attributed
to the low aggregate’s strength properties (crushing value,
impact value, and 10% fines value), high porosity, and water
absorption of RCA compared to NA. Also, it is widely
recognized that concrete strength is strongly linked to the
strength of cement paste, aggregates’ bulk, and the interfacial
bond between the cement matrix and the aggregates. The use
of RCA, which has a layer of an old mortar, may weaken
the interfacial zone between the hardened cement paste
and RCA, which may result in a strength reduction of the
concrete material.
Whereas the presence of SF in RCA concretes did not
result in a general trend and an obvious improvement of
96
the compressive strength of concretes, the PF-SF RCA
mixtures have shown two different behaviors. For the PC-SF
RC30 concrete, with an increase of the compressive strength
up to 91 days and thereafter, the strength tends to stabilize
with age. Nevertheless, the use of RCA in RC35 PC-SF
concrete has generally resulted in a strength loss at both early
and later ages, compared to their corresponding PC mixtures.
Whereas the irregularity of the effect of RCA on compressive
strength development in PC-SF RC30 and RC35 could be
attributed to the large variety of source and properties of the
RCA used, as well as to the initial moisture of the RCA, the
relatively lower strength of the PC-SF mixtures compared to
the PC mixtures in the RC35 might be explained by the higher
w/b of the PC-SF mixtures, as compared to the PC mixtures.
In fact, using the same mixture proportions, the presence
of SF in concrete is expected to enhance its compactness
and compressive strength, as compared to the PC concrete.
Although the total binder content used in the PC-SF
mixtures is lower than that of the PC mixtures (higher w/c),
the PC-SF mixtures with and without RCA have slightly
improved the compressive strength compared to the PC
mixtures, especially for RC30 concretes. This strength gain
is attributed to the pozzolanic reaction between portlandite
and SF, which leads to the formation of a secondary C-S-H
that fills up the empty capillary spaces within the hardening
cement paste and, consequently, enhances concrete strength.
The strength gain of PC-SF mixtures could indicate the
importance of using blended cement containing pozzolanic
materials in RCA mixtures. It is expected that the use of
WRA or HRWRA in PC-SF mixtures made with RCA could
allow for a w/b reduction and, hence, further improve their
mechanical properties.
It is also worth mentioning that the residual cementing
capacity of the possible unhydrated cementitious materials
that remain adhered in the RCA could contribute somewhat
to the development of the mechanical properties in RCA
concrete. Furthermore, the high water absorption of RCA
could also contribute, via the water stored in its pore system,
to the long-term cement hydration and further enhance the
compressive strength.
The 28-day flexural strength and modulus of elasticity
results of both NA and RCA concretes are given in Table 6.
The average ratios of the flexural strength to the compressive
strength ranged from 12 to 18%. This could be considered
within the reasonable range according to Mindess and
Young.21 The results obtained showed that, in general, for
both the PC and PC-SF mixtures, the flexural strength and
modulus of elasticity tend to decrease with the addition of
RCA. Moreover, increasing the amount of RCA used in the
mixture has led to further reduction in the flexural strength
and modulus of elasticity. The use of 100% coarse RCA has
resulted in approximately a 35% reduction in the modulus
of elasticity. The interfacial transition zone (ITZ) recycled
aggregates-cement paste and the bonding properties might
be one of the main reasons leading to the slight decrease of
the flexural strength and modulus of elasticity for the RCA
mixtures, which may also be due to the low mechanical
properties and rounded shape of these aggregates.
Although the modulus of elasticity of concrete is frequently
estimated based on its compressive strength, it is also known
to be intimately linked to the granular bulk of concrete
mixture rather than the cement paste. The reduction in the
modulus of elasticity of RCA concrete is due to the lower
stiffness of RCA compared to NA, as the crushing value
ACI Materials Journal/January-February 2012
indicates, as well as to the weak ITZ between the hydrated Table 6—Twenty-eight-day cylinder compressive
cement paste and RCA. The adhered old mortar on the RCA is and flexural strengths and modulus
lower in strength than the NA and the new cement paste which, of elasticity results
consequently, can weaken the bonding strength properties. In 28-day cylinder
addition, the presence of porous RCA in concrete, particularly compressive 28-day flexural 28-day modulus of
with a 100% replacement level, reduces the ability to restrain Mixture RCA, strength , MPa strength, MPa elasticity, GPa
matrix strains,22 which affects the modulus of elasticity of code % PC PC/SF PC PC/SF PC PC/SF
concrete containing the coarse RCA. 0 21.0 3.9 19.5
GEN3, 30 20.0 3.8 17.5
Expansion and drying shrinkage 20 MPa
— — —
50 19.0 3.4 15.5
As in the present study, the concrete mixtures investi-
gated have quite a high w/c (over 0.45); it is expected that 100 18.0 2.9 12.5
drying shrinkage is of great concern here rather than autog- 0 21.0 29.0 4.5 5.1 18.8 22.5
enous shrinkage. Results of the ultimate expansion and RC30, 30 23.0 31.0 4.7 4.7 17.0 20.5
drying-shrinkage strains of the various mixtures measured 30 MPa 50 24.0 28.0 4.1 5.1 16.5 17.5
after 90 days of curing are summarized in Table 7. 100 21.0 28.5 4.2 5.0 14.0 14.5
Whereas no significant differences in the expansion
0 31.0 39.0 5.0 5.3 23.5 21.0
strains were found between the control and treated PC
mixtures, the use of various proportions of RCA has RC35, 30 25.0 35.0 5.1 4.8 18.5 19.5
clearly affected the drying-shrinkage behavior of concrete. 35 MPa 50 29.0 31.0 4.6 4.8 17.0 17.0
After 90 days of exposure to air-dry conditions, the NA and 100 30.0 29.0 4.9 5.0 16.5 14.0
RCA PC mixtures with a range of design strength generally 0 33.0 5.9 22.0
exhibited a higher shrinkage magnitude compared to their 30 39.0 5.8 21.0
RC40,
corresponding PC-SF mixtures. Due to their high magnitude 40 MPa
— — —
50 31.0 5.0 19.5
of early-age autogenous shrinkage, SF mixtures are
expected to exhibit lower drying-shrinkage strains than PC 100 34.0 5.8 16.0
mixtures. The drying-shrinkage amount at 90 days ranged Notes: 1 MPa = 145 psi; 1 GPa = 145 ksi.

