Construction and Building Materials 127 (2016) 828–842

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Construction and Building Materials

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Carbonation resistance and microstructural analysis of Low and High

Volume Fly Ash Self Compacting Concrete containing Recycled Concrete
Aggregates
Navdeep Singh M.E. ⇑, S.P. Singh Ph.D.
Department of Civil Engineering, Dr. B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar 144 011, India

h i g h l i g h t s

The carbonation resistance of LVFA and HVFA based SCC made with coarse RCA have been investigated.

Compressive strength for all the SCC mixes has been reported for reference.

The microstructural investigation of LVFA and HVFA based SCC has been done by SEM and TGA tests.

Electrical resistivity has also been calculated for all the mixes.

The effect of replacement of NA with RCA has been evaluated in binary and ternary blended SCC mixes.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The present study investigates the carbonation resistance of Low Volume Fly Ash (LVFA) and High
Received 30 June 2016 Volume Fly Ash (HVFA) based Self Compacting Concrete (SCC) made with Coarse Recycled Concrete
Received in revised form 7 October 2016 Aggregates (RCA). In order to study the carbonation resistance of LVFA and HVFA based SCC mixes made
Accepted 9 October 2016
with RCA, accelerated carbonation tests were conducted for an exposure period of 4, 12 and 16 weeks.
Available online 14 October 2016
The results indicate that with the increase in RCA content as replacement of Coarse Natural Aggregates
(NA), decrease in the carbonation resistance of SCC mixes has been observed. The inclusion of metakaolin
Keywords:
(MK) as a mineral admixture has been found to compensate the loss in the carbonation resistance on
Low Volume Fly Ash
High Volume Fly Ash
account of substitution of NA with RCA to some extent. The current investigation also emphasises on
Self Compacting Concrete the microstructural study performed by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Thermogravimetric
Coarse Recycled Concrete Aggregates Analysis (TGA) for validation of observed results.
Accelerated carbonation Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction (CO2) emission or in the form of depleted landfills. The ultimate

The persistent process of constructing new civil engineering
structures and swapping the long-standing ones has already
shaped an environmental issue which certainly needs a well-
timed concern. For example, the generation of solid waste from
concrete industry has been expected to grow from 12.7 billion ton-
nes in 2000 to 27 billion tonnes in 2050. An increase from 1.7 times
in 1980 to 2.2 times in 2025 has been projected in the amount of
solid waste generation for ‘Organisation for Economic Co-
operation and Development’ (OCED) countries [1,2]. This enor-
mous quantity of inert material in the form solid waste generated
from concrete industry has given rise to major environmental
issues, either in the form of enormous amount of carbon dioxide
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: nsinghsde@gmail.com (N. Singh).
solution of this major problem is to recycle/reuse the C&D waste
in construction industry. Many countries of Europe, Asia and Amer-
ica have already implemented the use of C&D waste in concrete
industry [3]. The inert material obtained from C&D waste after
crushing and grinding into smaller particles is known as Coarse
Recycled Concrete Aggregates (RCA). For meeting the continuously
increasing demand of cement in concrete industry and while keep-
ing in mind the environmental aspects, a special kind of material is
required that is having pozzolanic content and is also economical.
As reported in previous studies, low and higher replacements
levels of Fly Ash (FA) have been used in many investigations. On
the basis of replacement levels, concrete containing FA up to 30%
and more than 50% is termed as Low/Moderate Volume Fly Ash
(LVFA) and High Volume Fly Ash (HVFA) concrete respectively
[4,5]. Such forms of concrete has gained popularity world-wide
due to its higher benefits in terms of sustainability, durability

