Materials Today: Proceedings 56 (2022) 1307–1312

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Effect of chemically treated recycled tire aggregate on the resistance to

chloride ion penetration of concrete
Md Jihad Miah a, Md. Munir Hossain Patoary a, Md. Kawsar Ali a, Suvash Chandra Paul b,
Adewumi John Babafemi c, Niranjan Kumar Choudhry d, Biranchi Panda d,⇑
a
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Asia Pacific, 74/A, Green Road, Farmgate, Dhaka 1205, Bangladesh
b
Department of Civil Engineering, International University of Business Agriculture and Technology, Dhaka 1205, Bangladesh
c
Department of Civil Engineering, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland 7602, Stellenbosch, South Africa
d
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Assam 781039, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The utilization of recycled tires as a building construction material in concrete production could signif-
Available online 30 November 2021 icantly contribute to sustainable development. The results of several studies have been reported by the
research community dealing mainly with the strength (compressive and tensile) of concrete mixes with
Keywords: recycled tire aggregate (RTA). However, limited research has been focused on the durability of concrete
Recycled tire aggregate made with RTA. Therefore, this research investigates the chloride penetration of fired clay brick aggregate
Clay brick aggregate (FCBA) concrete containing 0%, 10%, 20% and 50% (% vol.) RTA. The RTA was rinsed with tap water (i.e.,
Chemical treatment, concrete
untreated RTA named UTRTA) and treated with 20% sodium hydroxide (NaOH) (i.e., chemically treated
Chloride penetration
RTA named CTRTA) for 2 h. The experimental results show that the concrete made with both UTRTA
and CTRTA has higher chloride diffusion than FCBA, as the transmitted charge in Coulombs was higher
with the increasing percentage of UTRTA and CTRTA. However, it was found that the concrete containing
CTRTA provides better resistance to chloride penetration than UTRTA. This could be due to the enhanced
bond between CTRTA and cement paste due to the improved surface roughness by NaOH. Furthermore, a
good linear relationship of chloride penetration with compressive strength was observed. This study
reveals that CTRTA can be used as a partial replacement for FCBA due to its enhanced durability. Also,
it is shown that CTRTA could eliminate the dumping problem, resulting in lowering environmental
impact as tires are not bio-degradable, reduce carbon footprint, decrease the need for new aggregate,
more economy, and sustainability.
Copyright Ó 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the First International Con-
ference on Advances in Mechanical Engineering and Material Science