from 290 to 810 me and 150 to 195 me for the PC and PC-SF
mixtures, respectively. Drying-shrinkage strains increased Table 7—Total magnitude of shrinkage after
with the increase of RCA contents in PC mixtures, whereas 90 days of dry curing
no significant changes were observed in the PC-SF concrete
mixtures. Moreover, for the PC mixtures, the general trend Strains (× 10–6)
suggests that up to 30% RCA has no major effect on the
Mixture code RCA, % PC PC/SF PC PC/SF
drying shrinkage, and shrinkage significantly increased
0 290 125
with the increase in RCA content. As could be expected,
the highest shrinkage magnitude was exhibited by the PC 30 320 110
GEN3 — —
mixtures made with 100% RCA and the lowest shrinkage 50 450 100
was exhibited by the control mixture. Therefore, the greater 100 650 60
the amount of RCA added to the PC mixture, the greater the 0 340 195 100 220
magnitude of drying shrinkage. Such a large magnitude of
30 340 160 120 340
drying shrinkage in RCA concrete can be attributed to the RC30
50 520 170 80 430
high porosity and water absorption capacity of RCA, as well
as to the low modulus of elasticity of the treated concretes. 100 630 155 80 760
Additionally, RCA concretes have a larger volume of paste 0 280 190 120 265
and a lower content of aggregate skeleton to counteract the 30 320 180 130 235
development of shrinkage strains when considering the RC35
50 425 150 130 435
additional old mortar that is adhered to the RCA compared
100 810 160 140 730
to the PC concrete with NA. As a result, shrinkage of the PC
concrete made with RCA could be considered as the sum
of shrinkage strains of the old mortar attached to the RCA, PC-SF mixtures. As carbonation is a function of concrete
plus shrinkage of the new hydrated PC paste, leading to a quality, in particular the cement content, the w/c, and the
substantial ultimate magnitude of shrinkage. porosity and moisture content—the higher the pore volume
(low strength), the higher the carbonation rate of concrete.
Carbonation The results presented in Fig. 5 to 7 showed that the depth of
The measured carbonation depths through the top side of carbonation values decrease when the compressive strength
the tested specimens exposed to CO2-enriched environment of concrete increases. The largest depth of carbonation
in the carbonation chamber for a period of 20 weeks are ranged between 20 and 25 mm (0.79 and 0.98 in.) recorded
shown in Fig. 5 to 7. For both PC and PC-SF, the depth of for the GEN3 PC concrete (Fig. 5), whereas the lowest
carbonation seems to be proportional to its compressive carbonation depth ranged between 4 and 8 mm (0.16 and
strength. The higher the compressive strength of concrete, 0.31 in.), exhibited by the RC40 PC concretes (Fig. 7).
the lower the values of the depth of carbonation. Although no The carbonation depth is also intimately linked to the pore
consistent trend between carbonation depth and RCA content system characteristics. A large pore size and open porosity
was observed, it could be seen, generally, that the addition led to a greater carbonation depth, as could be expected for
of RCA has increased the carbonation rate in both PC and the GEN3 PC mixtures.

