Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00426

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Case Studies in Construction Materials

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Case study

Properties of self-compacting concrete prepared with ternary

Portland cement-high volume fly ash-calcium carbonate
blends
Pongsakon Promsawata , Burachat Chatveeraa , Gritsada Sua-iamb,*,
Natt Makulc
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Thammasat University (Rangsit Campus), Pathum Thani, 12121, Thailand
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Rajamangala University of Technology Phra Nakhon, 1381 Pracharat Sai 1 Road,
Wong Sawang, Bang Sue, Bangkok 10800, Thailand
c
Department of Civil Engineering Technology, Faculty of Industrial Technology, Phranakhon Rajabhat University, Changwattana Road,
Bangkhen, Bangkok 10220, Thailand

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: Concrete manufacturers practically reduce negative environmental impacts and improve
Received 19 March 2020 cost effectiveness in the industry by replacing a portion of the cement with a high volume
Received in revised form 4 August 2020 of waste product. The use of additive from waste to increase value is considered, especially
Accepted 18 August 2020
high performance concrete. Self-compacting concrete (SCC) is considered a high-
performance concrete because of its workability and it can flow fill formworks with
Keywords: congested steel bars but no vibrator compaction. This research studies properties of SCC
Fly ash
mixed with different levels of fly ash (FA) and calcium carbonate powder (CC). Ordinary
Calcium carbonate
Workability
Portland cement was replaced by FA at 20 %, 30 %, and 50 % by weight and calcium
Mechanical properties carbonate at 5%, 10 % and 20 % by weight. The total powder material content was 550 kg/m3,
Ternary blends and the water to cementitious ratio of 0.28 remained constant for all mixtures. Properties of
SCC were studied including workability and properties of different mixtures of fresh and
hardened concrete. The results show that the SCC containing a high volume of ternary
blends with FA and CC that is met the EFNARC standard requirements of filling ability,
passing ability and resistance to segregation. An increment of FA and CC led to a decrease in
unit weight, strength and shrinkage, but it increased the air content and water absorption.
The highest compressive strength was more than 70 MPa at 120 days. Moreover, SCC
mixtures comprising 70 % had a compressive strength more than 50 MPa. The
microstructural analysis found that calcium-silica ratio (CaO/SiO2) played a development
in the compressive strength and the SCC cost was reduced to 8–21 %.
© 2020 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC
BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction

Researchers are interested in improving the durability of concrete structures, because it affects a building life cycle as well
as maintenance costs. In Japan, where skilled construction workers are in short supply; therefore, builders are striving for
innovations of high-performance concrete such as concrete that can flow into the formwork by itself without a compacting

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: gritsada.s@rmutp.ac.th (G. Sua-iam).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2020.e00426
2214-5095/© 2020 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
2 P. Promsawat et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00426

