Journal of Building Engineering 26 (2019) 100882

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Journal of Building Engineering

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Reviewing the behaviour of high volume fly ash based self compacting T

concrete
Navdeep Singh∗, Pawan Kumar, Paresh Goyal
Department of Civil Engineering, Dr B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar, 144 011, India

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The current review article focuses on the behaviour of High Volume Fly Ash (HVFA) based Self Compacting
Self compacting concrete Concrete (SCC) prepared with Natural Coarse Aggregates (NCA) and Recycled Concrete Aggregates (RCA). The
High volume fly ash overall performance of HVFA based SCC has been estimated from the observations of the available literature in
Recycled concrete aggregates terms of fresh, mechanical and durability properties. The utilization of coal ashes i.e. Fly Ash (FA) and Coal
Coal bottom ash
Bottom Ash (CBA) in SCC has become an attractive substitute for disposal, thus their impact on aforementioned
properties has also been summarised briefly. The study also encompasses the characteristics and applications of
coal ashes (used as binder and fine aggregates) and RCA (coarse aggregates). The outcomes of the various
investigations depict that replacement of binder and aggregates affects the fresh; mechanical as well as dur-
ability properties of HVFA based SCC. The literature signifies that HVFA based SCC made with specified levels of
coal ashes (FA/CBA) and non-conventional aggregates (RCA) do not inhibit the overall performance. Further, the
study also supports in minimization of over pounding of natural assets for achieving the desired sustainability.

1. Introduction
Concrete's economy, flexibility, sustainability and toughness like
features have proven its ability to be the world's most successful con-
struction component. The trend of designing complex structures leads
to occurrence of vibration/compaction concern due to congestion in
reinforcement. The aforesaid characteristics and some of the few con-
straints have exhilarated the growth of Self Compacting Concrete
(SCC). In past few decades, SCC has gained high recognition globally. It
cuts the concern raised due to noise and compaction as unlike in
Normal Vibrating Concrete (NVC) [1,2]. Moreover, the introduction of
SCC has cut down the overall period of concrete construction in most of
civil engineering projects [3–6]. Due to its better fresh properties it
possesses enough viscosity to manage bleeding and segregation as it
flows in uniform level under gravity [7–9].
According to earlier investigations, the annual global production of
Fly Ash (FA) is estimated more than around 800 million tons. Also, it
has been predicted that most of the generated amount of FA is dumped
in the landfills which further raises the concerns like scarcity of prime
lands and weakening of environment [10]. Coal bottom ash (CBA) is
also a primary by-product which has been attained from the thermal
power plants [11]. The utilization of High Volume Fly Ash (HVFA) and
CBA in place of Portland Cement (PC) and Natural Fine aggregates
(NFA) respectively has sorted the concerns partially as it has not been
frequently implemented due to lack of awareness and sources. More-
over, the regular generation of FA and CBA from thermal power plants
has pushed the researchers to find a more reliable solution [6,11].
Further, non-conventional aggregates [Recycled Concrete
Aggregates (RCA)] are obtained by crushing the concrete debris ac-
quired from Construction and Demolition (C&D) wastes. The earlier
findings confirmed that, the desired nominal size can be obtained by
appropriate gradation of RCA. Despite, of having higher water ab-
sorption, low density and other weak characteristics compared to that
of NCA, it is possible to make RCA based SCC with satisfactory per-
formance by adopting proper mixing, proportioning of its constituents
and with inclusion of mineral admixtures [12,13]. It has been observed
from earlier investigations that SCC made with RCA results in sig-
nificant drop not only in fresh properties but also affects mechanical
and durability performance [14–17]. Besides, it has been revealed that
the fusion of FA sometime degrades the green behaviour, reduces the
water demand whereas its presence helps in assisting the desired
workability [18–20]. In general, the non-vibrated concretes (SCC) made
with more than (≥) or equal to 30% of FA are treated as HVFA based
concretes. However, earlier investigations also revealed that the com-
bined usage of HVFA with Natural Coarse Aggregates (NCA)/RCA en-
hances/shrinks the workable nature of SCC respectively [19–21].

∗
Corresponding author. Dr B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar, 144 011, India.
E-mail addresses: navdeeps@nitj.ac.in, nsinghsde@gmail.com (N. Singh), pawannahar001@gmail.com (P. Kumar), pareshgoyal1743@gmail.com (P. Goyal).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2019.100882
Received 16 April 2019; Received in revised form 16 July 2019; Accepted 16 July 2019
Available online 18 July 2019
2352-7102/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
N. Singh, et al. Journal of Building Engineering 26 (2019) 100882