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.10.067
0950-0618/Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 N. Singh, S.P. Singh / Construction and Building Materials 127 (2016) 828–842
and cost effectiveness and other long term performance aspects
[6–9]. The sustainability can also be achieved to some extent by
reducing the quantity of clinker in concrete and this can be possi-
ble only by adding different cement additions like FA, Silica Fume
(SF), Metakaolin (MK) etc., which are having inherent pozzolanic
and binding properties [5,7]. Hence, the use of cement additions
has increased in cement industry to minimise the Portland Cement
(PC) content [9]. For achieving sustainability, adoption of FA in cur-
rent concrete manufacturing system has become necessary while
maintaining top priority for the durability aspect.
The production of Self Compacting Concrete (SCC) was initiated
in Japan in the late eighties to compensate the shortcomings of
Normally Vibrated Concrete (NVC). Due to numerous advantages
in terms of improved mechanical and durability properties, the
SCC has gained world-wide recognition in very short time [10–
14]. As the trend of using SCC has increased, the researchers also
put some efforts to make SCC more durable and sustainable by
using different cement additions. The previous studies have
reported that, addition of cement admixtures helps in enhancing
the overall performance of the concretes e.g. the use of SF, MK,
Blast Furnace Slag (BFS) has been found to improve its mechanical
and long term properties [12,15]. However, the use of RCA in con-
struction industry has been initiated in the last decade but its
implementation has been constricted in only few categories due
to its poor physical and mechanical properties [16–20]. The kind
of inert material obtained from C&D waste in the form of RCA
has been employed in NVC and SCC and the influence of these
materials has been examined in terms of physical, mechanical, rhe-
ological and durability properties [21–25]. The literature con-
firmed that replacing Coarse Natural Aggregates (NA) with RCA
degrades the performance of all types of concretes i.e. reduction
in workability, compressive and tensile strengths etc. [26–31].
The reason behind the poor performance of using RCA lies in weak
Interfacial Transition Zone (ITZ), micro and macro cracks, pores in
adhered mortar, generation of fissures during its processing. Car-
bonation is a major risk for reinforced concrete structures because
it lowers alkalinity of concrete which results in enabling the exter-
nal aggressive agents to act [1,32]. Carbonation is a reaction of gas-
eous atmospheric Carbon Dioxide (CO2) with the calcium-bearing
phases of concrete and is known to cause lowering of alkalinity
leading to the corrosion of steel bars embedded in concrete [7,9].
It depends on various factors like permeability of concrete, mois-
ture content, concentration of environment’s CO2 and relative
humidity.
A lot of research has been carried out to evaluate the carbona-
tion resistance of NVC made with NA and RCA and SCC made with
NA using low and moderate volumes of FA [21–22,33–42]. In addi-
tion to this, direct influence of FA on carbonation depth for various
types of concretes has also been studied by numerous researchers
[31,33]. An increase of the order of 1.3–2.5 times in carbonation
depths of NVC made with RCA has been observed compared to
NVC made with NA [24,31]. The exceptional effects of FA was noted
in another study in which carbonation depths of NVC made with
RCA were found to be lower in comparison to NVC made with
NA [33,35]. Another similar research was conducted in order to
evaluate the effect of FA in NVC made with RCA. The results
showed that, addition of FA affects the carbonation resistance. It
has also been found that addition of FA decreased the carbonation
resistance of NVC made with RCA for longer exposure periods
[31,35]. Few of the investigations done on SCC indicated its higher
durability performance over NVC [21,36–37], with the presence of
cement additions which supports in enhancing the microstructure
and carbonation resistance [22,38]. In addition to this, the carbon-
ation depths for RCA concrete depends mainly on water/cement
(w/c) ratio and curing periods, as higher and lower carbonation
829
coefficients (CC) have been noticed respectively [40,41]. Since car-
bonation phenomenon is complex in nature as conflicting results
have been mentioned by many researchers.
However, to the best of knowledge of the authors, no informa-
tion on the carbonation resistance of LVFA and HVFA based SCC
mixes made with RCA is available. Thus, the main objective of this
paper is to evaluate the carbonation resistance of LVFA and HVFA
based SCC mixes made with different replacement levels of NA
with RCA. The emphasis here is to achieve a most sustainable
SCC that can be used in civil engineering construction which com-
prises alternative materials both in the form of binders and RCA.
The current investigation includes, in total ten number of SCC
mixes differentiated according to content of FA (LVFA and HVFA
based mixes) and replacement levels of RCA. Herein, the study
examines the carbonation depth as main parameter of LVFA and
HVFA based binary and ternary blends (PC, FA and MK) of SCC
mixes made with varying quantities RCA. The performance of all
the SCC mixes has been judged on the basis of their observed car-
bonation depths. Also, in present study an effort has been made to
characterise those compounds which are key parameters for car-
bonation phenomenon, like Calcium Silicate Hydrates (CSH),
CaCO3, Ca(OH)2 etc., as all the mixes have been tested for micro
structural characterization. Specifically, Scanning Electron Micro-
scopy (SEM) and Thermogravimetric Analyses (TGA) have been
used to explore the carbonation mechanism at the microscopic
level. In addition to this, the compressive strength and electrical
resistivity of all the LVFA and HVFA based SCC mixes have also
been evaluated.
2. Experimental programme
2.1. Materials and mix proportions
Portland Cement (PC) of grade 43 was used throughout the
experimental programme. Locally available natural fine aggregates
and NA of maximum size 10 mm were used. The RCA were pre-
pared in the laboratory by crushing and the maximum size of
RCA was also kept as 10 mm. Two basic SCC mixes containing
low and high volume FA content and 100% NA were prepared as
shown in Table 1.
These mixes were designated as LVFA and HVFA based mixes
respectively. In each of these mixes, the replacement levels of NA
with RCA were kept at 0%, 50% and 100%. Fly ash was also replaced
approximately by 10% of MK in the mixes containing 50% and 100%
RCA to obtain ternary blended mixes. Appropriate doses of poly
carboxylic-ether based superplasticizer and viscosity modifying
agent were used to obtain adequate workability and viscosity
respectively. The particle size distribution of PC, FA and MK is pre-
sented in Fig. 1. The grading curve of RCA was purposely kept com-
parable to the grading curve of NA used in present study. The
grading curves of NA and RCA used in the present study are shown
in Fig. 2.
A total number of 10 SCC mixes were developed with a water/
binder (w/b) ratio of 0.45 and total binder content of 615 kg/m3.
The binary control SCC mix of LVFA based mixes has been desig-
nated as CFL-R0, whereas the rest of the mixes are designated as
CFL-R50, CFL-R100 containing 50% and 100% of RCA respectively.
Similarly, the ternary blended mixes containing MK are designated
as ‘CFLM-R50’ and ‘CFLM-R100’. Similar to LVFA based SCC mixes,
the binary mixes of HVFA based SCC mixes has been designated as
CFH-R0, CFH-R50 and CFH-R100, whereas the ternary mixes are
designated as CFHM-R50 and CFHM-R100. For details of the vari-
ous mixes, their designations and description, reference may be
made to Table 2.
830 N. Singh, S.P. Singh / Construction and Building Materials 127 (2016) 828–842

Table 1
Mix proportioning for LVFA and HVFA SCC mixes.

Mix designation Water PC FA Fine aggregates NA

(kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3)
CFL-R0 277 430 185 820 652
(PC + LVFA + 0%RCA) 277 245 370 820 652
CFH-R0
(PC + HVFA + 0%RCA)

100 results of the workability tests for all the mixes tested in this inves-
tigation are given in Table 2.

80 2.3. Tests on hardened concrete

Cummulative size (%)

2.3.1. Compressive strength tests

60 Compressive strength of all the specimens were tested on
100 mm  100 mm  100 mm size cubes in accordance with
Indian Standards, ‘‘Methods of tests for strength of concrete – IS
40
516-1959 (Reaffirmed 2004)”. Compressive strength tests were
performed on various mixes after 7, 28 and 90 days of curing
period.
20

2.3.2. Accelerated carbonation tests

0 For accelerated carbonation test prisms of size
0.1 1 10 100 100 mm  100 mm  500 mm were cast. The specimens were
Particle size in µm cured for a period of 28 and 90 days. Oven drying process was fol-
lowed for conditioning of specimens [44–46]. The CO2 concentra-
Metakaolin (MK) Fly ash (FA) Portland cement (PC )
tion was maintained at 4% with relative humidity between 40%
Fig. 1. Particle size distribution of cement and cement additions.
and 70% and temperature at 25 ± 2 °C. The specimens were
exposed to CO2 for a period of 4, 12 and 16 weeks. The maximum
period of exposure was selected based on some previously
100 reported research studies wherein the carbonation of FA based
concretes has been investigated [39,47–50]. The depth of carbona-
tion was measured in accordance with RILEM recommendations,
80 ‘‘CPC-18: Measurement of hardened concrete carbonation depth”.

2.3.3. Microstructural analysis

% Passing

60 The microstructural analysis of LVFA and HVFA based SCC made

40
20
0 qualitatively and quantitatively and used in this investigation also
1 10
Sieve size log scale (mm)
NA
Fig. 2. Particle size distributions of NA and RCA.
This investigation has been carried out in two parts, one part
comprising of the SCC mixes containing LVFA and the other com-
prising of mixes made with HVFA.
2.2. Tests and curing regime
2.2.1. Tests on fresh concrete
All the workability tests prescribed by EFNARC (Slump flow,
T50 cm flow time and V-funnel flow time) were performed in
accordance with SCC Specifications and Guidelines [43]. The doses
of super plasticizer and viscosity modifying agent were adjusted
accordingly to satisfy the required workability parameters. The
with RCA has not been reported earlier. This encourages, to study
the same with the help of SEM and TGA tests. Since the RCA bears
a highly complex structure as stated in number of earlier studies
and to understand their morphology and complex nature in SCC,
the SEM and TGA are two of the most reliable petrographic tech-
niques compared to conventional methods. Both of these tech-
niques provide a good estimation of hydration products
100 [51–55].
2.3.3.1. Scanning electron microscopy analysis. The microstructure/
RCA
ITZ of all the SCC mixes was analysed with the help of Field Emis-
sion Gun-SEM. For this, all the specimens were kept under Nova
FE-SEM 450 Field Emission Imaging (FEI) having ultra-high resolu-
tion of 1.4 nm and 1 nm at 15 kV for characterization. The prepara-
tions of specimens were done according to required conditions
[56]. Afterwards, the specimens were placed directly in an evapo-
rator till the vacuum was achieved. The accelerating voltage was
kept between 15 and 25 kV. The SEM images for all the specimens
were taken by changing magnification from 4 lm to 500 lm. The
maximum period of curing for SEM analysis was selected based
on some previously reported research studies [57–58].
2.3.3.2. Thermogravimetric analysis. The TGA of all the SCC mixes
has been carried out using SII Ex-star 6000 TG/DTA analyzer with
the temperature range of 25 °C–765 °C. The samples were heated
from room temperature to 765 °C with a scanning rate of 10 °C/
 N. Singh, S.P. Singh / Construction and Building Materials 127 (2016) 828–842 831