machine and, for the most part, use materials that are available locally. Three important requirements of this type of concrete
are (a) when fresh, the concrete compacts by itself, (b) avoidance of initial defects at the early stage, and (c) protection
against environmental effects [1]. There are many advantages of using SCC, including reducing construction time and labor
cost, giving up a mechanical vibrator (which helps reduce the energy consumption and noise pollution), and improvement of
filling ability when pouring in a highly congested structure, which ensures good structural performance [2]. The construction
of the Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge and the large LNG gas wall in Osaka are referred to as practical uses of this type of concrete. It was
found that number of construction workers and construction duration were reduced, resulting in a tendency to be more
widely used; therefore, the name of the concrete was changed to “self-compacting concrete” [3]. SCC has three positive
characteristics with regard to filling ability, passing ability, and resistance to segregation. Common mixing techniques are
reducing the coarse aggregate and increasing the powder content, or adding chemicals that modify viscosity. Therefore,
using supplementary cementing materials (SCM) as cement replacing materials is common practice in the construction
industry in order to achieve more durable concrete and less CO2 emissions associated with producing concrete materials [4].
For example, the use of different levels of pulverized fuel ash [5,6] or coal FA and bottom ash [7] were studied, because using
only cement on its own is neither cost effective nor environmentally sustainable.
Since reducing the use of Portland cement is an effective means of reducing the emissions caused by the production of
concrete, using supplementary cementitious materials is currently a popular option, primarily because these materials can
also help improve the properties of the concrete and reduce the amount of cement used [8]. Additives such as FA [9], marble
powder [10], limestone powder [11], or CC [12] can improve workability, mechanical properties, and durability of the SCC
mixture at reasonable costs. FA, which has been extensively studied for many years, is one of the most widely used
supplementary materials because it can reduce heat and pozzolanic reactivity [5]. According to previous studies [13], an
annual production of FA is over 800 million tons and counting worldwide. FA is a primary waste of coal power plants and
pollutes the environment because most of it is landfills, piled up to accumulate, and spread around. In Thailand, the
Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand (EGAT) operates power plants that burn lignite. Out of the 3.2 million tons of FA
generated each year, the Mae Moh power plant produces the largest quantities. Even though disposal of this waste is globally
considered an environmental issue, FA is not yet being used extensively in construction industry [14]. However, researchers
are able to discover ways to use FA to reduce the need both for cement and for superplasticizers; therefore, the addition of FA,
a simple waste product, can help with lowering the price of concrete. Moreover, FA in cement concrete benefits the flow and
reduces the risk of cracking [10], and replacing 40 % FA of cement resulted in a strength of more than 65 MPa at 56 days [9]. In
addition, it improves chloride penetration resistance [7], acid attack [15] and transport properties [16] of SCC at fresh and
hardened state.
The upward limit on the use of FA in structural concrete is that, generally, it should not comprise more than 25–30 % of the
total material. Therefore, the Canadian Center for Mineral and Energy Technology (CANMET) defines the concrete that uses
FA to replace more than 50 % of the cement as the high-volume fly ash (HVFA) concrete. SCC with up to 80 % FA can be
produced satisfactory of fresh properties [5] and at 70 % replacement ratio, the 91-day compressive strength of this mixture
was still higher than 30 MPa [17], which potentially benefits to economic, environmental, and sustainable development.
Previous attempts to produce self-compacting HVFA concrete found that the SCC absorbed more water and had more
permeable spaces than normal vibrated concrete possessing the same strength. However, in the studies of durability
properties involving chloride diffusion and acid attack, the SCC with a HVFA had markedly lower chloride ion diffusion and
loss of weight [15]. With regard to the most economical mix design, low-cost SCC that was replaced 50 % of the cement with
FA achieved a compressive strength of about 35 MPa after 28 days, and the ratio of water to cementitious materials was 0.45.
This SCC could replace normal concrete with a similar 28-day compressive strength at the same price [2]. In addition, it was
found that, with a 60 % FA content, SCC could achieve a compressive strength of up to 50 MPa [12]. Mustafa [16] confirmed
that the production of SCC with a FA content up to 70 % was possible. High amounts of FA in SCC were capable of improving
the workability and transport properties; furthermore, it was possible to achieve a 28-day compressive strength of up to 40
MPa, which exceeded the strength of normal concrete, at 30 MPa. As for the shrinkage of concrete, replacing 80 % of the
cement with FA could reduce shrinkage by 60 % or more [9]. Moreover, in comparison with a control sample of normal
concrete, the use of HVFA resulted in lower CO2-eq emissions and lower CO2-eq intensities per cubic meter, up to 46 and 30 %
[8]. Cement with HVFA can be manufactured to cover all the required compressive strengths of construction designs that are
generally needed. However, there may be practical problems involving the development of strength early in the process [18],
However, the Ca(OH)2 content decreases with the increase of age due to the formation of carboaluminates, carbonation and
pozzolanic effect [19], which is important for the construction sector.
CC is widely used in cementitious composites at different scales and can affect the properties of cementitious composites
through physical effects [19]. The effect of CC filler was studied to understand the compressive strength and the workability
of SCC by John et al. [20]. Additional CC filler tends to increase strength and densities of the specimen. The rate of water
absorption at 28 days curing for all specimens with filler was also reduced. Similarly, Lertwattanaruk et al. [12] found that the
fresh properties of SCC incorporated CC was satisfying the criterion standard and the highest compressive strength was
achieved in 20 % CC. An appropriate content of CC can contribute to a higher strength, denser pore structure, diminished total
free shrinkage and higher sustainable efficiency [21]. Downside of HAFA is low strength and setting time delays due to the
lower reactivity of FA than cement. The combines precipitated CC substitution FA improved the strength and shortened the
setting time of concrete [22]. Reference to Da Silva and de Brito [23] study of the porosity and microstructure of SCC with
ternary mixes of FA and limestone filler (CaCo3 > 98 %), it is possible to conclude that the synergy between limestone filler
 P. Promsawat et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00426 3

Table 1
Chemical composition of cementitious materials.

Composition (% by mass) Cement Fly ash Calcium carbonate

Silicon dioxide (SiO2) 20.48 33.43 1.20
Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) 5.29 18.29 0.42
Ferric oxide (Fe2O3) 3.31 13.23 0.18
Calcium oxide (CaO) 65.02 20.84 52.91
Magnesium oxide (MgO) 1.86 2.59 1.17
Potassium oxide (K2O) 0.41 2.42 0.07
Sodium oxide (Na2O) 0.17 1.12 0.07
Sodium oxide (SO3) 2.73 4.79 0.11

and FA is extremely favourable, allowing the production of SCC with very interesting performances. In addition, when using
the nanoparticles of CC (range 1–4 %) in HVFA concrete, it not only led to much denser microstructure in HVFA matrix but also
changed the formation of hydration products, hence contribution to the improvement of early-age compressive strength and
durability properties of HVFA concretes [24]. Nevertheless, Da Silva and de Brito [23] suggest the study of variations mixtures
(high cementitious binder at 707 kg/m3) and considered possible to optimise the synergy between two SCM with higher than
the 60 % studied.
The objective of this study is to produce nine SCC mixtures, that combine FA and CC at 25 %–70 %. The workability criterion
for the SCC production was satisfied by keeping the water-cementitious materials ratio (w/b) and superplasticizer quantities
constant. Tests of the fresh concrete and hardened concrete, in order to find the correlations between the compressive
strength and other properties, were also conducted. These tests are especially important for SCC, which includes high
volumes of supplementary cementitious materials, to ensure that it is a suitable material for the construction industry
economically and sustainably.