3. Fly ash

The combustion of coal in thermal plants generates FA, which is

considered as a primary waste. The mineral impurities of coal are fused
during combustion and rises above. This fused material cools with time
and hardens into spherical particles, these glassy natured particles are
often known as FA. In concretes (vibrated and non-vibrated) FA, is
mainly used as replacement of PC in low and high volume. Curbing the
emissions generated in form of CO2 from cement industry and im-
proving workable behaviour of concretes are the prime advantages of
its use [23,31]. In addition to the preceding advantages, the utilization
of FA in high volume (≥30%) specifically in mass concreting applica-
tions like dams, piers, abutments of bridges etc., results in low heat of
hydration in comparison to conventional PC based concretes [32–35].
The particle size of FA varies from 10 μm to 100 μm with most of the
Fig. 1. Review of literature covered on HVFA based SCC in current study. overall size less than 35 μm [36,37]. Generally, the range of the surface
area of FA particles lies between 300 and 500 m2/kg, however, the
minimum and the maximum value of surface area ranges from 170 to
However, in regard to mechanical and durability properties the use
1000 m2/kg respectively. Further, the specific gravity of FA varies from
of HVFA in SCC made with NCA/RCA along with mineral admixtures
2.1 to 3.0 [38].
[like Metakaolin (MK), Silica fumes (SF), Slag etc.] results in im-
Fly ash is mainly silicate glass and contains silica, alumina, iron and
provement at later ages. The current study summarises some of the key
calcium and magnesium, sulphur, sodium, potassium and carbon which
findings which emphasises on green, mechanical and durability prop-
are its minor constituents. Fly ash is specifically categorized as either
erties of HVFA based SCC having NCA/RCA. Also the current study
Class F or Class C according to ASTM C618-12(a) and its classification
involves the particular investigations in which the aforesaid concrete is
usually depends on the chemical composition. It has been perceived
made with replacement of NFA and PC with other non-conventional
that Class F-FA is light grey in colour. The major delimiter for varying
ingredients like CBA, MK, limestone filler, slag etc., respectively
classification is the supplementary content of silica, alumina and iron
[6,21–24]. To the best of the authors, the most of the available litera-
oxide in FA, as minimum of 70% and 50% for Class F-FA and Class C-FA
ture has been compiled and is discussed briefly in form of discussion of
respectively. Likewise, the Canadian Standards Association classified
various properties. Fig. 1 depicts the quantitative form of the available
FA according to the amount of calcium oxide (CaO). It indicates that FA
studies on HVFA based SCC.
is generally treated as low-calcium (Class F) when CaO is less than 10%
whereas the same with more than 10% is considered as Class C (CSA,
1982). Specifically, Class F-FA, contains calcium from 1% to 12%, in
2. Significance of present study
the form of calcium hydroxide, calcium sulphate and glassy compo-
nents in combination with silica and alumina. On the other hand, Class
The incorporation of FA in low (< 30%) and high (≥30%) volume
C-FA has calcium oxide contents as high as 30 to 40% [38–40]. Alike
in SCC is a pioneer move and it has already transformed the scenario of
recommendations have been adopted by Indian Standards (IS-1727
global concrete industry. Since it has already been mentioned in the
(1967)) for different classes of FA.
preceding paragraph that FA has been dumped in the nearby landfills
Based on some of the important investigations, the physical and
which has extreme consequences, however most of its share has been
chemical properties of FA are compiled in Table 1 and Table 2 re-
successfully used for past three to four decades in concrete industry
spectively. Fly ash is often used as one of the primary materials in
effectively. Furthermore, the frequent generation of FA has constrained
several civil engineering operations. Herein, the applications of FA are
the government authorities as well as researchers to find a more reliable
discussed briefly concentrating its utilization in concrete industry.
solution for its consumption. Simultaneously, the practice of CBA in
Apart from various uses of FA, the most of the well-known application is
developing of vibrated and non-vibrated concretes would probably re-
it's utilization in manufacturing of cement and concrete. Poured con-
volutionize the future construction sector [25–27]. Coal bottom ash is
crete, concrete blocks, concrete pavements, railway sleepers etc., are
the secondary source of coal industry residue which produces along
some of the examples in which FA has been used extensively as re-
with primary residue (FA) in thermal power plants [28–30]. Along with
placement of PC. Fly ash has also been incorporated successfully in
inclusion of coal ashes in SCC, use of Construction and demolition (C&
manufacturing of geopolymer concrete, zeolite, acid mine drainage
D) wastes has been initiated for nearly past decade. The generation of
treatment, backfilling, agricultural use etc. The major advantage of FA
SCC with incorporation of C&D wastes in form of coarse and fine RCA
in SCC is its ability to reduce the dosage of superplasticizer required to
reduces its initial cost, adds sustainability and promotes its use com-
obtain the desired slump. In overall, the practice of FA improves the
pared to that of conventional concrete. It has been experienced that
rheological behaviour and minimizes the probability of cracking in SCC
significant information has been gathered till date in which vibrated
at later ages due to lower heat of hydration [32–35]. Out of the
and non-vibrated concretes are made with alternate ingredients in place
aforementioned applications the foremost common use of FA is in
of conventional ones. Particularly, in regard to usage of FA with or
manufacturing of Portland Cement (PC) followed by its utilization in
without mineral admixtures/non-conventional aggregates (coarse/fine
concrete as discussed earlier. With the acceptance of Federal road ad-
RCA etc.) the performance of SCC has been assessed. However, there
ministration USA apart from pavements, use of FA has been re-
are limited investigations which enlighten the usage of HVFA in SCC.
commended for several engineering operations [36,38]. Furthermore,
Herein, the authors have put their efforts to summarise the effect of
FA has been acknowledged as one of the eco-friendly materials by
HVFA on SCC while discussing the effect of either conventional/non-
various researchers and technocrats due to its low embodied energy.
conventional aggregates. Likewise, the performance of HVFA based SCC
Since, the low water absorption rate and self-cementing hydraulic
has been studied by possible replacements of binders with mineral
character, FA has been effectively used in normal and severe conditions.
admixtures.
According to survey report of Central electricity authority New Delhi
2017, there are 155 coal thermal power stations in India with an annual
production of FA around 170 MT. Out of this total generation,

2
N. Singh, et al. Journal of Building Engineering 26 (2019) 100882

60%–65% of FA has been utilised successfully in various sectors. Fig. 2

Afiniwala et al. [74]
shows the utilization of FA during year 2016–17 in India*. Likewise, in
USA for the year of 2015, the effective utilization of FA as supple-
mentary cementious material is nearly 55% out of total generation
2810 (about 117 MT) of coal combustion products [41].
2.16
_

4. Coal bottom ash

Bouzoubaa et al. [5]

Coal is the major fuel for energy in coal fired thermal power plants
globally. In an estimation 41% of the total generation of world's elec-
tricity comes from the coal fired thermal power plants and it is forecast
to rise more than 50% by 2030. An approximate global generation of
3060
2.08

coal combustion products is roughly 780–800 million metric tonnes

_

(MT) up to 2010 out of which three fourth of the total share comes from
Republic of China and India. In another assessment 105 MT of coal
Nehdi et al. [82]

combustion products are generated in India at the end of year 2010,

with an increment of 3%–7% per year. In USA, the effective reutiliza-
tion rate of CBA for the year 2015 limits to roughly 33% out of total
generation of coal combustion products [41]. In India, around
2.08
280

65%–70% of electricity is still generated from coal based thermal power

_

plants. Usually, combustion of around 15–20 tons of coal produces

about 1 MW of electricity correspondingly with generation of 15%–20%
Bingol et al. [75]

of CBA alone [42].

The abundance of CBA has led to major concern of its disposal and
utilization because of insufficiency of land and several environmental
1.34

hazards. Coal Bottom Ash particles have identical size to that of fine
2.1
_

aggregates; hence it has been used commercially in manufacturing of

NVC and SCC as alternate for NFA since couple of past decades. Coal
Sahmaran (a) et al. [84]

bottom ash holds additional pozzolanic content when produced from

other industrial products like bituminous, lignite, anthracite and sub
bituminous etc. The advantage of supplementary pozzolanic nature
promotes its use in concrete industry which primarily focussing on re-
duction of carbon foot prints.
2870