Table 2
Workability properties of LVFA and HVFA based SCC mixes.

Mix designation Mix description Slump flow V-funnel (s) Whether conforms to EFNARC guidelines
T50 D (mm)
(s)
LVFA based mixes
CFL-R0 PC + LVFA + 0%RCA 2.0 685 6.0 Yes
CFL-R50 PC + LVFA + 50%RCA 2.2 688 5.8 Yes
CFL-R100 PC + LVFA + 100%RCA 2.0 680 7.0 Yes
CFLM-R50 PC + LVFA + MK + 50%RCA 2.1 685 8.0 Yes
CFLM-R100 PC + LVFA + MK + 100%RCA 2.5 680 6.5 Yes
HVFA based mixes
CFH-R0 PC + HVFA + 0%RCA 3.3 695 5.5 Yes
CFH-R50 PC + HVFA + 50%RCA 3.5 690 5.8 Yes
CFH-R100 PC + HVFA + 100%RCA 3.6 680 6.7 Yes
CFHM-R50 PC + HVFA + MK + 50%RCA 4.0 670 9.0 Yes
CFHM-R100 PC + HVFA + MK + 100%RCA 4.1 670 9.5 Yes

m under nitrogen atmosphere condition. The preparation of the 50

Compressive strength (N/mm²)

specimens for TGA was carried out using an agate mortar and pes-
tle and all the grinded specimens were sieved through 90 lm sieve 40
to avoid the presence of large granular particles before placing on
the sample holder. Powdered specimens of 45 mg were weighed
30
using a quartz cell [59].

20
2.3.4. Electrical resistivity test
The test was performed on surface dried specimens of size 10
100 mm  100 mm  100 mm after curing periods of 28 and
90 days. Electrical resistivity was measured by using ‘Four-Probe
0
Method’ commonly known as Wenner’s Array Four-Probe Method.

3. Results and discussion

Mix combinations
In the current study, the combined or synergetic effects of PC,
FA and MK have been discussed mainly in reference to carbonation 7 Days curing 28 Days curing 90 Days curing
resistance and microstructural changes. An improved behaviour in
Fig. 3. Compressive strength test results for LVFA based SCC mixes.
carbonation resistance with incorporation of MK along with PC and
FA has been observed in both LVFA and HVFA based SCC mixes
(binary and ternary) made with RCA. Similarly, the improvement
40
Compressive strength (N/mm²)

in compressive strength, microstructural behaviour and electrical

resistance justifies the beneficial impact of MK in all SCC mixes
tested. The improvement in compressive strength, accelerated car-
30
bonation depths, microstructure and electrical resistance, particu-
larly in ternary blended SCC mixes have been observed as
discussed in the following sections. 20