2. Methodology

2.1. Raw materials

Properties of SCC was studied when replacing ordinary Portland cement with two supplementary cementitious materials
– FA and CC – in the mixture. Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) used in this research meets the requirements of ASTM C150
[25]. Lignite fly ash (FA), a by-product from the coal-fired electricity power plant at Mae Moh, Lampang Province, and
calcium carbonate (CaCO3) are locally available in Thailand. The chemical composition results for all cementitious materials
used in the study are presented in Table 1.
The analysis of physical properties of cementitious materials tested in the study, as shown in Table 2, was found that
ordinary Portland cement had a specific gravity of 3.15, specific surface area of 3475 cm2/g, loss on ignition of 0.82 %, and
mean particle size of 20.02 mm. FA had a specific gravity of 2.54, specific surface area of 5001 cm2/g, loss on ignition of 1.20 %,
and mean particle size of 6.31 mm. CC had a specific gravity of 2.70, specific surface area of 5348 cm2/g, mean particle size of
14.10 mm and loss on ignition of 42.46 %. The high LOI due to the major materials are the calcite and aragonite, which forms of
CaCO3 when heated at elevated temperatures that decomposes to calcium oxide and carbon dioxide. Per the current
standard, specification of CC that can be used in the production of cement has been given in EN197 [26]. The grading curves of
different cementitious materials are shown in Fig. 1. In terms of chemical and physical characteristics, FA acts as pozzolanic
properties and filler materials. In contrast, CC does not have pozzolanic properties but it acts as filler effect. In Fig. 2, which
illustrates cementitious materials characteristics, it can be seen that ordinary Portland cement and CC have an irregular
structure, but FA has a ball structure.
Fine aggregate using river sand with a nominal maximum size of 4 mm, according to ASTM C33 [27], where the density of
the fine mass is 1525 kg/m3, specific gravity is 2.58, the fineness modulus is 2.50, and absorption capacity is 0.46. Coarse
aggregate using crushed limestone with a nominal maximum size of 20 mm, according to ASTM C33 [27], where the density
of the fine mass is 1635 kg/m3, specific gravity is 2.69, the fineness modulus is 7.61, and absorption capacity is 0.34. Tap water
with a pH value between 6 and 7. Chemical additives used for high-range water reduces and improves workability:
polycarboxylate-based superplasticizer, according to ASTM C494 [28].

Table 2
Physical properties of cementitious materials.

Physical property Cement Fly ash Calcium carbonate

Loss on ignition (%) 0.82 1.20 42.46
Specific gravity 3.15 2.54 2.70
Specific surface area (cm2/g) 3475 5001 5348
Mean particle size (mm) 20.02 6.31 14.10
4 P. Promsawat et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00426

Fig. 1. Grading curve analysis of cementitious materials.

Fig. 2. SEM images (x1000) of cementitious materials.

 P. Promsawat et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00426 5

2.2. Mix proportions

The SCC can be significantly affected by the characteristics of materials and the mix proportion, so mix for this study
was designed according to the rational mix as designed by Okamura and Ouchi [1]. There are nine different FA and CC
proportions of ordinary Portland cement replacement and one control of SCC mixture. The ratio of concrete mixture is
determined by main composition of mixture in the production process of SCC, with ordinary Portland cement replaced by
FA at the ratio of 20, 30 and 50 % by weight of cement; it is also mixed with CC at the ratio of 5, 10 and 20 % by weight of
cement. These combinations of materials reduce quantity of ordinary Portland cement, which is the main binder of the
mixture. The specific mixing proportions of SCC samples in this study are presented in Table 3. The total amount of
cementitious materials was kept constant at 550 kg/m3 for all mixtures. The fine aggregate and coarse aggregate used in
the mixtures were 815 and 720 kg/m3 respectively. The water to cementitious ratio was 0.28 for all mixtures. To maintain
the flowability of SCC properties, in order to meet requirements of the study, an admixture with a high water-reducing
range – as polycarboxylate type at 2.2 % by weight of cementitious materials – was used. The workability criteria of SCC
follow the EFNARC standard [29].

2.3. Test methods

1. Physical properties and chemical composition of the materials were studied using X-ray fluorescence (XRF), particle
size analyzer and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) techniques.
2. Fresh concrete properties, including air content of freshly mixed concrete by the pressure method (ASTM C231) [30]
and unit weight of a sample of concrete by getting the weight of a concrete and dividing that by the volume of cylindrical
container (ASTM C138) [31] were tested.
3. Workability properties of concrete were tested including the slump flow and slump flow time, that represents an
average diameter of the concrete and time to 500 mm diameter of the concrete after releasing an inverted slump cone ASTM
C1611 [32]. J-ring flow that represents an average diameter of the concrete flow through the steel crown after releasing an
inverted slump cone ASTM C1621 [33]. V-funnel flow time that represents an average time of discharge of the concrete
through the V shape container and L-box that represents the high at the end of the test after removing the gate to allow
concrete to flow pass obstructions following EFNARC [29] standard. The test apparatus for evaluation of workability
properties of SCC are presented in Fig. 3.
4. Three prismatic specimens for each mixtures having cross-section of 75 mm  75 mm and length of 300 mm were used
for the shrinkage test. Studs was attached to the specimen after 7 days of curing and kept in a room at constant temperature
of 20 ̊C and 50 % relative humidity. Measuring of the studs changes in the linear of the average three specimen were
monitored constantly through the use of a length comparator for the determination of the shrinkage up to 63 days according
to ASTM C426 [34].
5. Water absorption of SCC after 28 days of curing was tested according to ASTM C642 [35], that the water absorbed by an
oven dried of three cube (100 mm) specimen is measured after a 48 h immersion.
6. Tests for the hardened properties were conducted and all specimens were covered with a plastic sheet. Their moulds
were removed, and the concrete specimens were immersed in lime-saturated water for 24 h until testing ages. There were
twelve cylinder specimens with 15 cm diameter and 30 cm height for each mixture to measuring the compressive strength
according to the curing time at the age of 7, 28, 60, and 120 days, in accordance with ASTM C39 [36], and the average of
elasticity modulus measured by three cylinder specimens according to the curing time of 7, 28, 60, and 120 days, in
accordance with ASTM C469 [37].