Coal bottom ash is replicated as permeable material with uneven

2.25

surface texture. Also CBA is generally dark grey in colour comprising

_

angular particles. The size of CBA is dependent on the source of its

generation or on nature of the coal. The overall behaviour of concretes
Sahmaran (b) et al. [86]

varies accordingly with varying particle size of CBA. In general, CBA

comprises higher quantity of fine sand with less percentage of medium
to coarse sand in comparison to that of NFA [42,43]. The porous nature
of CBA has been noticed under Scanning electron microscopic (SEM)
analysis in some of the earlier investigations. Fig. 3 indicates the micro
2890
2.08

and macro pores on the surface of CBA particles [44]. The physical
_

properties such as specific gravity, water absorption and fineness

modulus presents a significant variety of results due to variation in
Sukumar et al. [81]

combustible. For example, the specific gravity of CBA varies from 1.39
to 2.88 and it fluctuates for each source [45,46]. The loss on ignition
values has been estimated in range of 2%–8% which is relevant to re-
commendations of ASTM C 618 (Table 3) [6,42,45]. The sources of the
4280
2.12

combustibles also influence the chemical composition of CBA, which

_

eventually affects the performance of concrete/mortars. The chemical

configuration of CBA as reported in chunk of the important findings
Nguyen et al. [85]

replicate to ‘Class-F’ category materials. Table 4 indicates that CBA

particles somewhere relates to FA particles as sum of the pozzolanic
compounds surpasses the level of 70% (ASTM C 618) [47]. In general,
the LOI of CBA is about 2–3 times higher in comparison to that FA.
Physical characteristics of fly ash.

2630
2.17

Fig. 4 shows the EDS spectra of FA which presents the ‘Carbon’ content
_

[48]. Further, Table 5 presents the EDS analysis of CBA. The results
indicate that the ‘Carbon’ content in CBA is around 2–3 times higher
Specific gravity (g/cm3)

than that in FA [49]. The results of the preceding findings satisfactorily

Surface area (m2/g)

justify the higher values of LOI of CBA over FA.

Fineness (cm2/g)

Scarcity of dumping spaces, high cost of disposal, health hazards

etc., are some of the major concerns which can be undoubtedly con-
Property

served by reusing and recycling of coal ashes (CBA). Similar to that of

Table 1

FA, CBA has been used in various civil engineering applications. The
major application of CBA as filler has been observed in construction of

3
N. Singh, et al. Journal of Building Engineering 26 (2019) 100882

Table 2
Chemical configuration of fly ash.
Compound Nguyen et al. [85] Celik et al. [22] Nehdi et al. [82] Liu [78] Bingol et al. [75] Anjos et al. [23] Sukumar et al. [81] Silva et al. [77]

Silica (SiO2) 58.33 62 48.9 50.5 48.93 48.61 57.9 54.70

Iron oxide (Fe2O3) 3.49 4.90 14.9 7.2 7.59 7.91 2.69 5.40
Alumina (Al2O3) 26.23 18.90 23.3 25.0 24.63 23.79 33.54 24.7
Calcium oxide (CaO) 5.72 5.98 3.8 3.9 9.06 3.06 0.65 2.63
Magnesium oxide (MgO) 1.26 1.99 0.7 1.9 2.28 2.07 0.49 1.01
Total sulphur (SO3) _ _ 0.2 0.9 2.48 0.40 0.13 1.38
Sodium oxide (Na2O) 0.27 2.41 0.6 _ 0.35 0.78 0.46 0.89
Potassium oxide (K2O) 0.48 1.14 1.7 _ 2.51 3.78 0.87 1.12
Loss on ignition 2.76 1.30 0.3 6.1 1.69 2.64 1.05 5.10

Fig. 2. Major modes of fly ash utilization during the year 2016–2017.

roads and embankments, followed by soil stabilization, manufacturing
of bricks, fire-proof products, ceramics etc. In some of the cases, a
chunk of CBA has been used as replacement of PC and NFA in manu-
facturing of concrete and in agricultural grounds respectively
[46,50,51].
5. Recycled concrete aggregates
Recycled concrete aggregates can be characterized into two divi-
sions on the basis of size i.e. coarse RCA and fine RCA. The RCA based
concrete primarily includes three stages:
i. The aggregate phase
ii. The mortar phase
iii. The interfacial transition zones (old and new)
Recycled concrete aggregates bear an exceptionally unpredictable
nature in contrast with NCA due to quality of old and new Interfacial
Transition Zone (ITZ). These phases significantly influence the general
behaviour of concretes (NVC or SCC). The ITZ stage is generally con-
sidered as the weakest phase as it comprises the old adhered mortar.
Fig. 5 presents the SEM images of RCA. Recycled concrete aggregate
also comprises free and permeable hydrates while; the NCA bears thick
and impermeable hydrates. Furthermore, the presence of cracks and
crevices also make the aggregates weaker. Utilization of RCA in con-
struction industry has been initiated since past decade yet its use is
limited in merely couple of categories due to aforesaid imperfections.
On the basis of their physical characteristics, RCA can be easily
differentiated from NCA. The physical behaviour of RCA as quoted by
some of the authors is shown in Table 6. It has been observed from
Table 6 that the physical performance of RCA is significantly lower to

Fig. 3. Scanning electron microscopic images of coal bottom ash [44].

4
N. Singh, et al. Journal of Building Engineering 26 (2019) 100882

Table 3
Physical characteristics of coal bottom ash.
Property Jaleel et al. [93] Aswathy et al. [94] Rafieizonooz [95] Mathiraja [96] Park et al. [44] Sharma [97] Rafat [98] Bilir [99]

Specific gravity 2.3 2.96 1.88 2.14–2.42 _ 2.12 1.93 1.39

Fineness modulus 3.86 2.96 3.44 _ _ _ 1.6 _
Bulk density (Kg/m3) 1520 _ _ 1120 2410 _ _ 2590
Water absorption (%) 1.80 18 11.61 _ 2.43 3.8 _ _