3.1. Compressive strength test results

10
The compressive strength results of LVFA and HVFA based SCC
mixes tested in this study are presented in Figs. 3and 4 respec- 0
tively. The first three mixes presented in Figs. 3 and 4 represent
the influence of increasing RCA content on the compressive
strength, whereas, the next two mixes represent the influence of
MK in compensating the loss of compressive strength due to
Mix combinations
increase in RCA content respectively. In broad, at all the three cur-
ing ages tested in this investigation, the compressive strength of 7 Days curing 28 Days curing 90 Days curing
the mixes has been found to decrease with replacement of NA with
RCA. Fig. 4. Compressive strength test results for HVFA based SCC mixes.
As expected, for a particular percentage of NA/RCA, increasing
the FA content has been found to decrease the compressive
strength at all the curing ages tested in this investigation. A max- at 28 days of curing. The influence of substitution of NA with
imum decrease in the compressive strength of the order of 25% RCA and addition of MK on the compressive strength of various
has been observed for SCC mix CFH-R0 compared to mix CFL-R0 mixes has been discussed in the following sections separately.
832 N. Singh, S.P. Singh / Construction and Building Materials 127 (2016) 828–842
3.1.1. LVFA based SCC mixes
The outcome of addition of RCA in SCC mixes can evidently be
seen from Fig. 3 which presents the compressive strength results
for CFL and CFLM based SCC mixes after curing periods of 7, 28
and 90 days. The influence of RCA content on the compressive
strength of various LVFA based SCC mixes can be seen from first
three mixes in Fig. 3. For example, at 28 days of curing, increasing
the RCA content from 0% to 50% (CFL-R50 mix) and 100% (CFL-R100
mix) results in reduction in the compressive strength of the order
of 13% and 17% respectively. At curing 7 days and 90 days curing
periods, similar trends in the reduction in the compressive
strength on account of substitution of NA with RCA has been
observed viz a viz SCC mix made with 100% NA (CFL-R0 mix). How-
ever, at 90 days of curing, the reduction in compressive strength of
various mixes with increasing RCA content has been found to be
relatively less compared to 28 days of curing. As is evident from
the SEM images presented in Figs. 5a and 5b, the reason behind
this reduction may be the presence of higher percentage of
attached mortar [60,61] and the exceptionally weak microstruc-
ture of RCA, which comprises complex ITZ. Moreover, the weak
mutual bonding between the new ITZ and old ITZ with presence
of cracks/joints may be the cause for higher reductions in strength
[23,62]. The reported results have found to be in agreement with
previous studies [17,63].
The addition of MK in SCC mixes made with RCA has been found
to compensate the loss in the compressive strength on account of
substitution of NA with RCA up to some extent. For example, incor-
poration of MK in a mix made with 50% RCA (CFLM-R50 mix), the
reduction in the compressive strength at 28 days of curing has
been observed to be 6% against 13% for SCC mix made with 50%
RCA (CFL-R50 mix) only. However, the beneficial effect of addition
of MK in the SCC mix made 100% RCA (mix CFLM-R100) at 28 days
of curing is less pronounced as the reduction in the compressive
strength is 14% against 17% for SCC mix made with 100% RCA
(CFL-R100 mix) only. Similar trends have been obtained at other
curing periods. The observed behaviour has been attributed to
completion of pozzolanic reactions of highly reactive MK particles
with FA and hydration products of PC, which aided in suppressing
the poor effect of RCA up to some extent. Likewise, the results of
the present study, it has also been shown earlier that addition of
MK helps in increasing compressive strength faster at early ages
rather than later stage ages [64–66].
3.1.2. HVFA based SCC mixes
For the similar curing periods of preceding section, the perfor-
mance of HVFA based SCC mixes with different levels of replace-
NA RCA
Crack at
joint
Fig. 5a. SEM image showing NA and RCA in CFL-R50 mix.
Crack
Micro
New ITZ
Loose adhered
mortar
Macro pores
Old ITZ
Fig. 5b. SEM image showing characteristics of RCA.
ment of NA with RCA can be estimated from Fig. 4. In all the
cases the compressive strength has found to be reduced signifi-
cantly at early ages of curing whereas the gap appeared to be mar-
ginal after higher curing period. The observed trend of decrements
at all three curing periods in compressive strength appeared to be
identical with the LVFA based SCC mixes. For example, the domi-
nant nature of RCA can be noticed from CFH-R50 mix and CFH-
R100 mix in which compressive strength has found to be reduced
about 11% and 19% after curing period of 28 days respectively
when compared to CFH-R0 mix. A likewise behaviour in reduction
of compressive strength has been observed after 7 days and
90 days of curing periods. The observed trend has probably been
attributed to poor structural properties and higher content of
RCA (as discussed above). The SEM images Figs. 5a, 5b warranted
the preceding statement.
As projected, improved results of compressive strength of HVFA
based SCC mixes due to the incorporation of MK has been noticed
for CFHM-R50 mix and CFHM-R100 mix. The drop in compressive
strength has been restricted to around 12% for CFHM-R100 mix,
whereas negligible change has been seen for CFHM-R50 mix. Like-
wise, the distinct behaviour has been observed after 7 days and
90 days of cuing for both CFHM-R50 mix and CFHM-R100 mix as
lesser reductions compared to CFH-R0 mix have been noticed. Sub-
sequently the particle size of MK is smaller as compared to the par-
ticle size of PC and FA, the inherent filler effect of MK witnessed
better results. Although RCA are more porous than NA, when con-
crete containing RCA is prepared with the use of MK, part of the MK
penetrates into the pores of RCA, which consequently improves the
ITZ bonding between paste and aggregates [3,67].
3.2. Accelerated carbonation test results
The change in nature of coarse aggregates and the increased
content of FA in SCC mixes imparts a noticeable impact on the car-
bonation resistance in all SCC mixes. Similarly as in previous sec-
tion, for a specific quantity of NA/RCA, increasing the FA content
has been found to increase the carbonation depths for different
exposure periods and at all curing ages. The maximum carbonation
depth has found to be increased by approximately 3.7 times for
SCC mix CFH-R100 compared to mix CFL-R0 for 4 weeks of expo-
sure after curing period of 28 days. Carbonation resistance for
HVFA based mixes has been found to be dropped tremendously
when compared to LVFA based mixes as quite significant incre-
ments have been noticed. The influence of replacement of NA with
RCA and incorporation of MK on the carbonation resistance has
been investigated independently in the following sections.
 N. Singh, S.P. Singh / Construction and Building Materials 127 (2016) 828–842
3.2.1. LVFA based SCC mixes
The accelerated carbonation test results for an exposure period
of 4, 12 and 16 weeks, after curing period of 28 days are presented
in Fig. 6. In whole, an outstanding reduction in carbonation resis-
tance has been observed for mixes made with intermediate (50%
RCA) and complete (100%) replacement of NA with RCA at both
low and high exposure periods w.r.t. the control mix. The recom-
pensing effect of MK has been noticeable from the observed fig-
ures, as lower carbonation depths have been attained.
The results presented in Fig. 6 revealed that carbonation depths
for CFL-R50 and CFL-R100 mixes have been found to increase by
35% and 60% respectively w.r.t. CFL-R0 mix for an exposure period
of 4 weeks. Correspondingly, as projected the carbonation depth in
both cases increases, with increase in exposure period. The
observed behaviour has been found to show similarity with previ-
ous literature available on NVC, in which higher carbonation
depths have been noted with higher percentage replacements of
NA with RCA when compared to control mix (CFL-R0) [68,69]. An
increment of around 1.4 and 1.6 times in carbonation depths has
been observed for CFL-R50 and CFL-R100 mixes after an exposure
period of 12 and 16 weeks relative to control mix (CFL-R0). The
experimental investigation also demonstrated that development
of increment, in decreasing carbonation resistance appears to be
less prominent in CFL-R50 mix rather than CFL-R100 mix. The rea-
son behind this behaviour is the presence of remained alkalinity
due to higher percentage replacements of RCA. Moreover, the
non-completion of pozzolanic reactions between PC and FA and
faster consumption of calcium hydrates (CH) during hydration
reactions probably seemed to be responsible for higher increase