3. Results and analyses

3.1. Properties of fresh concrete

The properties of fresh SCC, including air content and unit weight were studied. The air content of SCC increases when FA
and CC are used as supplementary materials. Increasing the air content in a constant water-to-cementitious matter ratio
affects the water demand for lubrication of cementitious particles. At the same time, when CC is added in higher quantities,
the air volume tends to decrease from 1.42 % to 1.15 % when the amount of FA is 20 %; the air volume decreases from 2.12 % to
1.41 % with 30 % FA; and it decreases from 2.88 % to 2.11 % when the amount of FA is lowered to 50 % as shown in Fig. 4. With
the higher replacement ratio of CC, the internal air content of SCC decreases because of the difference between the size of the
FA and the grading of the CC; the FA has a round shape, so replacing cement with more CC will result in insertion between
uneven particles, resulting in uneven arrangement and reduced air volume.
The unit weight result of SCC comparing with the control mixture is shown in Fig. 5. When using FA and CC as cement
replacement, the weight of concrete decreases because the specific gravity of both materials is lower than the specific
gravity of cement; the specific gravity of cement, CC, and FA is 3.15, 2.70, and 2.54, respectively. If the replacement of
cement was performed by weight, the volume of powder has gone up due to the density of FA and CC is less. These
results agree with those obtained in previous studies [12,14]. In addition, the air content was reduced by proper self-
compaction.
6 P. Promsawat et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00426

Table 3
Mixture proportions of materials used.

Mixes Cementitious materials (kg/m3) Water (kg/m3) Fine aggregate Coarse aggregate HRWR (%)
(kg/m3) (kg/m3)
% replacement Cement Fly ash Calcium carbonate
Control 0 550 – – 154 815 720 2.2
20FA5CC 25 412.5 110 27.5 154 815 720 2.2
20FA10CC 30 385 110 55 154 815 720 2.2
20FA20CC 40 330 110 110 154 815 720 2.2
30FA5CC 35 357.5 165 27.5 154 815 720 2.2
30FA10CC 40 330 165 55 154 815 720 2.2
30FA20CC 50 275 165 110 154 815 720 2.2
50FA5CC 55 247.5 275 27.5 154 815 720 2.2
50FA10CC 60 220 275 55 154 815 720 2.2
50FA20CC 70 165 275 110 154 815 720 2.2

3.2. Workability of concrete

Workability values of the tested samples after mixing are given in Table 4. The test process follows EFNARC [29] and ASTM
standards [32,33]. The test criteria of filling ability are a slump flow between 650 800 mm and the slump flow time to 50 cm
diameter in 2–5 s. Passing ability is determined by the difference between the slump flow and J-ring flow (between 0 50
mm) and L-box flow at a height of 0.8 1.0 (h2/h1). Ability to resist the segregation is the V-funnel flow time, which should be
between 6 and 12 s for the control mixture, the workability meets the requirements: the slump flow is 750 mm; slump flow
time is 3.40 s; J-ring flow is 10.2 s; L-box flow is 0.80; and V-funnel flow time is 11.59 s.
Filling ability test results show that the slump flow increases when the cement is replaced with higher quantities of fly ash
because of its spherical shape and FA acts as a lubricating material that does not react to superplasticisers and produce a
repulsive force [5]. At 5% CC, the slump flow increases to 707.5, 760, and 777 mm when FA is increased by 20, 30, and 50 %,
respectively. On the other hand, the slump flow decreases when the amount of CC is increased; at 30 % FA content, the slump
flow decreases to 760, 700, and 680 mm when CC is increased by 5, 10, and 20 %, respectively. In contrast, as the CC increases,
the viscosity also increases. The viscosity increases with the decrease in particle size of CC, especially when the particle size is
comparable or smaller than those of cement grains, because of the fill effect and higher specific area of CC [19] that also
exhibits increasing the w/p of SCC [38], in accordance with the trend of the time of T50cm slump flow time; at 30 % fly ash
content, the slump flow increases to 3.30, 3.58, and 3.59 mm when CC is increased by 5, 10, and 20 %, respectively, so as to
indicate the viscosity of SCC [10].
In terms of passing ability, the ability of SCC to flow through a J-ring flow and L-box apparatus was tested. The J-ring flow
exhibits a flow behavior of SCC through congested reinforcements. The test results for all mixtures satisfy the requirements:
not more than 50 mm with a blocking assessment of about 8.8–10.4 mm. The L-box blocking ratio for all SCC mixtures met
the criteria (h2/h1), between 0.8 and 1.0. The blocking ratio for the control mixture was 0.80, which tended to cause a
blocking risk. When FA and CC were used in place of cement, the blocking ratio was 0.81 0.99, even at high volumes; also,
the yield stress of the control mixture was lower than the yield stress of the mixtures. According to Okamura and Ouchi [1],
highly viscous paste is also required in order to avoid the blockage of coarse aggregate when concrete flows through
obstacles.
The segregation resistance capacity was assessed through the V-funnel flow test. The V-funnel flow time was 11.59 s for
the control mixture. At 5% CC, the V-funnel flow time increased to 8.45, 9.51, and 11.08 s when FA was increased by 20, 30, and
50 %, respectively. The time for V-funnel flow also increased when the amount of CC was increased; with 30 % FA, the flow
time through the V-funnel rose to 9.51, 10.08, and 11.28 s when CC was increased by 5, 10, and 20 %, respectively. It means that
the SCC is more viscous when replacing Portland cement with higher volumes of cementitious materials. The test results for
all mixtures satisfy the requirement of 6–12 s.
All the SCC ternary blends mixed with HVFA and CC have satisfied and good agreement with the various consistency
classes defined by EFNARC criteria similar to previous studies of Martos [8], and Dinakar et al. [15]. A reason for good
workability could possibly be that FA has lubricating property due to its spherical shape and smooth surface; it is likely that
the superplasticizer reacts to cement only. FA increased the quantity of free water and enhanced the SCC’s workability
quality. As a result, the more FA is added to the mixture, the less superplasticizer is needed, and similarly was studied by Liu
[5], Sua-iam & Makul [14], and Şahmaran et al. [16]. Passing ability depends on coarse aggregate content and viscosity [5].
The combined influences of an increase in FA and CC lead to an increase of viscosity and a decrease in blockage of coarse
aggregate. This indicates that cement replacement with FA can improve the passing ability of the SCC [8,10]. Similarly, the
use of CC to produce a SCC mixture enhances the viscosity and helps with decreasing blocking which is consistent with the
results of studies conducted by Lertwattanaruk et al. [12] and Makul and Sua-iam [38]. The segregation of the concrete
mixtures with similar water-to-cementitious materials ratio decreased with an increase of percentage of the fly ash used [2].
SCC contains a HVFA and CC which is required to maintain sufficient yield value and viscosity of the fresh mix, hence
reducing segregation and settlement [6]. According to an investigation of Martos et al. [8], the shape and texture of the fly ash
 P. Promsawat et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00426 7