1. Introduction friendly as its burning process (around 1000–1200 °C [4–5]) gener-

Aggregate is a vital constituent of concrete as the volumetric
stability of concrete is achieved from the aggregate. The construc-
tion industry worldwide consumes a significant amount of con-
crete to meet its demand for different infrastructures. However,
aggregate for concrete production is a scarce resource in some
countries and needs to be imported from other countries. South
Asian countries like Bangladesh still rely on fired clay brick aggre-
gates (FCBA) for many applications, including concrete production
[1–3]. However, clay brick production is not environmentally
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: pandabiranchi@iitg.ac.in (B. Panda).
ates a massive amount of CO2 in the atmosphere. This significant
amount of CO2 is released into the environment that could severely
jeopardize the survival of the local territories and harshly reduce
soil fertility and productivity of the crop [4]. In addition, lower
strength, higher water absorption, and lower durability properties
are major drawbacks for FCBA-made concrete [1,2,5]. Miah et al.
[5] found that the concrete made with FCBA has significantly lower
compressive strength and flexural load-carrying capacity than
steel slag aggregate. It was found that the chloride penetration
reduced by 54% when steel slag completely replaced FCBA. The
lower mechanical strength and durability of concrete made with
FCBA are attributed to the weaker particles due to lower abrasion
resistance, higher porosity, lesser density, and flakiness of FCBA.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.11.318
2214-7853/Copyright Ó 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the First International Conference on Advances in Mechanical Engineering and Material Science
Md Jihad Miah, Md. Munir Hossain Patoary, Md. Kawsar Ali et al.
SEM analysis of the concrete made with FCBA revealed visible
cracks through the aggregate and at the interface between cement
paste and FCBA, which is the main reason behind the concrete’s
lower mechanical strength and durability [1]. Thus, to minimize
the dependency on natural resources as well as the waste genera-
tions from various sources, researchers have been trying to incor-
porate aggregates from the various wastes such as tire, plastic,
steel slag, etc. in the production of new concrete for various struc-
tural and non-structural applications [1–3,5–8]. Doing this may
solve the waste dumping issue, reduce carbon emission, and lower
the concrete production cost.
Many research works have been dedicated to scrutinizing the
different properties of waste aggregates in concrete. Most studies
concluded that these waste aggregates could be used in concrete
up to a certain limit without detrimental effects [9,10]. Almost
negligible effect on the strength of concrete was observed when
sand was replaced with 25% FCBA, which was more evident for
extended curing. However, as the FCBA content increased, the
porosity in the hardened concrete also increased due to the porous
structure of FCBA [11]. Similar to the FCBA, good compressive
strength results were also found when the natural sand was
replaced by the tire aggregates below the 25% level [12]. However,
for coarse tire aggregates, the replacement limit is below 10%
[6,13]. The strength reduction is associated with a weak interfacial
transition zone (ITZ) between the tire aggregates and cement
paste. Several researchers have also shown that the mechanical
strength of concrete could be enhanced by treating the surface of
the recycled tire aggregates (RTA) using different types of chemi-
cals [2,13,14]. When comparing the tire aggregates treated by
means of soaking in NaOH and Ca(ClO)2, higher concrete strength
was found in 8% of RTA treated with Ca(ClO)2 [6]. It is hypothesized
that the treatment of RTAs with this chemical improved this bond
in the ITZ because this chemical treatment forms a hydrophilic
group and an oxygen-containing hydroxyl OH group on the surface
of RTAs [6]. More research studies are required to understand this
mechanism vividly. In addition, different durability tests are also
required for concrete with tire aggregates, as there are currently
limited studies in this area.
Though limited studies exist on the durability of concrete con-
taining tire aggregate, some investigations [2,6,9–14] deal with the
effect of RTA as a replacement for stone aggregate on concrete’s
mechanical strength and durability properties. Studies on the sur-
face roughness of tire aggregate due to chemical treatment and its
influence on the durability of concrete, especially when brick
aggregate is replaced by waste tire aggregate, are yet to be fully
investigated in detail. Hence, this study is motivated by the scar-
city of research data, limited information, and inadequate knowl-
edge of concrete durability made with RTA. Therefore, to deeper
investigate the role of RTA as a replacement of FCBA and the chem-
ical treatment effect of RTA on the resistance to chloride ingress, an
extensive experimental campaign has been conducted on the con-
crete mixes at four different replacement levels of 0%, 10%, 20% and
50% by volume of FCBA with RTA.
2. Experimental methodology
The concrete specimens for resistance to chloride penetration
tests were made with coarse aggregate (i.e., fired clay brick
aggregate-FCBA and recycled tire aggregate-RTA), fine aggregate
(i.e., sand), cement (CEM II 42.5 N), and potable water. The raw
bricks were obtained from a brickfield and broken manually into
intermediate sizes to produce coarse aggregate (Fig. 1 a, b). Also,
the RTA was collected from a landfill site and chopped manually
into medium sizes as coarse aggregates (Fig. 1c, d). The river sand
was collected from the local market and used as fine aggregate. The
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Materials Today: Proceedings 56 (2022) 1307–1312
microscopic morphology of FCBA and RTA was performed using
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and presented in Fig. 1 e, f.
The visual observation and SEM images showed that the FCBAs
were more porous, while the RTAs were denser than FCBA, contain-
ing nylon fibers and rough on the cut faces.
The FCBA and RTA were sieved using the ASTM C136 standard
sieve, and similar gradation was used for both FCBA and RTA to
avoid the impact of gradation on the chloride ingress test results
of the concrete mixes. The fineness modulus of both FCBA and
RTA was 6.3 (Table 1). The physical properties (i.e., unit weight,
specific gravity, and absorption capacity) of FCBA, RTA, and sand
were performed following ASTM standards and presented in
Table 1. The test results showed that RTA has a significantly lower
unit weight, specific gravity, and absorption capacity than FCBA
(Table 1), which decreased by 46.43%, 43.50%, and 82.30%, respec-
tively, than FCBA.
The CEM II 42.5 N was used as a binding material to cast all the
concrete specimens. The physical properties, chemical composi-
tions, and mechanical strength at different ages of the binder are
summarized in Table 2. In addition, the normal consistency (NC),
initial setting time (IST), final setting time (FST), compressive
strength (fc), and tensile strength (ft) were tested according to
the ASTM standards ASTM C187, ASTM C191, ASTM C109, and
ASTM C307, respectively.
All the concrete specimens for resistance to chloride penetra-
tion tests were cast with a cement content of 350 kg/m3 and a
water to cement ratio of 0.55. Four different level replacements
of 0%, 10%, 20% and 50% by volume of FCBA with RTA have been
studied. The volumetric replacement of the aggregate was consid-
ered due to different unit weight and specific gravity of FCBA and
RTA, representing more relevance than weight basis replacement
to compare the results between these two aggregates. The amount
of each ingredient of the concrete mixes is summarized in Table 3.
The RTA was rinsed with tap water (H2O) and named untreated
recycle tire aggregate (UTRTA). The chemically-treated tire aggre-
gate (CTRTA) was prepared by dipping the RTA in 20% sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) for 2 hrs before mixing with other concrete
ingredients. After treating, the CTRTAs were then washed with nor-
mal water and used to prepare concrete.
The resistance to chloride ingress test was measured on con-
crete disc (diameter = 100 mm and thickness = 50 mm) at 28 days
according to ASTM C1202 [15]. The test setup for the chloride pen-
etration is presented in Fig. 2. This test allows monitoring the qual-
ity of hardened concrete mixes made with different percentages of
RTA. The transmission charge was recorded at every 30 min inter-
val for approximately 6 h. After 6 h test, the development of trans-
mission charge was plotted as a function of time, while the amount
of charge passed (Coulombs) into the concrete disc was calculated
using Equation (1). It is noted that the results of the calculated
charge passed are the resistance of the concrete specimen to chlo-
ride penetration related to the strength of the concrete mixes. Still,
it does not provide the values of permeability of the concrete
mixes.
Q ¼ 900ðI0 þ 2I30 þ 2I60 þ    þ 2I300 þ 2I330 þ I360 ð1Þ
where Q : charge passed (coulombs), I0 : current (amperes)
promptly after the voltage was employed, and It : current (am-
peres) at t min after the voltage was implemented.
3. Experimental results and discussions
3.1. Effect of recycled tire aggregate
The penetration of chloride ions into the concrete mixes made
with four replacement levels of FCBA by RTA was carried out fol-
Md Jihad Miah, Md. Munir Hossain Patoary, Md. Kawsar Ali et al. Materials Today: Proceedings 56 (2022) 1307–1312