in carbonation depths.
3.2.1.1. Effect of MK in LVFA based SCC mixes. The inclusion of MK in
SCC mixes made with RCA has been found to recover the loss in
carbonation resistance due to presence of RCA. The advantageous
effect of MK has evidently been observed in case of CFLM-R50
mix after exposure period of 4 weeks (and at the end of 28 days
curing), since an increment in the carbonation depth by 20% has
been observed. This increase in carbonation depth restricts to
merely 13% for 12 and 16 weeks of exposure for the same curing
period. Higher reactivity of MK with pozzolanic products (like Ca
(OH)2 etc.) at early ages appeared to be responsible for lowering
the carbonation depths [66]. However, the development of CSH
gel at higher ages helped in attaining quite satisfactory perfor-
35
30
Carbonation depth (mm)
25
20
15
10
5
0
CFL-R0
(Control)
Fig. 6. Accelerated carbonation test results for LVFA based SCC mixes at different exposure periods after curing period of 28 days and 90 days.
833
mance. The presence of MK as partial replacement FA has not been
found to overcome the dominant nature of RCA for CFLM-R100
mix. The observed increase in carbonation depths approaches to
50%, 59% and 52% relative to CFL-R0 for the same exposure periods.
The observed behaviour has been validated from the weak pore
structure of RCA which is entirely different from that of NCA (as
discussed in previous section). The presence of weak ITZ, high
porosity (Fig. 5a, Fig. 5b), and low density became responsible in
deteriorating the carbonation resistance in concrete mixes
[70,71]. However, the remedial effect of addition of MK can also
be seen, when CFL-R100 mix has been compared with CFLM-
R100 mix, as improvement in carbonation resistance has been
noticed. The shrinkage in carbonation figures has also been noticed
after both exposure periods when CFLM mixes are mutually com-
pared with CFL based mixes. The much anticipated improvement
in carbonation resistance has been obvious due to inherent action
of MK as discussed above.
3.2.2. HVFA based SCC mixes
The results for the carbonation depths for an exposure period of
4, 12 and16 weeks are compiled in Fig. 7. The increase in the car-
bonation depth viz. a viz CFH-R0 mix has been found to be quite
substantial on account of substitution of NA with RCA in HVFA
based SCC mixes, after curing period of 28 days and 4 weeks of
exposure. The maximum increment of 53% and 29% in carbonation
depth has been noted for CFH-R100 mix followed by CFH-R50 mix
in association with the CFH-R0 mix. Similarly, the increase has
been restricted to 34%, 21% and 34%, 24% when observed after 12
and 16 weeks of exposure period respectively. Previous literature
reported that, higher replacements of FA with PC have decreased
the carbonation resistance [44]. On examining carefully, it can be
seen that the increase in percentage in carbonation depths for
HVFA based SCC mixes follows roughly the identical trend as in
case of LVFA mixes. The FA particles are unable to provide their
contribution at the initial ages rather than higher ages due to lesser
production of CSH and other hydration products. Moreover, the
probable formation of excess of ettringite due to non-completion
of pozzolanic reactions leads to further decrease in carbonation
resistance.
3.2.2.1. Effect of MK in HVFA based SCC mixes. Fig. 7 also represents
the impact of incorporation of MK in HVFA based SCC mixes. The
observed increase in carbonation depths has been found to be
4 Weeks
12 Weeks 28 days
curing
16 Weeks
4 Weeks
12 Weeks 90 days
curing
16 Weeks
CFL-R50 CFL-R100 CFLM-R50 CFLM-R100
Mix combinations
834 N. Singh, S.P. Singh / Construction and Building Materials 127 (2016) 828–842
60
50
Carbonation depth (mm)
40
30
20
10
0
CFH-R0 CFH-R50
(Control)
Mix combinations
Fig. 7. Accelerated carbonation test results for HVFA based SCC mixes at different exposure periods after curing period of 28 days and 90 days.
lower than in mixes made without incorporation of MK when com-
pared to CFH-R0 mix. For example, incorporation of MK in CFHM-
R50 mix, the reduction in the carbonation resistance after 4 weeks,
12 weeks and 16 weeks of exposure has been observed to be 22%
against 29%, 20% in contrast to 14% and 21% to 17% respectively
for SCC mix made with 50% RCA (CFH-R50 mix) only. For similar
conditions, the increase in carbonation depth drops approximately
from 53% to 43%, 34% to 18% and 34% to 26% for CFHM-R100 mix
relative to CFH-R100 mix respectively. It can be seen from Fig. 1
that MK used as blending material has better fineness than FA
which helps in making concrete mixes denser, consequently resist-
ing the ingression of CO2. In addition to this, the rate of increase of
carbonation depth indirectly depends on content of Ca(OH)2 and
the earlier consumption of Ca(OH)2 due to presence of highly reac-
tive MK particles leads to improve the comprehensive performance
of the concrete mixes.
3.2.3. Effect of curing
The long duration performance in terms of carbonation resis-
tance of the LVFA and HVFA based SCC mixes can be judged after
higher curing period (90 days). The pozzolanic reactions occurred
between blending materials in concrete mixes has been incapable
to compensate the dilution and micro filler effect at 28 days of cur-
ing [72]. Under same conditions, the carbonation depths have been
calculated after curing period of 90 days for an exposure period of
4 weeks, 12 weeks and 16 weeks. The detected values are pre-
sented in Figs. 6, 7. This trend of variation in carbonation resistance
is fairly alike to that noted for 28 days curing as carbonation depth
changes significantly. The results of carbonation depths have been
found to be quite low in comparison to values found for early age
curing of 28 days.
In case of LVFA based SCC mixes, the maximum increase in car-
bonation depths limits around 44% and 63% for CFL-R50 and CFL-
R100 mix relative to control concrete (CFL-R0) after 4 weeks of
exposure respectively. The carbonation resistance has decreased
with 12 weeks and 16 weeks of exposure for CFL-R100 mix by
42% and 36% whereas lower increment of 17% and 14% has been
observed for CFL-R50 mix. The best performance has been wit-
nessed in case of CFLM-R50 mix in which carbonation depth have
been reduced to an extent of 25% after 4 weeks of exposure,
whereas lower variations have been noted after 12 weeks and
4 Weeks
28 days
12 Weeks curing
16 Weeks
4 Weeks
90 days
12 Weeks curing
16 Weeks
CFH-R100 CFHM-R50 CFHM-R100
16 weeks of exposure. Likewise, for HVFA based SCC mixes, an
increase to an extent of around 17% and 27% has been noticed
for CFH-R50 and CFH-R100 mixes respectively after 4 weeks of
exposure period. For the same mixes, the increase in carbonation
depth approaches to 12%, 29% and 30%, 45% for 12 weeks and
16 weeks of exposure period. The anti-carbonation ability has
improved significantly after curing period of 90 days. For e.g. in
case of CFHM-R100 mix, the percentage increase in carbonation
depth which was initially 43% after curing period of 28 days has
been reduced to 17% after curing period of 90 days for an exposure
period of 4 weeks respectively. Similar performances have been
seen for CFHM-R50 mix for both exposure periods. The enhanced
performance can be seen from the reduction in percentage increase
for all the mixes.
The most probable reason for the improvement of carbonation
resistance in all SCC mixes is the condensing of CSH gel during
development of time with enhanced quantity. This dense phase
of CSH gel supports in filling the micro and macro pores, cracks
and loose joints in SCC mixes, which results in resisting the further
ingression of CO2. Congruently, the variation also occurred due to
reduction in the quantity of CaCO3 in concrete mixes which tran-
spires due to completion of pozzolanic reactions of the hydrated
products. The overall performance of any concrete depends on
two main factors (1) the completion of hydration process and (2)
prolonged water curing, which helps in improving the short as well
as long term properties. The steadiness of curing phenomenon sup-
ports in dipping the porosity of concrete by many previous litera-
ture studies [41,73]. Based on the achieved results, the prolonged
water curing adopted in this investigation absolutely backs in nul-
lifying the negative effects of poor RCA based mixes to some
extent, as the carbonation depths have been reduced to significant
levels.
3.2.4. Relation between compressive strength and carbonation
coefficient
The rate of carbonation is defined by the following expression
[41]:
p
C ¼ k ðTÞ ð1Þ
where C = depth of carbonation (in mm); k = coefficient of carbona-
tion; T = time (in weeks/days). Using the above relation, the values
 N. Singh, S.P. Singh / Construction and Building Materials 127 (2016) 828–842 835