Fig. 3. The evaluation of SCC workability test apparatuses (a) Slump flow test, (b) J Ring test, (c) V funnel test and (d) L-Box test.
8 P. Promsawat et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00426

Fig. 4. Air content for all SCC mixes.

Fig. 5. Unit weight for all SCC mixes.

 P. Promsawat et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00426 9

Table 4
Workability of SCC tests.

Mixes Filling ability Passing ability Segregation resistance

Slump flow T50cm slump flow J-ring flow L- box flow V-funnel flow
Control 750 3.40 10.2 0.80 11.59
20FA5CC 707 3.56 9.3 0.96 8.45
20FA10CC 670 4.35 10.2 0.93 10.42
20FA20CC 653 4.50 10.4 0.81 11.06
30FA5CC 760 3.30 8.8 0.99 9.51
30FA10CC 700 3.58 9.5 0.97 10.08
30FA20CC 680 3.59 9.9 0.86 11.28
50FA5CC 777 3.15 9.0 0.98 11.08
50FA10CC 760 3.35 9.4 0.96 11.39
50FA20CC 743 3.49 9.2 0.91 11.42
Criteria [29] 650 800 mm 2 5 sec 0 50 mm 0.8 1.0 (h2/h1) 6 12 sec

can reduce the intergranular friction, as observed the reduction in V-funnel time. The results of the V-funnel flow and L-box
flow tests also provide evidence that mixes containing CC filler possess slower workability [20]. A comparison of L-box flow
and V-funnel flow times for all SCC mixes is presented in Fig. 6. It is notable that all of the SCC mixtures in this study fulfill the
requirements of passing ability and segregation resistance.

3.3. Properties of hardened concrete

3.3.1. Compressive strength

The results of compressive strength test of SCC at 7, 28, 60, and 120 days, in Fig. 7, show that the control concrete had a
compressive strength equal to 54, 56, 61, and 69 MPa at the age of 7, 28, 60, and 120 days, respectively. The development of
the compressive strength of SCC during the curing stage showed that the concrete had a high compressive strength
development when curing period was extended. However, a decrease in the compressive strength appeared when cement
was replaced with increasingly higher total volumes of FA and CC. At 5% CC, the compressive strength after 28 days of curing
decreased from 56 to 47 MPa when FA was increased by 20–50%, respectively; at 10 % CC, the 28-day compressive strength
decreased from 49 to 38 MPa when FA was increased by 20–50%; and at 15 % CC, the 28-day compressive strength decreased
from 46 to 36 MPa when the percentage of FA was increased by 20–50%.

Fig. 6. L-box flow and V-funnel flow time for all SCC mixes.
10 P. Promsawat et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00426

Fig. 7. Compressive strength for all SCC mixes.

The development of compressive strength in concrete is found to be inverse proportion to the amount of FA and CC,
because reducing in quantity of cement by replacing it with more powdered materials affects the hydration reaction of
concrete. Moreover, CC and FA are very fine materials that improve water absorption ability. When the proportion of water to
binder remains constant, the amount of water lost from the high absorption of the cementitious materials affects chemical
reaction between water and cement, so there are pores inside the hardened concrete that reduces compressive strength.

Fig. 8. Elastic modulus for all SCC mixes.