Fig. 1. Pictures of raw fired clay brick (a), fired clay brick aggregate-FCBA (b), waste tires (c), recycled tire aggregate-RTA (d), and SEM images of FCBA (e), RTA (f), respectively.

Table 1 electrical potential of 60 V dc was implemented, the negatively

Physical properties of FCAB, RTA and sand. charged ions migrated towards the cathode side (i.e., positive
Properties FBA RTA Sand end), leading to current flow into the concrete disc specimen, mea-
Fineness modulus 6.3 6.3 2.90
sured through the 6 h of the test. Fig. 3 (a) shows the electrical cur-
Unit weight (kg/m3) 1120 600 1565 rent measured at 30 min intervals of concrete specimens made
Specific gravity 2.0 1.13 2.56 with four replacement levels of FCBA by UTRTA. It was observed
Absorption capacity (%) 20.56 3.64 5.86 that the concrete specimens made with UTRTA have higher current
flow with time than the control concrete (100% FCBA), and this was
more evident for the concrete specimens made with a higher con-
Table 2 tent of UTRTA (50% UTRTA). For example, the average electrical
Physical properties, chemical compositions, and mechanical strength of binder.
current measured at 6 h of concrete mixes made with 0%, 10%,
Properties Observed values 20%, and 50% UTRTA were 0.10 Amp, 0.11 Amp, 0.16 Amp, and
NC (%) 27.75 0.18 Amp, respectively. These experimental results imply that
IST (min) 116.2 the concrete specimens made with UTRTA are weaker than the
FST (min) 355 control concrete specimen. Indeed, the higher the electrical current
f c (MPa) at 3, 7, 14 and 28 days 17.87, 22.32, 26.21 and 32.30
(i.e., higher negative ions migrate through the concrete specimen)
f t (MPa) at 3, 7, 14 and 28 days 1.64, 2.04, 2.42 and 2.83
Chemical composition:
flows, the higher permeable concrete will be [15].
Clinker (%) 80–94 The charge passed (Coulombs) into the concrete disc specimens
Slag, flyash and limestone (%) 6–20 was calculated using Eq. (1) and presented in Fig. 3 (b). It was
Gypsum (%) 0–5 found that the incorporation of UTRTA as a substitute of FCBA
raised the chloride ion penetration as the transmitted charge in
Coulombs (C) was raised with the increasing percentage of UTRTA.
lowing the recommendation provided by ASTM C1202 [15]. In this The average electrical charge transferred into concrete mixes made
test method, the anode side (i.e., negative end) was joined to the with 0%, 10%, 20%, and 50% were 2661C, 3016C, 3579C, and 4476C,
electrode in the NaCl reservoir, and the cathode side (i.e., positive respectively. These results suggested that the chloride penetration
end) was joined to the electrode in the NaOH reservoir. When the falls in the range from moderate (0% to 20% UTRTA) to high (50%
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Md Jihad Miah, Md. Munir Hossain Patoary, Md. Kawsar Ali et al. Materials Today: Proceedings 56 (2022) 1307–1312

Table 3
Amount of the materials for concrete mixes(kg/m3).