that of NCA. Generally, the water absorption of RCA has been noticed to
be higher than that of NCA. A particular range of values have been
reported in some of the important studies in which the typical range of
water absorption has been varied from 3.5% to 6.3%. Likewise, the
weaker behaviour of RCA is reported in terms of the specific gravity,
fineness modulus, water absorption and crushing value etc., where
significant differences have been reported compared to NCA (Table 6).
Apart from the physical behaviour, the drop in workability has been
experienced due to presence of angular and harsh surfaces along with
permeable and adhered mortar [52–54]. The inferior performance with
higher replacement levels of RCA in NVC or in SCC in association with
strength and durability properties have further dropped its im-
plementation in construction industry. For example the concretes made
with incorporation of RCA generally results in lower compressive,
tensile and flexural strength in comparison to concretes made with
replacement of NCA [6,21,55]. The weak physical nature also declines
the other hardened state properties of concretes made with RCA
[56–58]. Likewise, other durability properties like carbonation depth,
electrical resistivity, sulphate attack, acid attack, freeze thaw, chloride
penetration etc are found to be deteriorated with the incorporation of
RCA [59–62]. In 2002 Gomez [63] confirmed in their experimental
study that replacing NCA with RCA results in increase in porosity.
Further, in 2012, Leite et al. [64] confirmed the reduction in slump due
to rough and angular nature of RCA. Also it has been noted that usage of
cement additions and prolonged curing results in pore refinement of
RCA based concretes [65].
6. Environmental and health concerns
The wild disposal of coal ashes (FA and CBA) and C&D wastes (RCA)
has lead to major environmental issues and health hazards. The heavy
metals like zinc, mercury, barium, arsenic, nickel etc., has been found
in chemical analysis of CBA. Earlier investigations confirms that the
presence of heavy metals in excess quantity damages the tissues of
living beings [66]. The presence of FA in open spaces enhances the
probability of inhalation of heavy metals including arsenic, lead, mer-
cury, cadmium, chromium and selenium, aluminum, antimony, barium,
beryllium, boron, chlorine, cobalt, manganese, molybdenum, nickel,
thallium, vanadium, and zinc etc. The intake of these metals conse-
quently lead to risk of permanent damage of lungs, respiratory systems,
kidneys, reproductive systems, gastrointestinal, birth defects and
weaker bone intensity in children [67].
Likewise, CBA comprises varying amount of heavy metals which are
further categorized as ‘Group-I human carcinogenic metals’. The pre-
sence of such metals are the prime causes for skin, lung and bladder
cancers. The prolonged and direct contact of both FA and CBA obtained
from thermal power plants severely affects the red blood cells of living
beings. Other diseases like risks of leukemia, breast, skin, liver cancers
are also caused due to unwanted presence of FA and CBA. Both FA and
CBA when come in contact of surface water they dissolve out and
percolate, and eventually fuses with sub-surface water. The leaching of
coal ashes further spread through ground waterways, streams, wetlands
and sometimes in aquifers which supply drinking wells. However, the
ample risk of coal ashes on human health, ecological effect and con-
tamination of soil and subsurface water is under conciliation due to
insufficiency of effective research [68,69]. Apart from that both FA and
CBA particles increase the risk of air pollution and visibility issues
which further leads to breathing problems and irritation of eyes in
humans. On the other hand, the regular increment in the urbanisation
has put more burden on the natural resources. The construction of new
infrastructure projects rather to renovate the existing ones has led to
significant rise in demolition wastes. Moreover the demand of sus-
tainability in construction industry has raised an additional concern to
mankind. The increasing cost of landfills and scarcity of natural re-
sources has compelled the construction industry to recycle and reuse C
&D wastes to resolve the aforementioned concerns [70,71]. It has been
estimated that approximately 3 billion tonnes of C&D wastes has al-
ready been generated globally [72]. The ideal management of this en-
ormous amount of generated C&D wastes will resolve the concern of
ecological imbalance. Such approach will probably reduces the utili-
zation of prime lands which are currently used for disposing/dumping
of C&D wastes.
7. Properties of HVFA based SCC made with NCA
The performance of HVFA based SCC made with NCA on various
green, mechanical and durability properties has been highlighted in the
current study. It has been revealed from the literature that higher
content of FA (≥30%) significantly influences the overall performance
of SCC. It has been observed from the comprehensive efforts of the
authors that HVFA based SCC has not been examined extensively ear-
lier. Therefore, the literature has been summarised in all aspects related
to green and hardened properties in the following sections:

Table 4
Chemical configuration of coal bottom ash.
Element Martins et al. [100] Rafieizonooz [95] Rafat [98] Surendar et al. [101] Andrade et al. [102] Park et al. [44] Jamaludhin et al. [103]

Al2O3 23.2 18.1 21.5 25–35 26.7 25.9 18.7

Fe2O3 9.1 19.8 8.5 3.0–4.0 5.8 4.7 6.5
K3O 1.1 2.4 1.0 0.5–1 2.6 0.6 1.5
Na2O 0.4 _ 0.1 0.2–0.8 0.2 1.3 0.2
CaO 6 8. 1.5 4.0–10 0.8 2.4 1.6
MgO 2.1 0.9 1.1 0.5–2.0 0.6 1.1 0.5
SO3 0.6 0.3 _ 0.1–0.5 0.1 _ _
TiO2 1.2 3.2 _ 0.5–2.0 1.3 0.8 1.3
MnO2 _ 0.2 _ 1.0–2.5 _ _ _
Ignition loss _ _ 5.8 _ 4.6 _ 2.6

5
N. Singh, et al. Journal of Building Engineering 26 (2019) 100882

Fig. 4. EDS spectrum of FA [48].

Table 5 Table 6
EDS analysis of coal bottom ash. Physical characteristics of recycled concrete aggregates [6].
Element Weight percent (%) Properties NCA RCA

Carbon (C) 25.09 Specific gravity 2.64 ± 0.044 2.44 ± 0.055

Oxygen (O) 15.60 Fineness modulus 6.9 ± 0.10 6.8 ± 0.11
Sodium (Na) 0.75 Water absorption 0.68 5.65
Magnesium (Mg) 3.54 Aggregate crushing value (%) 15.8 25.6
Aluminium (Al) 7.45 Aggregate impact value (%) 16.35 30.43
Silicon (Si) 22.03
Potassium (K) 0.78
Calcium (Ca) 9.53
Passing ability and Segregation resistance are the vital parameters on
Titanium (Ti) 1.63
Iron (Fe) 13.60
which the performance of SCC in the green state is generally defined.
The ability of concrete to flow freely under its own weight, to en-
capsulate freely in all parts and corners of formwork without separa-
7.1. Green properties of HVFA based SCC tion/segregation/bleeding is judged under the state of mobility and
filling ability. Whereas, the flow ability in dense reinforcement while
In the green/fresh state, SCC must comply mainly four properties in retaining cohesivity, coherence and homogeneity during concreting are
order to perform satisfactory in hardened state. Mobility; Filling ability; referred under the property of passing ability and segregation resistance

Fig. 5. Scanning electron microscopic images of recycled concrete aggregates [6].