 P. Promsawat et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00426 11

There are three mixtures of SCC that have higher compressive strength than the standard concrete; they are 20FA5CC,
20FA10CC, and 30FA5CC that refer to total cement replacement content of 35 % or less. On the other hand, when replacing
cement at a high content of more than 40 %, all concrete mixtures have less compressive strength than the control sample
since the weight of cement is replaced with FA and CC that have lower specific gravity than cement. The effect on the paste to
aggregate volume in the mixes changed and the water to cementitious ratio (by volume) was not maintained constantly. It
decreases when cement replacement was increased. In comparison with studies conducted by Da Silva and de Brito [23] who
report that the 60 % of SCM mixture cementitious binder at 707 kg/m3, at 91 days the compressive strength was more than 55
MPa after 120 days of curing. From the result, at lower cementitious binder (550 kg/m3) and higher replacement, the
50FA20CC mixture has the lowest compressive strength, at 34 %, 29 %, 24 % and 17 % less than the control mixture at the age of
7, 28, 60, and 120 days, respectively. The compressive strength of SCC was more than 50 MPa after 120 days. Similarly, it is
reported by authors Martos et al. [8] who observed a decrease of compressive strength gained at all ages as the replacement
level of cement by FA was increased, in the other hand the concrete showed significant increases of compressive strength up
to 180 days. Khatib [9] reported that at the same water to binder ratio, there is strength reduction for concretes containing
high volume FA compared with that of the control. However, even at high 60 % FA content, a long-term high strength is
increased to 40 MPa approximately. Apart from the aforementioned studies by Singh et al. [13], a reduction in compressive
strength has been noted to be mild up to 35 %FA, thereafter the compressive strength was found to be decreased significantly.
As per Dinakar et al. [15] studies, it can be concluded that SCC of lower strength grades (20–30 MPa) can be produced by FA
replacement of 70–85 %, while higher strength grades of about 60–90 MPa can be produced with about 30–50 % FA
replacement as similarly reported by other [16–18]
The development of compressive strength is mainly determined by the formation of calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H)
derived from alite (C3S) and belite (C2S) and secondary C-S-H derived from SCM [4]. As a general principle, the incorporation
of FA leads to slower pozzolanic reaction of FA and Ca (OH)2 in the hydrated cement, in comparison with the control mixture.
In particular, when additional FA is used instead of cement in concrete, the decreased cement content reduces the amount of
Ca (OH)2, which then will reduce compressive strength of concrete. It is apparent that the pozzolanic reaction rate for FA
contributes to the reduced strength [14]. The FA acts as a pozzolan in SCC, and is therefore non-reactive, the compressive
strength observed in the initial days of curing was significantly lower, while the compressive strength was improved by
extending the curing time [13]. Furthermore, the fine particles fill the voids in the cement particles with the same CC, which
improves the density of internal SCC structure and increases compressive strength. In addition, the use of CC in SCC is limited
without pozzolanic properties, which affects the compressive strength when using greater amounts [12,20,38], and a high
unburned carbon content of CC can increase SCC's water demand in large quantities. Similarly, it is reported by Cao et al. [19]
that a high replacement content of CC that reduces the amount of cement and it does not contribute to the strength

Fig. 9. Compressive strength and elastic modulus for all SCC mixes.
12 P. Promsawat et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00426

development because CC has no cementitious ability. On the other hand, the dilution effect is more effective with the
increase in substitution content, and causes a high effective water to cement ratio and lower strength. According to the
report of Panesar and Zhang [4], concrete less than 20 % cement replacement by SCM results in porosities that are less than
the control line, which is attributed to the physical and chemical contribution of SCM. When the cement replacement level
exceeds 20 %, an increase in the content of SCM results in porosity ratios greater than 100. For this reason, the replacement
ratio must also be taken into consideration.

3.3.2. Elastic modulus

The elastic modulus of concrete is determined by the Young’s modulus of the materials and the proportions. It will tend to
decrease, depending on the total amount of aggregate, or increase, depending on the higher cement content or the higher
porosity [5]. The results of the modulus of elasticity test on day 7, 28, 60 and 120 for SCC, in Fig. 8, show that the control
concrete had a modulus of elasticity equal to 34, 36, 37, and 41 GPa after 7, 28, 60, and 120 days of curing respectively. The
modulus of elasticity decreased when cement was replaced with a high amount of FA and CC. At 5% calcium carbonate
powder, the 28-day modulus of elasticity decreased from 36 to 33 GPa when FA was increased from 20–50%, respectively; at
10 % CC, the 28-day modulus of elasticity decreased from 34 to 30 MPa when FA was increased from 20–50%; and at 15 % CC,
the 28-day modulus of elasticity decreased from 33 to 29 MPa when FA was increased from 20–50%. Only the 20FA5CC
mixture of SCC had a higher modulus of elasticity than the control cement. As it was seen in the compressive strength test,
when cement was replaced, the modulus of elasticity tended to decrease. According a research investigated by McCarthy and
Dhir [18], it indicates that the modulus of elasticity of concretes increased with increase design strength. The 50FA20CC
mixture has the lowest elastic modulus, decreasing to 77, 79, 84, and 87 %, compared with the control cement after 7, 28, 60,
and 120 days, respectively. After 120 days, the elastic modulus of SCC was more than 35 GPa. It is an improved mechanical
performance of SCCs with this FA when comparing to the rest. This behavior resembles what was found for compressive
strength; the result may be due to the small amounts of portlandite available for pozzolanic reactions, owing to the high level
of substitution [8]. In a comparison of the compressive strength and elastic modulus for all SCC mixtures, Fig. 9 shows a good
correlation at the ages of 7, 28, 60, and 120 days (R2 = 0.9796). As anticipated, a higher modulus of elasticity correlates with
higher compressive strength.

3.3.3. Water absorption

Water absorption of SCC was tested after 28 days, in Fig. 10, and results showed that the absorption of the control concrete
was 1.8 %. The absorption increased when cement was replaced with a larger amount of FA and CC. At 5% CC, the water
absorption increased from 1.50 to 2.00 % when fly ash was increased from 20–50%, respectively. At 10 % calcium carbonate
powder, the water absorption increased from 1.65 to 2.30 % when FA was increased from 20–50%, respectively. At 15 % CC, the
water absorption increased from 2.30 to 2.80 % when FA was increased from 20–50%, respectively. The results are similar to

Fig. 10. Water absorption for all SCC mixes.

 P. Promsawat et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00426 13

Fig. 11. Compressive strength and water absorption for all SCC mixes.

the compressive strength test, three mixtures of SCC show less water absorption than the control; they are 20FA5CC,
20FA10CC, and 30FA5CC, which means that a proper cement replacement volume is the densification structure of SCC. On the
other hand, when replacing cement at a high volume of more than 40 %, all concrete mixtures have water absorption that is
higher than the control concrete. The 50FA20CC mixture has the highest water absorption.
The properties of water absorption relate directly to long-term durability of concrete. Appearance of pores, defects, and
crevices in concrete increases the water absorption in concrete, which affects mechanical properties and other durability
properties. In general, the shape of FA particles and CC not only enables them to fill the voids, increasing density of the
matrix, but also tends to decrease pores [19]. It is observed that SCC containing FA and CC has higher water absorption.