ACI Materials Journal/January-February 2012 97

Fig. 5—Rate of carbonation versus exposure time (GEN3 PC
concrete grade). (Note: 1 mm = 0.0394 in.)
Fig. 6—Rate of carbonation versus exposure time (RC30 PC
concrete grade). (Note: 1 mm = 0.0394 in.)
As moisture is needed for the carbonation process to be
processed, the increased rate of carbonation in the RCA
mixtures might be attributed to the high porosity and to the
high moisture content of RCA due to the water that might
be stored in its pore system. On the other hand, it seems that
the use of SF in RC35 PC-SF mixtures did not improve the
resistance to carbonation of concrete because the rate and
depth of carbonation of these mixtures is somewhat higher
than that of corresponding PC mixtures. The variety of RCA,
in terms of sources and properties, could be the main reason
for these anomalies. It should also be noted that for the same
concrete types (PC), the carbonation rate develops quickly
over time in GEN3 PC mixtures compared to RC30 and
RC40 PC mixtures. Thus, the rate of carbonation decreases
as the compressive strength increases.
Chloride ion penetration
The chloride concentration of the specimens measured
at different depths and immersed for 42 days in the
chloride solution are shown in Fig. 8 to 10. For both PC
and PC-SF at a given depth from the exposed surface,
chloride concentration seems to increase with an increase
in RCA content, especially at a depth of 5 to 10 mm
(0.196 to 0.39 in.) near the exposed surface. The general
98
Fig. 7—Rate of carbonation versus exposure time (RC40 PC
and RC35 SF concrete grade). (Note: 1 mm = 0.0394 in.)
trend suggests that the chloride ion concentration is still at
moderate level with the use of 30% RCA and quite similar
to that found in the control NA concrete, whereas beyond
30%, a substantial increase of the chloride concentration is
recorded with an increase in RCA content. The results have
shown that chloride concentration is proportional to concrete
strength. Generally, the increase in concrete strength has
led to a reduction in chloride concentration (Fig. 9 and 10).
Whereas the results of chloride ions for the PC-SF concretes
presented in Fig. 8 showed some anomalies because the
PC mixtures have exhibited relatively higher resistance to
chloride penetration than the PC-SF mixtures, the general
trend suggests that using SF may improve the resistance to
chloride ingress of RCA concrete (Fig. 9), as has also been
reported previously.23 The higher chloride concentration
found in RC30 PC-SF mixtures is mainly due to the high
w/c of these mixtures compared to their corresponding PC
mixtures (absence of HRWRA), as well as the large variety
in RCA sources and properties.
As pointed out previously, pore characteristics and
concrete strength are the two major parameters governing
carbonation, as well as the resistance to chloride ingress.
Enhancing concrete strength by lowering the w/c and using
SF could significantly contribute to decreasing the porosity
ACI Materials Journal/January-February 2012
 Fig. 8—Rate of chloride ingress versus depth (RC30 PC and RC30 SF). (Note: 1 mm =
0.0394 in.)