6
N. Singh, et al.
Fig. 6. Slump test results of HVFA based SCC made with NCA.
[73].
As per guidelines issued by EFNARC/ACI 237R-07 it is mandatory
for any SCC to satisfy the criterion required for necessary flowing
ability and passing ability. It has been noticed that in most of the dis-
cussions of literature the flowability has been examined by slump flow
test (flow spread) and the viscosity has been estimated by T500 test.
Likeswise, for passing ability and segregation resistance J-Ring, L Box,
U-Box, segregation index etc have been performed. The former tests
results have been discussed in detail while, the latter ones are discussed
in brief.
In general, it has been observed that the particle size, textural fea-
tures, behaviour of binder, type of aggregates and w/b ratio are some of
the factors which affects the workability of HVFA based SCC
[5,9,20,23,24,74]. Fig. 6 presents the results of some of the important
investigations in which the flow spread values have been mentioned for
different alteration levels of PC with FA (≥30%) in SCC. The spread of
SCC made with HVFA have been found to be increased initially up to a
certain level thereafter it started declining in most of the earlier find-
ings. As mentioned earlier with increase in replacement level of PC with
FA (40%) the flow spread has been found to be increased [75]. How-
ever, the slump flows for replacements more than 50% of PC with FA
has been found to be decreased in comparison to that of the SCC mixes
made with less than 50% replacement levels [76–78]. The possible
reason for such drop in the workability is explained by fact that for
attaining the desired fluidity, the concretes made with high replace-
ment levels of PC result in excessive incorporation of superplasticizers.
Out of the total content, a particular amount superplasticizer offers the
desired workability while the remaining content of polymers remains
non-adsorbed. This action leads to the formation of clusters of mole-
cules which consequently losses the fluidity of the SCC [79]. Also the
over dosage of superplasticizer drops the super-plasticizing effect per
volume in SCC [80].
Further, it has also been noticed that the inclusion of cement ad-
ditions like Silica fume (SF;-15,000–30,000 m2/kg), Metakaolin (MK;-
900-18000 m2/kg), baggase ash etc., has decreased the slump values for
HVFA based SCC made with NCA [21,24,30]. The high specific surface
areas of these cement additions turn into the main cause for the re-
duction in fluidity of SCC due to high rate of water absorption. Based on
the literature, a dual behaviour has been experienced in workable
performance of SCC made with NCA as slump increases as well as de-
creases with incorporation of HVFA. Alike results have been observed
for T500 (in seconds), L-Box (H2/H1), V-Funnel (in seconds) tests where
7
Journal of Building Engineering 26 (2019) 100882
the theses figures have been vary from 1 to 9.58 s, 0.73–1 and 4–13 s
respectively [20,74,81]. As indicated in earlier section, the particles of
FA are mainly spherical and glassy in nature with particle size less than
45 μm approximately. The higher surface area leads to increase in
workable nature up to certain limit. Simultaneously, the presence of
spherical shape leads to further reduction in the water requirement and
thus increases the consistency of the paste or concrete. Due to high
volume FA (≥60%), it absorbs that portion of water which is necessary
for hydration process thereby making the SCC more compact and resist
the ease in flow. Fly ash particles fill the gaps and thus lead to making
of denser SCC [37].
7.2. Compressive strength of HVFA based SCC
Various tests are used to evaluate the performance of concretes
(NVC or SCC) but compressive strength is generally considered as of
supreme importance. The compressive strength tests offer a strong
projection about various characteristics of concrete. The literature
confirmed that the compressive strength is directly or indirectly related
to several mechanical and durability properties. In other words, com-
pressive strength is interlinked with the quality of concrete. The current
section recaps the development of few of the important findings, where
the compressive strength has been calculated at various alteration le-
vels of FA with PC in SCC. Fig. 7 presents a general behaviour of
compressive strength tests results of HVFA based SCC at various curing
ages. The available findings verified that use of FA in place of PC re-
ports the negative effects on the compressive strength of SCC at the
curing age of 28 days. The various findings revealed that it is possible to
make SCC with the use of FA as the alteration of PC varying from 35%
to 80% [22–24,74,75,77,78,81–83]. The compressive strength values
observed at initial days of curing has been found to be significantly
lower due to non-reactivity of FA, whereas the compressive strength has
been improved with enhanced/prolonged curing periods [78,84]. Fur-
ther, marginal increments have been noted in relation to control SCC in
which gypsum has been added as mineral admixture [85]. Fig. 7 recaps
the aforementioned behaviour of SCC having HVFA at various altera-
tion levels of PC.
Apart from the aforementioned studies, the reduction in compres-
sive strength has been noted to be mild up to 35% level of FA, thereafter
the compressive strength was found to be dropped significantly. For
example, at incorporation level of 35% of FA in SCC in place of PC,
results in 10% decrease whereas at 55% this drop has been moved to
N. Singh, et al.
Fig. 7. Compressive strength of HVFA based SCC made with NCA at 28 days.
24% compared to control SCC mix [84]. Likewise, a reduction of
around 46% and 35% at 7 days and 90 days of curing respectively has
been noticed as compared to control SCC mix at 50% level of FA.
Moreover, at incorporation level of 70% FA in SCC, a severe drop of
around 63% and 47% at 7 day and at 90 days of curing with respect to
control SCC mix has been evaluated [22,86]. The presence of cement
additions affects the compressive strength of HVFA based SCC sig-
nificantly. An enhanced performance of HVFA based SCC mixes has
been noticed on inclusion of cement additons at low and high curing
periods. In some of the earlier investigations SF, MK and Limestone
filler (LF) was used for improving the compressive strength of SCC
mixes. A decrement of around 29%, 42% and 15% has been observed
for ≥50% level of FA with LF (15%), MK (20%) and SF (10%) in SCC at
90 days of curing respectivley [22,23,87].
7.3. Tensile strength of HVFA based SCC
Apart from the aforementioned, the other mechanical property of
concrete can be evaluated with one of the basic and important prop-
erties i.e. tensile strength which greatly affect the extent and size of
cracking in concrete structures. Since concretes are weak in tension
therefore the pre-evaluation of tensile strength of concretes is of vital
importance [88,89]. It has been noticed that tensile strength of HVFA
based SCC mixes behave identically to that of the trends of compressive
strength tests as discussed earlier. Earlier findings have confirmed that
fusion of FA as alteration of PC imparts a detrimental result on tensile
strength of HVFA based SCC at diverse curing ages [82–84]. Fig. 8
depicts the general behaviour of tensile strength in HVFA based SCC.
The results revealed that in most of the findings, reduction in tensile
strength has been observed fluctuating from 11% to 26% in contrast to
corresponding control SCC mixes at the age of 28 days. Generally, the
observed drops have been noticed for high replacement levels (FA from
40% to 70%). With increase in percentage of FA from 40% to 70% a
linear drop in tensile strength of the HVFA based SCC mixes was no-
ticed at 28 days of curing as shown in Fig. 8. Yoshitake et al., 2013
revealed that usage of 50% level of FA resulted in 40% reduction in
8
Journal of Building Engineering 26 (2019) 100882
temperature rise compared to concretes made without replacement of
FA. Also Signiant drop has been noticed for same level of replacement
for coefficient of thermal expansion [89].
The tensile strength has been increased after higher curing ages in
comparison to that of lower curing ages as discussed in most of the
earlier findings. As reported in literature, FA reacts with calcium ions
from calcium hydroxide (CH) to form calcium silicate (C–S–H), which is
the binder phase. The concrete having FA is not able to gain its strength
at the early age due to low amount of C–S–H and CH [14,21]. Further
(from Fig. 8) the incorporation of FA decreases the tensile strength SCC
mixes due to its inherent water reducing ability [24,78,86]. On the
other hand in HVFA base mixes a significant improvement in tensile
strength has been reported with increase in curing period as low de-
crements have been noticed. Since the effect of curing is highly studied
so far for LVFA based SCC mixes therefore similar improvements have
been projected in several studies of HVFA based SCC [90].
Apart from the prolonged curing the beneficial effect of cement
additions has also been reported in few of the investigations of HVFA
based SCC. The effect of cement additions has been discussed in LVFA
based SCC widely but on the other hand the same has not been studied
extensively so far. A noticeable change has been seen in HVFA based
SCC mixes made with 30%–60% of FA as replacement level of PC with
quarry dust as cement addition. A regular drop in tensile strength has
been notices at lower replacement levels for all curing periods [81]. On
the basis of the aforementioned nature of the findings of tensile strength
tests the character of cement additions at prolonged curing has been
found to be quite notorious in HVFA based SCC.
7.4. Water absorption of HVFA based SCC
The property of water absorption is directly related to the durability
or long term behaviour of concrete. The presence of pores, flaws and
fissures etc., in concrete enhances the absorption of water in concrete
which consequently affects the mechanical as well as other durability
properties. In overall, an increase in water absorption with increase in
amount of FA specifies the rise in volume of available pores [87,91].
N. Singh, et al. Journal of Building Engineering 26 (2019) 100882