ID. % FCBA % RTA Cement Coarse Aggregate Sand Water

FCBA RTA
0% RTA 100 0 350 702 0 829 193
10% RTA 90 10 350 631 40 829 193
20% RTA 80 20 350 561 79 829 193
50% RTA 50 50 350 351 198 829 193

Table 4
Chloride ion penetrability into concrete specimens based on charge passed recom-
mendation provided by the ASTM C1202 [15].

Charge Passed (coulombs) Chloride Ion

> 4000 High Penetrability
2000–4000 Moderate Penetrability
1000–2000 Low Penetrability
100–1000 Very Low Penetrability
<100 Negligible Penetrability

the tire aggregates and cement paste, induced by the hydrophobic

Fig. 2. Test setup for resistance to chloride penetration recommendation provided
by the ASTM C1202 [15].
UTRTA) levels (Table 4), according to the values provided by the
ASTM C1202 [15]. The chloride ion penetration increased by 68%
when 50% UTRTA was used.
This increasing trend of chloride penetration into the concrete
specimens with the increasing percentages of UTRTA could be
associated with the weak interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between
behavior of tire aggregates. The literature showed that the inclu-
sion of tires as coarse aggregate decreases the strength of concrete
mix because of the weak binder between tire aggregate and
cement paste (i.e., higher micro-cracking in the ITZ) [2,6], which
is in good agreement with the finding of this study. In addition,
Khern et al. [6] observed clear grooves at the ITZ of concrete made
with rubber tire aggregate, resulting in lower compressive strength
[6]. Dong et al. [16] observed that concrete containing uncoated
rubber aggregate has 20–40% higher chloride ion penetration than
the control concrete (without rubber). This behavior is attributed
to the higher void content near the interfacial area between rubber
particles and cement paste than the control concrete. These results
are in good agreement with the present study.
Furthermore, the authors observed that chloride ion penetra-
tion was maintained as control concrete when the coated rubber
aggregate was used. This is attributed to the strong bond between
cement paste and rubber aggregates. Similarly, it was found that as
the tire aggregate increased as a replacement of natural aggregate,
the chloride penetration increased [17]. Gesoglu and Guneyisi [18]
concluded that incorporating silica fume (e.g., 10% by mass of
cement) in the rubberized concrete mixes significantly improves
the chloride ion penetration. This behavior is attributed to the
lower porosity near the interfacial area between cement paste
and rubber aggregates due to silica fume’s ultrafine particle size
(0.1–0.2 mm). These finner particles fill the microvoids (i.e., dense
microstructure), reduce the pore size and discontinuous distribu-
tion of the pores (i.e., lower porosity and permeability), thus

Fig. 3. (a). Measurement of current at 30 min intervals of concrete specimens made with four replacement levels of FCBA by untreated recycled tire aggregate (UTRTA) and
(b). Charge passed into the concrete specimens made with different percentages of UTRTA.