Fig. 12. Shrinkage for all SCC mixes.

14 P. Promsawat et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00426

Overall, water absorption increases when FA and CC quantities are increased as indicated by a greater number of pores [13].
The volume of the paste increases because of the lower specific gravity of the FA, thus increasing both the number of pores
and the absorption of water property [15]. In addition, the water absorption of high-volume SCC mixes shows significant
increases. The reason may be that FA and CC expand the voids between the particles of cement, and the increasing
replacement ratio creates gaps between FA and CC, leading to higher porosity [5,39]. The relationship between water
absorption and compressive strength for all SCC mixtures, as presented in Fig. 11, shows a correlation at the age of 28 days (R2
= 0.8136). As anticipated, higher water absorption correlates to lower compressive strength.

3.3.4. Shrinkage
The results indicate that the first 28 days appears to be period of the greatest shrinkage. After that, little shrinkage takes
place for up to 63 days. With greater amounts of FA, there is correspondingly less shrinkage. In high-volume SCC, shrinkage
after 63 days is less than that of the control. The results, therefore, indicate that the high FA content has minimal to no effect
on concrete shrinkage while drying [9,16]. Measurements of shrinkage of concrete when FA and CC replacing cement at high
volumes reveal that the SCC has a higher water demand in the mixture as well, resulting in the shrinkage of the concrete. In
addition, the particle characteristics of cementitious material creates pores in the concrete during the long curing period.
Evaporation of water that accumulates within the pores created by the cementitious materials causes shrinkage, as shown in
Fig. 12. It was found that the highest tendency for shrinkage was occurred in the control concrete. However, when replacing
cement with FA and CC, shrinkage tends to decrease. Increasing the volume of FA and CC tends to decrease shrinkage. The
mechanism most likely to result in reduced shrinkage in SCCs would be densification of the matrix owing to the addition of
fly ash, which may prevent the evaporation of moisture within the material. The shape, pozzolanic properties, and micro-
filler effects of FA combined with CC in concrete typically contribute to densification [16].
McCarthy and Dhir [18] indicate that shrinkage increased with concrete strength increased and therefore with cement
content that the high volume of FA has no effect to concrete shrinkage. In addition, the reduced cement volume results in the
lower rate of hydration reaction between cement and water, and the heat obtained from the reaction decreases. The loss of

Fig. 13. SEM micrographs of (a) Control (b) 20FA5CC (c) 30FA10CC and (d) 50FA20CC.
 P. Promsawat et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00426 15

water in the capillary pores is also reduced. In addition, the effect of increased water absorption due to the fineness of
material results in the remaining water inside the cement paste being used for hydration, which reduces the shrinkage, and
may be a result of the expansion from sulfur trioxide (SO3) that is contained in FA. Similarly, it is conferred by Khatib [9] that
most of the shrinkage occurs during the first 28 days. After that, there is little change in shrinkage. An increasing amount of
FA results in a systematic reduction in shrinkage. At high FA content (60 %) shrinkage is reduced to half and with a higher FA
content (80 %) the shrinkage is about one third comparing with that of the control.

3.4. Microstructural analysis

Microstructure of the hardened SCC mixtures was tested by using Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) analysis. SEM
observations of selected SCC mixes with different FA and CC content are shown in Fig. 13a-d. The morphology of the control is
shown in Fig. 13(a). It is noted a large amount of Ca(OH)2 and a moderate amount of ettringite crystal in the hydrates with
smaller pores. SEM micrograph of 20FA5CC is shown in Fig. 13(b), that mainly consisted of a relatively dense layer of hydrates,
which was substantially different to that selected in other mixed with FA and CC. No visible cracks and small voids due to
entrapped air was found. Poor ITZ and cracks on the surface are clearly visible in the 30FA10CC mixture as shown in Fig. 13(c).
However, a large amount of FA was found on the surface of the 50FA20CC mixtures as shown in Fig. 13(d). The larger voids by
incorporation of FA and CC in SCC mixtures show the loose granular compounds, and the porosity near the interfacial zone, a
small amount of ettringite crystal in the hydrates.
Energy-dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) analysis were performed to examine the microstructural changes in concrete
mixtures with FA and CC. Table 5 shows the elemental percentage of selected mixes. Calcium-silica ratio for the control,
20FA5CC, 30FA10CC and 50FA20CC mixes are 0.94, 0.77, 1.07 and 1.12 respectively. It is noted that the calcium-silica ratio
decreases as the replacement of FA and CC is increases. The relation between the chemical composition of calcium–silicate–
hydrate (C-S-H) phases, C-S-H phase with variable composition often expressed by its average Calcium-Silica ratio and its
influence on the compressive strength [40]. The 28-day compressive strength is 56, 60, 51 and 40 MPa, respectively. The
calcium-silica ratio plays a development in the compressive strength of 20FA5CC mixes, that is the lowest calcium-silica ratio
and the highest compressive strength. In the other hand, the results obtained for 50FA20CC mixes, that is the highest

Table 5
Percentage of chemical elements in SCC mixes.

Element Control 20FA5CC 30FA10CC 50FA20CC

Calcium (Ca) 26.79 23.83 29.66 28.54
Silicon (Si) 28.54 30.96 27.78 25.55
Aluminum (Al) 2.10 2.71 1.69 2.94
Iron (Fe) 1.95 1.69 1.18 3.04
Magnesium (Mg) 0.67 0.61 0.68 0.59
Potassium (K) 0.30 0.52 0.18 0.47
Oxygen (O) 31.93 33.66 32.81 28.78
Carbon (C) 6.18 6.03 5.65 6.18
Ca/Si Ratio 0.94 0.77 1.07 1.12

Fig. 14. Cost analysis for all SCC mixes.