Fig. 9—Rate of chloride ingress versus depth (RC35 PC and RC35 SF). (Note: 1 mm =
0.0394 in.)

of concrete, reducing the capillary pore volume, and refining

the pore network. As a result, the decreased connectivity of
the pore network would substantially reduce the chloride ion
ingression rate for PC-SF concrete made with coarse RCA.
It should be noted that for all the mixtures investigated,
except RC30 PC and RC30 SF containing 100% RCA,
the chloride ion concentration found was lower than the
critical chloride limit or threshold value of 1% total chloride
by cement weight that may lead to significant corrosion
rates in noncarbonated concrete.24 This indicates that a
complete substitution of NA by coarse RCA is critical for
the durability of concrete, and special precautions should
be undertaken to avoid concrete degradation. Furthermore,
for all mixtures with both coarse NA and RCA, the chloride
ion concentration was insignificant at a depth greater Fig. 10—Rate of chloride ingress versus depth (RC40 PC).
than 15 mm (0.59 in.) from the exposed surface of the (Note: 1 mm = 0.0394 in.)
concrete specimen. It can be concluded that resistance to
carbonation and chloride ingress of RCA concrete could be
improved by enhancing the quality of the cement paste (low
w/c and use of pozzolanic materials).

Sulfate attack
A sulfate attack test was carried out on a single concrete
type (GEN3); the results obtained are presented in Fig. 11. It
could be seen that the expansion recorded in test specimens
increased with an increase in exposure duration. The
expansion induced by the sulfate solution was also found to
increase with an increase in the RCA concrete mixture. The
full replacement of NA by RCA has exhibited the highest
expansion of approximately 80 me after 2 months of exposure
time. In fact, the expansion induced by the penetration of
dissolved sulfate into the concrete via the pore network
induces changes in the composition and microstructure of
concrete. The transformation of the monosulfate phase into Fig. 11—Expansion due to sulfate attacks for GEN3 PC
ettringite led to the expansion observed in Fig. 11. Such an concrete made with RCA.

ACI Materials Journal/January-February 2012 99

expansion may induce the formation of microcracks and
could weaken the cement paste. A loss of bond between
aggregate and cement paste may also occur as result of
the sulfate attack and may lead to additional strength loss.
Likewise, for chloride ion ingress and carbonation, sulfate
attack is also intimately linked to the total porosity and the
pore network characteristics. Using the porous RCA concrete
mixture as a substitute for NA needs to be compensated by
an improved compactness of the cement paste and use of
cementitious materials to overcome their negative effect on
strength and durability performance, as also reported.25
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the experimental results obtained, the following
conclusions can be drawn:
1. The results showed that the coarse RCA can
successfully be used as partial or total replacement of NA to
produce concrete of different strengths for various practical
applications. Special cautions and an adequate design should
be considered when using more than 30% coarse RCA.
2. RCA concrete requires relatively lower w/c and higher
cement content to achieve a similar strength compared to the
NA concrete. The use of cementitious materials such as SF
could be an effective way to enhance the quality of concrete
and overcome the possible negative effect of using RCA
(over than 30%) in concrete production.
3. In general, the use of RCA has led to a slight decrease
of the compressive and flexural strengths, as well as the
modulus of elasticity, as compared to the control mixture. As
the modulus of elasticity is strongly linked to the aggregate
bulk, 100% RCA concrete showed the highest reduction in
the modulus of elasticity.
4. While it has been found that the PC-SF mixtures
showed lower resistance to carbonation—possibly due to
the dominating effect of the reduction in calcium hydroxide
over pore refinement—these PC-SF mixtures still exhibit
better resistance to chloride ingress when designed and
cured appropriately.
5. It has been found that along with concrete strength
enhancement, both the carbonation and chloride ingress
resistance capability are also improved with a reduction in
w/c and the use of SF in RCA concrete mixtures.
6. Due to their porosity and low strength, RCA concrete
mixtures showed a higher rate of carbonation and chloride
ion ingress and lower resistance to sulfate attack as compared
to the control mixtures. The expansion due to sulfate attack
is increased by approximately 35% for the concrete made
solely with the RCA.
7. The total replacement of NA by RCA in concrete
mixture may have a detrimental effect on chloride ions
resistance unless a proper mixture design is adopted.
8. In the concrete industry, RCA might definitely be a
great help in solving crucial environmental issues and
could potentially replace NA in some mixtures to produce
concrete with acceptable mechanical properties under a
nonaggressive environment.
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