1310
Md Jihad Miah, Md. Munir Hossain Patoary, Md. Kawsar Ali et al.
Fig. 4. (a). Measurement of current at 30 min intervals of concrete specimens made with four replacement levels of brick aggregate by UTRTA and chemically treated recycled
tire aggregate (CTRTA), (b). Charge passed into the concrete made with different percentages of UTRTA and (c). The relation between charge passed and compressive strength
(results are taken from the same batch of concrete published by Miahet al. [2]) of concrete mixes made with three replacement levels (0%, 10% and 20%) of FCBA by RTA.
enhancing the resistance of concrete against chloride ion penetra-
tion [19].
3.2. Effect of chemically treated recycled tire aggregate
The development of electrical current into the concrete mixes
made with different replacement percentages of FCBA by chemi-
cally treated recycled tire aggregate (CTRTA) is compared with
the UTRTA results and presented in Fig. 4 (a). Similar to UTRTA,
an increasing trend of electrical current was measured for the con-
crete made with CTRTA than control concrete, and it is higher for
the higher content of CTRTA. An important observation is that
the CTRTA significantly increased the protection to chloride ion dif-
fusion at replacement levels compared to UTRTA. For instance, the
increased electrical current measured at 6 h of concrete made with
50% UTRTA and 50% CTRTA were 88% and 64%, respectively, than
control concrete, which means the measured electrical current of
CTRTA is about 24% lower than the UTRTA.
Fig. 4 (b) shows the charge transferred through the concrete
specimens made with different percentages of CTRTA, and the
results are presented with the comparison of UTRTA. It is shown
that the treatment of tire aggregates with NaOH improves the pro-
tection to chloride ion diffusion than the concrete made with
UTRTA. The average charge passed into concrete mixes made with
10%, 20%, and 50% RTA were 2832C, 3096C and 4017C, respectively,
for CTRTA and 3016C, 3579C, and 4476C, accordingly, for UTRTA,
which is 6–13% lower than UTRTA concrete. This better resistance
to chloride ingress of concrete specimens with CTRTA compared to
UTRTA could be linked to the superior surface roughness of RTA
caused by means of soaking with NaOH, thus guaranteeing enough
friction and better bonding to the cement paste, resulting in better
ITZ [6,13,14], leading to lower chloride diffusion. It is hypothesized
that the treatment of RTAs with NaOH and Ca(ClO)2 improves the
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Materials Today: Proceedings 56 (2022) 1307–1312
bond in the ITZ due to the formation of a hydrophilic group and
an oxygen-containing hydroxyl OH group on the outside of RTAs
[6].
The SEM observations reported by Khern et al. [6] revealed clear
grooves at the ITZ with an opening width of 7 mm for the concrete
made with tire aggregate washed with water (i.e., untreated) while
the opening was decreased to 2.4 mm for treated tire with NaOH.
Miah et al. [2] found that the treatment of RTA with NaOH for
2 h magnifies the compressive strength of concrete specimens
caused by a strong bond induced by the modification of the poly-
meric chain and the rough surface of the RTA. This is the same
research project, and both studies (present study and Miah et al.
[2]) used the same concrete batch to prepare the specimens. There-
fore, to better understand the results, the relation between charge
passed and compressive strength (results are taken from Miah
et al. [2]) of concrete mixes made with three replacement levels
(0%, 10% and 20%) of FCBA by RTA are plotted and shown in
Fig. 4 (c). It was found that as the charge passed increased, the
compressive strength of concrete decreased. This trend is satisfac-
tory with both results as the incorporation of RTA aggregate
increased the charge passed due to weak ITZ, and the strength of
concrete depends on the ITZ.
4. Conclusions
The present study investigates the effect of the untreated and
treated tire with NaOH on the resistance to chloride ingress of con-
crete specimens made with four replacement levels (0, 10, 20 and
50% by volume) of FCBA by RTA. Based on the experimental results,
the main findings are summarized as follows:
Md Jihad Miah, Md. Munir Hossain Patoary, Md. Kawsar Ali et al.
 Incorporating tire aggregate increases the electrical current
with time, resulting in lower chloride penetration resistance
than control concrete.
 For any replacement level of FCBA by RTA in the concrete mix,
concrete exhibits lower protection to chloride ingress as the
transmitted charge in Coulombs (C) was increased. This behav-
ior could be attributed to the weaker ITZ within the tire aggre-
gates and cement paste induced by the hydrophobic behavior of
the tire aggregates.
 Chemical treatment of tire aggregates with NaOH solution
improved protection to chloride diffusion than the concrete
specimens made with UTRTA. This could be associated with
the superior surface roughness of RTA caused by soaking with
NaOH for 2 h, thus guaranteeing enough friction and better
bonding to the cement paste and tire aggregates, resulting in
better ITZ, leading to lower chloride diffusion into the concrete.
 Linear relationship between chloride penetration (i.e., charge
passed) and compressive strength was observed, i.e., as the
charge passed increases, the compressive strength of concrete
mixes decreases.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Md. Jihad Miah: Conceptualization, Supervision, Writing – orig-
inal draft. Md. Munir Hossain Patoary: . Md. Kawsar Ali: . Suvash
Chandra Paul: Methodology, Writing – review & editing. Ade-
wumi John Babafemi: Writing – review & editing. Niranjan
Kumar Choudhry: . Biranchi Panda: Writing – review & editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the financial support and laboratory
facilities provided by the Institute for Energy, Environment,
Research and Development (IEERD) and the Department of Civil
Engineering of the University of Asia Pacific.
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