16 P. Promsawat et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00426

calcium-silica ratio and the lowest compressive strength. Similar finding of the Influence of calcium-silica ratio on the
compressive strength of cementitious C-S-H binders is also reported by Kunther et al. [40].

3.5. Cost analysis

The main disadvantage of SCC is high amounts of chemical admixtures combined with Portland cement, resulting in
higher concrete prices. The best way to reduce the price of concrete is to substitute supplementary materials for Portland
cement. In this study, FA and CC have been used to replace cement, which potentially reduces the price of SCC in terms of
local materials excluding shipping costs. In this study, the unit price of materials in SCC production consists of 0.08 $/m3 of
cement, 0.0233 $/m3 of FA, 0.050 $/m3 of CC, 0.0057 $/m3 of fine aggregate, 0.0055 $/m3 of coarse aggregate, 0.0003 $/m3 of
water, and 3.33 $/m3 of high-range water reducer admixtures.
The comparison of costs for all SCC and control mixtures per cubic meter is shown in Fig. 14. As a result of using waste
materials in the production of SCC, the price tends to be significantly lower. When comparing with control concrete, the total
cement replacement ratios of 25–70% that lowers the price of SCC in the range of 8–21%. According to Fig. 14, the most
economical mixture achieving a compressive strength of 35 MPa at the age of 28 days is the SCC composed of 50 % FA and 20 %
CC. In addition, when considering the cost per unit strength for 28 days, it was found that the replacement volume of 40 % or
less was close to the control cost per unit strength. However, when increasing the replacement quantity, it was found that the
cost per unit strength of SCC did not increase by more than 27 %.
The main reason for the increasing market share of HVFA concrete is reduction of material cost [2,17]. Overall, replacing
appropriate amounts of the cement with FA and CC is significantly cost effective. In many countries, having FA and ready-to-
use CC helps with reducing SCC costs [12]. Using replacement material also reduces environmental problems from the
cement production process and enables the recycling of waste from the production of electricity in coal-powered plants [14].

4. Conclusions

Based on the results provided above, certain conclusions can be drawn, discussed below.

 Substitution of cement with a high volume ternary blend of FA and CC in fresh concrete that has the air content volume
tends to increase. The air content of SCC with ternary blend of FA and CC is about 1.15–2.88 % higher than the control. The
unit weight of SCC with ternary blend of FA and CC tends to decrease. The most significant decrease about 13.5 % is
observed in the 50FA20CC mixture.
 The ternary blend of the HVFA and CC adequately meets standard requirements for all mixtures. The workable
characteristics of SCC - including filling ability (slump flow and slump flow time in the range 653 777 mm and 3.15–4.50 s,
respectively), passing ability (different by J-ring flow and L-box flow high ratio in the range 8.8–10.4 mm and 0.80 0.99,
respectively), and segregation resistance (V-funnel flow time in the range 8.45–11.59 s) - improve when the amount of FA
in the cement is increased. On the other hand, when the CC in cement increases the workability decreases.
 In terms of the compressive strength, the ternary blend of the HVFA and CC limit (not over 35 %) resulted in more strength
than the control mixture and also improved the long term (120 days). The greatest compressive strength after 120 days was
achieved by the 20FA5CC mixture and attained 75 MPa, 9.5 % higher than control mixture. In contrast, the 50FA20CC
mixture had the lowest compressive strength, decreasing about 16 % of the control mixture at the age of 120 days; the
compressive strength of the SCC was over 50 MPa.
 Behavior of the elastic modulus resembled the behavior of compressive strength. The tendency of the elastic modulus was
to decrease when cement was replaced with the HVFA and CC. The elastic modulus of SCC at the age of 120 days with
ternary blend of the HVFA and CC is 36–42 about GPa. There was a good correlation at all ages with R2 = 0.9796, as higher
compressive strength correlated with a higher elastic modulus.
 Water absorption of the ternary blend of the HVFA and CC, about 1.5–2.8 %, tends to increases when cement replacement is
increased. By replacing cement with FA and CC of more than 40 %, the water absorption was higher than in the control
mixture. The higher compressive strength correlated with a lower water absorption, express the exponential correlation at
all ages with R2 = 0.8136.
 An increase in FA and CC leads to a decrease in shrinkage. The lowest shrinkage for 63 days was achieved by the 50FA20CC
mixture and attained 375 microstrain, decreasing about 33 % of the control mixture at the age of 63 days. The reduced
shrinkage during the drying phase in SCC is most likely due to the matrix densification resulting from the fineness of FA
and CC.
 The microstructure was analyzed with EDS. The calcium-silica ratio for the control, 20FA5CC, 30FA10CC and 50FA20CC
mixes are 0.94, 0.77, 1.07 and 1.12 respectively. The calcium-silica ratio played a development in the compressive strength.
The highest calcium-silica ratio creates the lowest compressive strength. Similar to the compressive strength result, the
lowest calcium-silica ratio was achieved by the 20FA5CC mixture.
 The total cement replacement ratios of 25–70% resulted in a decrease in the price of SCC in the range of 8–21% of the control
mixture. The lowest cost per unit strength at 28 days was achieved by the 20FA5CC mixture and attained 1.46 $/MPa, 8%
lower than control mixture. This study shows that FA and ready-to-use CC are now reducing SCC costs and resolving
environmental problems by recycling waste from the coal-fired electricity production process in many countries.
 P. Promsawat et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00426 17

Declaration of Competing Interest

There is no conflict of interest in this study.

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