of carbonation coefficient for only 4 weeks and 12 weeks of expo-

Carbonation coefficient (mm/weeks½)

8.0
sure were calculated. For LVFA based SCC mixes the compressive
strength ranges from 33 MPa to 39.9 MPa with CCs’ stretching
R² = 0.8979
between 4.6 mm/week½ and 8.0 mm/weeks½ for curing period of 6.0
28 days after an exposure period of 4 and 12 weeks have been 12 Weeks exposure
observed. The CCs’ vary from 3.5 mm/weeks½ to 6.5 mm/weeks½
with compressive strengths ranging from 35.6 MPa to 43.5 MPa 4.0 4 Weeks exposure
after curing period of 90 days for the same exposure periods. Also,
R² = 0.9859 Linear (12 Weeks
for HVFA based SCC mixes the compressive strength ranges from
exposure)
24.2 MPa to 30 MPa with CCs’ extending between 9.8 mm/week ½ 2.0
and 18.8 mm/weeks½ for curing period of 28 days after an exposure Linear (4 Weeks
exposure)
period of 4 and 12 weeks have been observed. In the similar way,
the CCs’ vary from 6.1 mm/weeks½ - 9.3 mm/weeks½ after curing 0.0
30 35 40 45
period of 90 days for the same exposure periods of 4 and 12 weeks
Compressive strength (N/mm²)
with compressive strengths varying from 28.8 MPa to 35 MPa
respectively. On the basis of the investigated data, linear relation- Fig. 8b. Relation between carbonation coefficients with compressive strength for
ships with regression coefficient have been established for LVFA LVFA based SCC mixes after 90 days of curing period.
and HVFA based SCC mixes made with replacement of NA with
RCA respectively. Normally, the potential of any concrete can be
judged very well by relating compressive strength and the carbon-

Carbonation coefficient (mm/weeks½)

20.0
ation resistance. The preceding statement has been justified
undoubtedly from Figs. 8a, 8b, 9a, and 9b, as all correlation coeffi-
cients of all mixes used in this investigation have found to be more 16.0
than 80%, which therefore, confirming an overall agreeable perfor- R² = 0.9303 12 Weeks exposure
mance [33].
12.0 4 Weeks exposure

3.3. Microstructural characterization R² = 0.8944 Linear (12 Weeks

exposure)
8.0
Carbonation of concrete is a physico-chemical process in which Linear (4 Weeks
a series of chemical reactions occur in the presence of CO2. The exposure)
simplified carbonation reaction is shown in Eq. (2):
4.0
20 25 30 35
CaðOHÞ2 ðsÞ þ CO2 ðgÞ $ CaCO3 ðsÞ þ H2 O ð2Þ
Compressive strength (N/mm²)
Calcium hydroxide present in form of cement hydration prod-
Fig. 9a. Relation between carbonation coefficients with compressive strength for
ucts reacts with CO2 to form CaCO3, which is mainly responsible
HVFA based SCC mixes after 28 days of curing period.
for carbonation phenomenon. Higher content of Ca(OH)2 leads to
higher generation of CaCO3. Apart from these components, pres-
ence of other hydration products like CSH, CH, ettringite etc.,
Carbonation coefficient (mm/weeks½)

highly influence on the chemical process of carbonation. As 10.0

reported in literature, many of the researchers have worked on
estimation of the content of various contents like di-calcium sili- R² = 0.9803
cate, tri-calcium silicate, tri-calcium aluminate, quartz etc. 8.0
12 Weeks exposure
[74,75] but the current research has only been specified to compo-
nents which are mainly associated with the carbonation process
6.0 4 Weeks exposure
only. Herein, for validation of the results, the microstructural char- R² = 0.9387
acterization has been processed by SEM analysis and TGA study.
Linear (12 Weeks
exposure)
4.0
Linear (4 Weeks
Carbonation coefficient (mm/weeks½)

exposure)
9
2.0
25 30 35 40
8
Compressive strenth (N/mm²)
7 12 Weeks exposure
Fig. 9b. Relation between carbonation coefficients with compressive strength for
R² = 0.9651 4 Weeks exposure HVFA based SCC mixes after 90 days of curing period.
6