Fig. 8. Tensile strength of HVFA based SCC made with NCA.

Fig. 9. Water absorption of HVFA based SCC made with NCA.

Water absorption of SCC was estimated up to 70% replacement of FA
with PC at various ages of curing. The deviation noted in water ab-
sorption figures of HVFA based SCC made with various alternate levels
of FA in place of PC has been compiled in Fig. 9.
In general, the results of water absorption tests show a directly
proportional relationship with the amount of FA i.e. it increases with
increase in content and vice-versa [77,87]. For an instance, at re-
placement level of 50% of FA in place of PC the water absorption has
been increased from 10% to 25% at 28 days of curing. For higher curing
period, at 90 days of curing for the same replacement level a drop of
about 24% with respect to the control SCC mix has been noticed
[85–87]. Likewise, in another investigation as conducted by Sahmaran
(b) et al., 2009 with percentage content of FA vary from 40% to 70%,
results in an increment of about 25% and 7% at 28 and 90 days of
curing respectively in comparison to control HVFA based SCC mix [86].
Alike absorption values have been estimated in another study with 60%
and 70% of FA in SCC where the maximum increment restricts to 25%
and 36% at 28 and 90 days of curing respectively [77]. In general,
water absorption decreases with increase in curing periods as men-
tioned previously (Fig. 9).
Further, the incorporation of cement additions like SF (10% by
weight) has reduced the absorption values maximum by 37% for SCC