5 R² = 0.9578 Linear (12 Weeks

exposure)
Scanning electron microscopic images were taken for all SCC mixes
4 Linear (4 Weeks to classify the physical behaviour of NA and RCA (discussed in the
exposure)
preceding sections). From SEM imaging technique, the carbonation
3 resistance of all the mixes has been related through the observed
30 35 40 45
quality of CSH gel obtained after 28 days and 90 days of curing.
Compressive strength (N/mm²)
Congruently, the content/quantity of Ca(OH)2 and CaCO3 has been
Fig. 8a. Relation between carbonation coefficients with compressive strength for estimated by calculating the percentage loss after dehydration of
LVFA based SCC mixes after 28 days of curing period. both products.
836 N. Singh, S.P. Singh / Construction and Building Materials 127 (2016) 828–842
3.3.1. Scanning electron microscopic analysis
Scanning electron microscopic imaging was carried out on the
fracture surfaces of all SCC mixes after compression tests. The
images for LVFA and HVFA based SCC mixes are presented in
Figs. 10A, 10B, 10C, 11A, 11B, and 11C after curing periods of
28 days and 90 days respectively.
3.3.1.1. LVFA based SCC mixes. From Figs. 10A(a) and 10A(b), it can
be noticed that the CSH gel obtained in the case of control mix
(CFL-R0) has found to be highly dense in nature at both the ages.
An array of irregular blocks/sheets has been observed after 28 days
of curing whereas with development of curing period the dense
rocky shaped CSH gel crystals have been observed. The observed
dense and perfect nature of CSH gel is mainly responsible for filling
the micro and macro flaws of concrete matrix more efficiently. The
change in shape of crystals has been observed for CFL-R50 mix for
both curing periods when compared to control mix (CFL-R0).
Figs. 10B(a) and 10B(b) present layered CSH gel in hollow and
thin cloud form with needle shaped ettringite after 28 days. The
presence of hollow/weak shapes of CSH gel proved the lag in rate
of hydration compared to control mix. After 90 days of curing per-
iod the thick blocks of CSH have been found to appear along with
presence of continuous fissures and gaps. The loose structure of the
hydration products has been observed quite prominent in CFL-
R100 mix compared to control mix (CFL-R0). The presence of
voids/thick gaps and highly porous CSH gel can be seen from
Fig. 10B(c) and uneven, irregular grains/ semi-circular shape has
been seen from Fig. 10B(d), after 28 days and 90 days of curing per-
iod respectively. The non fusion of these CSH gel crystals leads to
an increase in the probability of easy sequestration of CO2 in con-
crete mixes. The presence of MK and FA particles along with ettrin-
gite (needle shaped structures) has been observed clearly from
Fig. 10C(a) in case of CFLM-R50 mix. The change in shape of CSH
crystals has been evident from the occurrence of additional reac-
tions of hydrated products with MK, as thick clouds of CSH gel
can be clearly observed. Meanwhile, the presence of insignificant
content of ettringite validated the advantageous effect of MK. After
90 days of curing in Fig. 10C(b), the CSH gel has overlapped with
each other making highly condensed state in concrete matrix,
which hampers the probability of further ingression of CO2, leading
to an increase in the carbonation resistance. The highly improved
dense microstructure upon addition of MK has also proved to be
the major cause for the increased compressive strength and
decreased carbonation depths. Figs. 10C(c) and 10C(d) depicts
the completely irregular and distorted flabellate, beaded and cune-
ate shape of CSH gel for CFLM-R100 mix. The observed change
seemed to be obvious due to complete replacement of NCA with
RCA. Most of the cracks remain unfilled due to less quantity of
CSH gel. Moreover, extremely porous nature of CSH gel and non-
Densely layered
irregular shape CSH (a)
Fig. 10A. SEM images for CFL-R0 (a) 28 days (b) 90 days of curing.
completion of reactions of hydrated products deteriorates the per-
formance of concrete matrix.
3.3.1.2. HVFA based SCC mixes. The higher values of carbonation
depths obtained for HVFA based SCC mixes has clearly been attrib-
uted to the high content of Ca(OH)2, ettringite and weak formation
of CSH gel crystals. Figs. 11A(a) and 11A(b) show the SEM images
for CFH-R0 mix.
The presence of platy, hexagonal shaped Ca(OH)2 and irregular
fibrous growths of CSH crystals has been observed after 28 days of
curing whereas, with development of curing period of 90 days the
overlapping of these compounds has been attained. At later ages,
FA reduces the amount of Ca(OH)2 produced during hydration pro-
cess and transforms the Ca(OH)2 into blocky C-S-H gel. The pres-
ence of micro and macro pores in CFH-R50 mix has also been
confirmed with the observation of ettringite. The ettringite is a sec-
ondary product of the hydration chemistry and it is commonly
found in voids and cracks [76]. The formation of highly porous
CSH gel and non-completion of hydration products is responsible
for the further ingression of CO2 in concrete matrix. The presence
of ettringite in fissures and in form of web can be noticed from
Figs. 11B(a), 11B(b). The worst behaviour for CFH-R100 mix can
be noticed from Figs. 11B(c), 11B(d) in which presence of only
ettringite and very weak and foam shaped of CSH gel. The presence
of significantly porous CSH, Ca(OH)2 and ettringite at later ages
confirms the poor resistance against carbonation.
Figs. 11C(a) and 11C(b) show a compact formation of hydration
products and quite reduced content of Ca(OH)2 crystals due to
occurrence of additional reactions. SEM images demonstrated a
more compact microstructure, which indicates rapid formation of
CSH gel in presence of MK and additional FA. The absence of cracks
and voids at micro and macro levels made the CFHM-R50 mix com-
parable resistant to carbonation. The observed decrease in carbon-
ation depth as compared to mixes without inclusion of MK in
preceding section has clearly justified from the noticed behaviour.
In parallel way relatively loose, scattered and flabellate shape of
CSH gel has been observed for CFHM-R100 mix after 28 days in
Fig. 11C(c). The presence of unreacted spherical shaped MK and
FA particles has also observed in voids of CSH gel, which indicates
the slight improvement in carbonation resistance. The slight
improvement in properties of SCC mixes comprised of MK is due
to the faster consumption of Ca(OH)2. The existence of unreacted
ettringite in Fig. 11C(d) confirms the expected slight change in car-
bonation depths at curing periods. These types of flaky crystals are
unable to make a condensed/viscous concrete mix due to brittle
nature, consequently resulting in creation of immature microstruc-
tures. This seems to be attributing to generation of additional pores
after evaporation of water from the surface of RCA which leads to
easy assessment of CO2.
Dense rocky
shaped CSH
(b)
 N. Singh, S.P. Singh / Construction and Building Materials 127 (2016) 828–842 837

Cloud Blocks of
form CSH CSH

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Uneven shape
Highly Porous CSH with pores
CSH

Fig. 10B. SEM images for CFL-R50 (a) 28 days (b) 90 days and CFL-R100 mix (c) 28 days (d) 90 days of curing.

FA and MK
particles with Dense rocky
ettringite shaped CSH

(a) (b)

Flabellate shape Beaded and

CSH Cuneate shape
CSH

(c) (d)

Fig. 10C. SEM images for CFLM-R50 (a) 28 days (b) 90 days and CFLM-R100 mix (c) 28 days (d) 90 days of curing.

3.3.2. Thermogravimetric analysis
Thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) determines the change in
weight of powdered samples w.r.t. change in temperature. The
method provides an excellent estimation of the compounds quan-
titatively which are chiefly responsible for carbonation process.
The obtained TGA curves are divided as: 38–125 °C: dehydration
of pore water; 125–425 °C: dehydration of CSH, 425–475 °C: de-
hydroxylation of Ca(OH)2 and 475–765 °C: and de-carbonation of
CaCO3 [77,78]. Since carbonation process is directly related to con-
tent of Ca(OH)2 and CaCO3, therefore, herein the stress is given only
given on the third and fourth stage of the obtained TGA curves.
3.3.2.1. LVFA based SCC mixes. Fig. 12a presents the TGA curves for
LVFA based SCC after curing period of 28 days. The relative differ-
ence in weight loss between the CFL-R50 and the control mix CFL-
R0 is marginal as indicated by the percentage weight loss of 0.83%
and 0.63% attributed to Ca(OH)2 respectively. Similar observation
has been witnessed in the case of CFLR-100, which shows the cor-
responding weight loss of about 0.89%. This is again minimal when
compared to the control mix CFL-R0. Weights lost by the samples
were found to be very less relative to control mix (CFL-R0). The
weight loss reduction for MK based LVFA mixes shifts to 0.67%
and 0.76% for CFLM-R50 and CFLM-R100 mixes respectively, at
838 N. Singh, S.P. Singh / Construction and Building Materials 127 (2016) 828–842
Hexagonal or
Platy shape
Ca(OH)2
(a)
Fig. 11A. SEM images for CFH-R0 (a) 28 days (b) 90 days of curing.
Ettringite present in
crack (Needle shape)
Ettringite web
(a)
Cloud/foam shape
(c) shape CSH
Ettringite web
Fig. 11B. SEM images for CFH-R50 (a) 28 days (b) 90 days and CFH-R100 mix (c) 28 days (d) 90 days of curing.
same cuing period. The significant differences of 0.54%, 0.86% and
1.16% in weight loss corresponding to CaCO3 for CFL-R0, CFL-R50
and CFL-R100 mixes have been noticed respectively. Likewise, for
CFLM-R50 and CFLM-R100 mixes the loss has been limited to
0.65% and 0.99%. Similarly, quite low percentage reductions for
weight loss for all the mixes have been observed in Fig. 12b after
90 days of curing.
3.3.2.2. HVFA based SCC mixes. Congruently, Figs. 13a and 13b
demonstrations the TGA curves after curing period of 28 and
90 days. The results for all HVFA based SCC mixes revealed in
accordance of percentage loss of Ca(OH)2 and CaCO3. The weight
loss reduction for CFH-R0, CFH-R50 and CFH-R100 varied as
0.45%, 0.5% and 0.66%, whereas for CFHM-R50 and CFHM-R100
the loss for Ca(OH)2 limits to 0.57% and 0.65% respectively. The
weight lost for CFH-R0, CFH-R50 and CFH-R100 matching to CaCO3
ranges as 0.42%, 0.52% and 0.54% respectively. Similarly, for CFHM-
R50 and CFHM-R100 mixes, the loss constricted up to 0.42% and
0.43% accordingly. The significant changes in trends for TGA curves
can be seen after 90 days of curing as much flatter curves have
been obtained corresponding to the similar temperature change.
Overlapping of
Platy shape
Ca(OH)2 and CSH
(b)
Porous and uneven Spherical shaped
CSH FA particle
(b)
Hexagonal and
highly porous CSH (d)
The results clearly show that the percentage weight loss
corresponding to Ca(OH)2 and CaCO3 was lower in the SCC mixes
containing PC + FA + MK based mixes compared to that of SCC
mixes made with PC + FA. The generation of additional CSH (as
discussed in preceding section in detail) probably the sole cause
for this positive change. The observed reductions in weights for
carbonated products (Ca(OH)2 and CaCO3) has also been evident
from the change in nature of aggregates (replacement of NA with
RCA) and the incorporation of higher content of FA. The
experimental behaviour from TGA results justified the trends
for change in carbonation resistance as reported in preceding
sections.
3.4. Electrical resistivity test result
Electrical resistivity is also related to corrosion of concrete. It
provides a good indication regarding the resistance offered to the
moving ions during development of concrete. Higher will be the
resistivity lesser will be the chances of corrosion and vice versa.
The electrical resistivity test results are compiled in Figs. 14a,
14b. The presence of higher moisture content of RCA creates a
 N. Singh, S.P. Singh / Construction and Building Materials 127 (2016) 828–842 839

FA and MK Dense beaded

particles shape CSH

(a) (b)

(c) (d) Ettringite in

pores

Merging of
FA and MK platy shape
particles in CSH
porous CSH

Fig. 11C. SEM images for CFHM-R50 (a) 28 days (b) 90 days and CFHM-R100 mix (c) 28 days (d) 90 days of curing.

Fig. 12b. TGA curves for LVFA based SCC mixes after 90 days of curing.
Fig. 12a. TGA curves for LVFA based SCC mixes after 28 days of curing.

neutralising environment which consequently becomes the crucial

aspect in supplementing the probability of corrosion. For LVFA
based SCC mixes the electrical resistivity has found to be in range
of 5.7 K X-cm–13.8 K X-cm and 8.3 K X-cm–24.1 K X cm after
curing period of 28 days and 90 days respectively. Likewise, for
HVFA based SCC mixes the electrical resistivity has found to be
varied from 7.7 K X-cm to 18.5 K X-cm and 11.9 K X-cm to
25.8 K X cm after curing period of 28 days and 90 days
respectively. It can be seen from Table 3 that electrical resistivity
of 20 K X-cm is the least limit for corrosion propagation of steel
rebar beyond which the chances of corrosion seemed to be
highly negligible. If the obtained figures are compared with the
minimum corrosion occurrence limits, then it is evident that prob-
ability of corrosion seems to be highest in CFL-R100, CFH-R100 mix
followed by CFL-R50, CFH-R50 mix respectively after both the
curing periods [79]. The higher variation of results was observed Fig. 13a. TGA curves for HVFA based SCC mixes after 28 days of curing.
840 N. Singh, S.P. Singh / Construction and Building Materials 127 (2016) 828–842

Table 3
Electrical resistivity range corresponding to
corrosion risk [79].

Resistivity (Kohm-cm) Corrosion risk

>20 Negligible
10–20 Low
5–10 High
<5 Very high

4. Conclusions

The compressive strength of both LVFA and HVFA based SCC

mixes made with RCA has found to be decreased with respect to
the control mixes. Out of all curing periods, the maximum reduc-
tion of an order of 18% and 19% has been observed in compressive
strength for LVFA and HVFA based SCC mixes. The incorporation of
MK, as projected proved to be prominently favourable in recom-
Fig. 13b. TGA curves for HVFA based SCC mixes after 90 days of curing.
pensing the loss due to weak and poor properties of RCA in terms
of compressive strength.
Further, in overall the carbonation resistance of LVFA and HVFA
based SCC mixes has been observed to decrease with the increasing
30
28 Days curing RCA content. A maximum increase in carbonation depth of the
order of 63% has been noticed after 12 weeks of exposure for LVFA
Resistivity (K Ohm-cm)

25 90 Days curing
based SCC mixes. Similarly, an increase in carbonation depth
20 reaches nearly to 53% for HVFA based SCC mixes after 4 weeks of
exposure period. Likewise in case of compressive strength, the car-
15 bonation resistance has been influenced with addition of MK.
A highly agreeable linear relationship between carbonation
10 depth and compressive strength was observed for both curing peri-
ods in cases of LVFA and HVFA based mixes as all R2 values have
5 found to be more than 0.80 (>80%). Prolonged curing for all the
SCC mixes has proved to be highly beneficial as satisfactory perfor-
0 mance in terms of compressive strength and carbonation resis-
tance has been achieved.
The microscopic analysis performed by SEM and TGA confirms
the attained results of the experimental study w.r.t. carbonation
behaviour quite adequately. The quantitative and qualitative anal-
Mix combinations
ysis performed by SEM and TGA also provides a good estimation of
Fig. 14a. Electrical resistivity test results for LVFA based SCC mixes. the hydration and carbonated materials generated during develop-
ment of concrete mixes.
In the case of electrical resistivity results, a maximum reduction
of around 49% and 52% was observed for LVFA and HVFA mixes
30 28 Days curing made with 100% of RCA after 28 days of curing. The electrical resis-
tance has found to increase with increase in curing period in all the
Resistivity (K Ohm-cm)

25 90 Days curing
SCC mixes, whereas an increase of about 24% and 15% has been
20 noticed after 28 days of curing for LVFA and HVFA based mixes
respectively.
15
Acknowledgements
10
The financial assistance in the form of fellowship to the first
5
author from the Ministry of Human Resource Development
0 (MHRD), Government of India is appreciatively acknowledged.
The authors also acknowledge the support of the staff of Structures
Testing Laboratory at Dr B R Ambedkar National Institute of Tech-
nology, Jalandhar, India during the experimentation work reported
in the paper.
Mix combinations
Fig. 14b. Electrical resistivity test results for HVFA based SCC mixes. References

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