9
N. Singh, et al.
Fig. 10. Rapid chloride permeability test of HVFA based SCC made with NCA.
mx made with 50% FA (w/b = 0.4) in comparison to the base SCC mix
at curing age of 28 days [8]. Similarly, the addition of gypsum improves
the water absorption resistance in HVFA based SCC in contrast to re-
ference SCC mix for same curing period. Therefore, the use of supple-
mentary materials such as SF and gypsum enable the use of high vo-
lume of FA in terms of water absorption [85].
7.5. Chloride permeability of HVFA based SCC
The excessivity of chloride ion penetration presents the adverse
effects on the performance of concretes as it consequently deteriorates
the reinforcement present in the concrete. In general, the concrete
swells about 1.2 times more due to chloride ion penetration compared
to that of water penetration (Fig. 10). The chloride ion permeability of
HVFA based SCC has been estimated from the total chloride diffusion
coefficients at curing of 28 and 90 days in most of the earlier in-
vestigations.
Fig. 10 summarised some of the trends of chloride resistance of
HVFA (from replacement level of 30%–70%) based SCC for the afore-
said curing periods. With increase in FA content in SCC the chloride
penetration depth increases in all cases. Sahmaran (a) et al., 2008 [84]
found that at incorporation levels of 35%–55% have decreased the
chloride penetration depth by approximately 1.5–1.8 times to that of
control SCC mix. Likewise, Celik et al., 2014 found that at FA level of
50% higher chloride migration resistance was noticed in comparison to
the control SCC [22]. Similar results have been indicated by Sahmaran
(b) et al., 2009 [86] and Nehdi et al., 2004 [82] in which FA levels were
varied from 40% to 70%. It has been revealed by Sahmaran (b) et al.,
2009 that 60% level of FA has been found to be ideal for highest
chloride resistance in SCC at 28 days of curing. Further, the beneficial
effect of cement additions has been discussed in terms of chloride pe-
netration resistance of HVFA based SCC made with alternate levels of
FA. The improved performance is dedicated to the effect of cement
additions which corresponds to dense microstructure of concretes. The
chloride penetration has been significantly reduced with inclusion of SF
and gypsum in HVFA based SCC as nearly 86% and 40% drops in values
10
Journal of Building Engineering 26 (2019) 100882
have been indicated respectively after curing period of 28 days [85,87].
The total charge passed through aforementioned HVFA based SCC was
found to be less as compared to SCC mixes made without cement ad-
ditions. The drop in charge passed was expected due to the inclusion of
HVFA which facilitates the pozzolanic reactions and subsequently re-
sults in declining of the permeability by promoting the densification of
the concrete microstructure [82]. Also, HVFA based SCC results in
equivalent performance in terms of chloride ion resistance with fixed
water to binder (w/b) ratios. The effect of water/binder ratio has been
discussed by Wongkeo et al., 2014 [87]. It has also been noticed that
with fixed content of FA, the chloride resistance has been increased by
around 40% at w/b ratio of 0.4 in comparison to the control SCC.
Moreover, with the change in w/b ratio i.e., 0.3 and 0.35 has further
increased the chloride resistance of HVFA based SCC for same curing
periods.
7.6. Ultrasonic pulse velocity of HVFA based SCC
Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) test is a non destructive test and is
performed to know the quality of concretes. This test also offers the idea
of the various defects present inside the concretes by transfer of elec-
tronic waves [54]. In general, UPV values decrese with the increase in
the content of FA in SCC mixes. However, with increase in cuing times
the UPV values were found to be enhanced as similar to that of com-
pressive strength. The pore refining quality of FA caused the reduction
of permeable pores within SCC which leads to improvement of UPV
values at higher curing ages [78,84]. The presence of pores, non-
homogeneity, feeble particle packing and miscellaneous imperfections
are the probable causes for the observed drops in UPV values. Herein,
the variation in UPV results of HVFA based SCC has been discussed in
the percentage increase or decrease in comparison to respective control
SCC mix. The same is shown in Fig. 11. A steep rise in UPV values has
been noticed from 7 days to 28 days of curing, therafter the UPV values
increase gradually. Fig. 11 presents the results of UPV tests for some of
the HVFA based SCC mixes at 7, 28 and 90 days of curing with FA range
of 35%–80%. At 28 days of curing, the UPV figures of SCC made with
N. Singh, et al.
Fig. 11. Ultrasonic pulse velocity of HVFA based SCC made with NCA.
HVFA has been reduced to that of base SCC mix around 4% only.
Likewise, at 90 days of curing, the UPV values for SCC at higher FA
content (> 50% FA) has decreased marginally in comparison to that of
control mix. An investigation conducted by Liu 2010 [78] suggests that
the replacement level of FA up to 40% results in insignificant loss in
UPV values to that of control SCC. At 60% and 80% level of FA, UPV
values reduces by 8% and 12% at 28 of cuirng repectively. Similar re-
sults have been discussed at 90 days of curing for the same investiga-
tion. The various mechanical properties of SCC containing HVFA in-
stead of PC have been improved with use of cement additions as
discussed in previous sections. Alike behaviour for UPV tests have been
observed for HVFA based SCC mixes made with cement additions. The
inclusion of gypsum as cement addition enhances the UPV values
maximum by around 5% in contrast to reference SCC mix after all ages
of cuirng [85].
8. Properties of HVFA based SCC containing RCA
The following sections encompass the influence of fusion of HVFA
instead of PC and incorporation of RCA as a replacement of NCA on
different green, mechanical and durability properties of SCC at diverse
ages of curing. The utilization of C&D wastes in form of RCA either
coarse or fine leads to conservation of natural resources and production
of environmentally friendly concretes. Alike approach has been fol-
lowed in the following sections which highlights the behaviour of HVFA
based SCC made with various levels of RCA. The available literature has
been summarised for green, mechanical and durability properties of
SCC made with and without inclusion of cement additions.
8.1. Green properties of HVFA based SCC containing RCA
Self compacting concrete made with HVFA containg RCA has been
examined for green properties in accordance to EFNARC/ACI 237R-07
guidelines. Since, most of the investigations have shown a negative
behaviour towards the overall workable nature of RCA based SCC as it
11
Journal of Building Engineering 26 (2019) 100882
hampers the flowability and passing ability significantly. On the other
hand it has been confirmend that SCC mixes containing RCA satisfy
most of the mandates with alteration of chemical admixtures [6,21]. As
projected, a general propsect of increment in water requirement has
been noted in almost all of the existing findings with incorporation of
coarse RCA in place of NCA at various alteration levels in HVFA based
SCC. The slump flow tests results noticed in various investigations
generally lies between the range of 500 mm–880 mm (Fig. 12). Further,
Fig. 12, describes that fluidity of SCC has reduced significantly with
regular increase in amount of RCA. The reduced slump values were
might be due the reason of increased cohesisvity and uneven/rougher
surface texture of RCA which consequently absorb more quantity of
water. Another possible reason for the aforesaid behaviour is due to
high percentage content of RCA. Furthermore, the slump flow time
(T500) has also been assessed for necessary workability conditions of
HVFA based SCC. In most of the cases, the T500 values of SCC have been
increased with incorporation of RCA as alteration of NCA at low and
high replacement levels in comparison to respective control HVFA
based SCC mixes [21,55]. In addition to above the incorporation of
cement addition like MK has resulted reduction in workability. For
example, presence of MK along with 60% of FA in SCC results in
marginal reduction of 3% in slump value and 100% and 39% increment
in T500 (sec) and V-funnel (sec) tests has been obtained respectively
relative to that of reference SCC mix [21].
8.2. Compressive strength of HVFA based SCC containg RCA
This section comprises the preview of compressive strength tests
results of HVFA based SCC having RCA at various alternate percentages
of NCA. The observed values of HVFA based SCC containing RCA have
been compiled in Fig. 13. Khodair (b) et al., 2017 [55] observed that
the compressive strength of all HVFA based SCC combinations (70%
FA) has been declined with increment in quantity (0%, 25%, 50%, 75%)
of RCA at all curing periods. Likewise, Khodair (a) et al., 2017 [91];
Singh and Singh 2016 [21] at FA levels of 50% and 60% at 0%, 50%,
N. Singh, et al.
Fig. 12. Slump test results of HVFA based SCC made with RCA.
100% alteration level of coarse RCA with NCA results a maximum de-
crement of around 60% in compressive strength at curing age of 28 days
respectively in context to control SCC. The probable reason for the drop
in compressive strength is primarily due to the increased level of por-
osity in HVFA based SCC mixes. The results of HVFA (60% of FA) based
SCC investigation indicates the ability of MK, as the compressive
strength has been found to be improved for 50% and 100% levels of
coarse RCA compared to that of control SCC mix at all curing ages [21].
8.3. Tensile strength of HVFA based SCC containing RCA
The presence of coarse RCA also affects the tensile strength of HVFA
based SCC mixes. The tensile strength of HVFA based SCC has been
dropped at 28 days of curing period in earlier investigations (Fig. 14).
Further, a gradual drop in the tensile strength of HVFA based SCC
containing RCA has been noticed beyond the 28 days of curing. In most
of the studies the RCA has been replaced with NCA varying up to
0%–100% in HVFA based SCC. At curing age of 28 days, the inclusion of
RCA up to 50% and 100% levels, a maximum drop of 40% and 53% has
Fig. 13. Compressive strength result of HVFA based SCC made with RCA.
12
Journal of Building Engineering 26 (2019) 100882
been noticed respectively compared to the reference SCC mix [55,91].
Khodair (b) et al., 2017 found that at 70% of FA, the reduction in tensile
strength at curing age of 28 days was found to be lowered by 12%–49%
with inclusion of RCA ranging from 0% to 75%. Similarly, HVFA based
SCC containing 50% of FA, the tensile strength was reduced to around
2%–53% with alteration of NCA with RCA at 0%–100% for the afore-
mentioned curing age [55].
8.4. Chloride permeability of HVFA based SCC
Chloride permeabilty is one of the vital durability properties which
substantially influence the long term performance of concretes. The
durability of HVFA based SCC made with various levles of RCA has
been evaluated by measuring total chloride coefficients at low and high
curing periods (28 and 90 days). The chloride ion penetration tests have
been performed on HVFA based SCC mixes in chunk of investigations
[55,91]. Also the effect of RCA has been discussed to some extent
corresponding to chloride ion ingression in HVFA based SCC. According
to Khodair (b) et al., 2017, the chloride permeability has been
N. Singh, et al.
Fig. 14. Tensile strength result of HVFA based SCC made with RCA at 28 days.
decreased by 14%, 42%, 57% and 67% at 0%, 25%, 50% and 75%,
replacement level of RCA at 90 days of curing respectivley. Alike trends
of decrement in chloride permeabilty results has been experienced by
Khodair (a) et al., 2017, as the maximium decrement was restricted to
around 49% with 100% level of RCA compared to control HVFA based
SCC mix for the curing age of 90 days [91].
It is worthwhile to mention that the chloride ion resistance for
HVFA based SCC containing RCA has not been probably discussed
earlier, however the same has been estimated on small scale for Low
Volume Fly Ash (LVFA) based SCC containing fine and coarse RCA. For
LVFA based SCC the chloride ion penetration has been increased with
increment of RCA at various curing ages. Conversely, the incorporation
of cement additions like MK and SF was found to be beneficial in
dropping the chloride ion permeation in the LVFA based SCC mixes
[90]. Some additional durability properties of HVFA based SCC (ac-
celerated carbonation, electrical resistivity, capillary suction etc) were
studied diminutively. The improvement in microstructural behaviour
either due to cement additions or prolonged curing of HVFA based SCC
results in identical trends as mentioned in previous sections [21,77,85].
9. Role of CBA in HVFA based SCC
The impact of CBA as alteration of natural fine aggregates has been
estimated by evaluating fresh and mechanical properties of HVFA based
SCC at diverse periods of curing. Siddique et al., 2012 [92] conducted
an experimental investigation on SCC having 35% of FA with inclusion
of CBA as natural fine aggregate up to 0%–30%. It has been reported
that increase in water demand was noticed with increase in CBA con-
tent in SCC mixes with same level of FA (35%). The slump flow tests
values vary from 590 mm–675 mm. The reduced slump in all SCC mixes
was probably due to enhancement of viscous nature and rougher/un-
even surface which subsequently absorb additional water with in-
creasing amount of CBA. Likewise the presence of CBA significantly
affects the slump flow (T500) and V-Funnel time.
Further, for all HVFA based SCC mixes the compressive strength was
dropped with regular increment in amount of CBA. A reduction in
compressive strength to an extent of 24% and 20% has been reported
for CBA level of 10% for curing age of 28 and 90 days respectively.
Similar decrements in compressive strength has been noticed for
20% and 30% replacement levels of CBA with natural fine aggregates in
HVFA based SCC. The observed reduction corresponds to the increase in
13
Journal of Building Engineering 26 (2019) 100882
porosity level due to presence of CBA in SCC mixes. Likewise, for tensile
strength tests HVFA based SCC having aforesaid levels of CBA resulted
in significant decrement at curing of 28 and 90 days. Siddique et al.,
2012 [92] also reported that the tensile strength of HVFA based SCC
was dropped maximum by 25% and 23% at 28 and 90 days of curing
respectively. The variation in fresh and hardened properties confirms
the additional negative effect of CBA in HVFA based SCC.
10. Critical comments
Based on the available literature of HVFA based SCC, the following
comments can be made:
(i) The practical application of HVFA based SCC is feasible for the
civil engineering projects where early compressive strength is not
the deciding factor for the overall performance. As in most of the
investigations it has been experienced that inclusion of HVFA
(≥30%) generally hampers the compressive strength of SCC.
(ii) The use of HVFA based SCC can be suggested for only a specific
level of FA preferably not exceeding 40%–50% as replacement of
PC. The use of cement additions in HVFA based SCC enhances the
mechanical and long term properties only up to some extent.
(iii) The utilization of FA in high volume in SCC certainly contributes in
resolving energy conservation concern and promotion of SCC in
developing and under developing countries.
(iv) The inclusion of RCA can only be suggested in HVFA based SCC
prior to the well thorough knowledge of source of collection. Since,
higher grades of RCA will correspondingly impart better perfor-
mance in contrast to low grades in HVFA based SCC. Considering,
the benefits and significant preservation of existing resources, it is
advisable to utilize coal ashes and C&D wastes in concrete industry
for various applications.
11. Conclusions
The current study has stated the different properties of HVFA based
SCC made with NCA/RCA along with replacement of NFA with CBA at
various extents. The nature/behaviour of HVFA based SCC has been
analysed from the most of the available literature of green, mechanical
and durability properties assessed at various periods of curing. On the
basis of literature, the major outcomes of HVFA based SCC are:
N. Singh, et al.
The SCC having HVFA (≥30%) in place of PC fulfils the necessary
conditions of workability in accordance to EFNARC/ACI-237R07
guidelines effectively. A general pattern of increase in workability in
SCC has been noted in comparison to control SCC. The slump flow
values for SCC have been increased, whereas the values of T500 de-
creased in relative to reference SCC. Further, the presence of RCA and
CBA shows decline in workability of HVFA based SCC. Compressive
strength of SCC has been dropped with incorporation of FA (≥30%) at
early ages but increases at later ages. The use of MK, SF, LF, gypsum has
verified to be advantageous in enhancing the compressive strength for
all curing ages. Further, with the regular increment of RCA and CBA in
HVFA based SCC, the compressive strength has been found to be
dropped abruptly. The tensile strength tests results of HVFA based SCC
follow comparable patterns as noted for compressive strength tests re-
sults for NCA/RCA and CBA based mixes.
The water absorption rates of HVFA based SCC made with NCA
depicts higher variations at higher levels of FA (≥40%). The absorption
rates improved with increase in curing period. For chloride perme-
ability, the charge passed is found to be directly proportional to the
replacement level of FA at earlier ages but inversely proportional at
later ages. The cement additions along with HVFA have further im-
proved the resistance to chloride permeability of SCC thus enabling the
production of HVFA on the durability indicators. For SCC made with
HVFA and RCA, the chloride permeability increases linearly with higher
content of RCA. Ultrasonic pulse velocity values of HVFA based SCC
have been condensed with increment in quantity/content of FA while it
increases with the prolonged curing.
12. Future recommendations
Future study is required in most of the key areas of HVFA based
SCC. For future practices emphasis should be given to the following:
The existing research/investigations on HVFA based SCC is scarcely
focused on durability properties. Apart from that, a well-defined
knowledge is required for HVFA based SCC by implementing various
non-destructive testing techniques. Suitable standard specifications
should be introduced which depict specified limit of FA as well as of
RCA in SCC.
Conflicts of interest
There is no conflict of interest declared by authors.
Acknowledgment
The financial aid to authors by Ministry of Human Resource
Development (MHRD), Government of India is acknowledged. The au-
thors acknowledge the staff of Concrete Structures & Material Testing
Laboratory at Dr B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology,
Jalandhar, India through the research work.
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