Materials Today: Proceedings 39 (2021) 965–969

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Materials Today: Proceedings

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The effect of fly ash and silica fume on self-compacting high-

performance concrete
F.A. Mustapha a,b,⇑, A. Sulaiman a, R.N. Mohamed a, S.A. Umara b
a
Department of Structure and Materials, School of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Malaysia
b
Department of Civil Engineering Technology, The Federal Polytechnic Damaturu, Yobe State 620001, Nigeria

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The paper focused on the feasibility of substituting the ordinary Portland cement with waste supplemen-
Received 28 November 2019 tary cementing materials (SCMs) that is, fly ash (FA) and silica fume (SF). The aim is to improve the com-
Received in revised form 16 April 2020 pressive strength of self-compacting high-performance concrete (SCHPC) and to find environmentally
Accepted 18 April 2020
friendly and economical application of the abundant FA generated from the four coal-powered electricity
Available online 12 May 2020
generating plants in Malaysia. To this end, the study examined the effects of FA and SF on fresh properties
and compressive strength of SCHPC. The study used SCHPC with partial replacement of Portland cement
Keywords:
with ASTM C618 class F FA and SF in exploring the fresh properties and compressive strength of six dif-
Self-compacting high-performance concrete
Fly ash
ferent SCHPC mixes. The mixes contained 0%, 25%, 40%, 50%, 65% and 75% cement replacement by FA, SF
Compressive strength was maintained at 10% constant replacement. The water/binder (w/b) ratio was fixed at 0.31 for all the
Silica fume mixes. Tests on fresh concrete such as Slump flow, L-Box, and V-funnel were conducted to assess the
Portland cement fresh properties of the SCHPC. Compressive strength test was determined on 100 mm2 concrete cubes
at 7- and 28-days curing ages. The results of slump flow, passing ability, and viscosity of SCHPC satisfied
the requirements of the Specification and Guidelines for Self-Compacting Concrete (EFNARC). The blend
of 40% PC, 50% FA, and 10% SF achieved a maximum compressive strength of 87.06 MPa at 28 days curing
age. This result is 5% higher than the control specimen, which has a compressive strength of 82.39 MPa.
Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the SIE 2019: Sustainable &
Integrated Engineering International Conference.

1. Introduction
In recent years, the utilization of industrial by-products is gain-
ing momentum with increasing environmental awareness and the
need to mitigate hazardous effects of industrial wastes [1]. Self-
compacting concrete (SCC) is a viscous mixture suitable for casting
intricate structures and structures with congested reinforcement,
without or with slight vibration, while maintaining a consistent
flow free from segregation and bleeding [2]. In 1986, Okomora ini-
tiated the idea of SSC, which was further developed in 1988 at
Tokyo University to produce durable concrete structure and
improve quality in the construction industry [3]. High-
performance concrete (HPC) is a durable and abrasion-resistant
concrete made with low water-to-binder ratio (w/b) and cured
adequately [4]. HPC is characterized by its fluidity, high strength
⇑ Corresponding author at: Department of Structure and Materials, School of Civil
Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Malaysia.
E-mail address: audumustapha@graduate.utm.my (F.A. Mustapha).
and durability. Both SCC and HPC consist of similar components
which, when proportioned adequately, yield desired classes of con-
crete. Thus, SCHPC is a new generation of concrete based on the
concepts of SCC and HPC. It possesses the adequate self-compact
ability (filling ability, passing ability, and segregation resistance)
of the SCC and the high strength and good durability of the HPC.
SCHPC compacts without vibration, thus leading to speedy con-
struction and significant cost savings. However, due to its high
cementitious content and chemical admixtures, its production cost
is prohibitively high.
Analysis of the literature, however, suggests that savings in
labor cost and the use of mineral admixtures such as FA and SF
in the production of SCHPC may reduce the production cost consid-
erably. Moreover, the synergy of FA and SF in a ternary blend is
known to improve concrete properties and make SCHPC more eco-
nomical and environmentally friendly. FA is a by-product of burn-
ing pulverized coal in electricity generating power plant, while SF
is a by-product of smelting process in silicon and ferrosilicon
industry. Malaysia utilizes coal-fired power plants for generating

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.04.493
2214-7853/Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the SIE 2019: Sustainable & Integrated Engineering International Conference.
966 F.A. Mustapha et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings 39 (2021) 965–969

electricity. The Tanjung Bin power plant, one of the four coal- Table 1
powered electricity plants in Malaysia, produces 42,000 metric Chemical composition of Portland cement and SCMs.

tons of FA per month from burning of coal ash [5]. It is expected Component (%) PC FA SF
that the production of FA will increase as the projected demand SiO2 16.2 51.8 96
for coal for electricity generation in Malaysia increases in 2020. Al2O3 3.52 26.5 0.1
Coal is a readily available and cheap fossil fuel. It has been reported Fe2O3 2.91 8.5 0.6
that a 25% FA replacement of cement yields savings of 20% on con- CaO 70.9 4.81 0.1
MgO 0.764 1.1 0.2
struction costs. Very few studies exist on the mechanical proper- SO3 3.36 0.6 1.1
ties of SCHPC incorporating class F FA and 10% SF in the K2O 0.572 3.27 0.4
literature. This study attempts to address this gap. Na2O 0.3 0.67 0.1
Askari et al. [6] study the mechanical properties of SCC and Ignition Loss 0.7 1.47 1.7
report that high volume FA content results in compressive strength
gain between 28 and 120 days of curing, which confirms continuity
of pozzolanic activity of FA with time. Moreover, a 10% SF replace-
ment of cement improves and maintains the tensile strength of SCC
containing high volume FA. Askari et al. [6] conclude that high-
volume FA lowers the dosage of superplasticizer (SP) required to
achieved self-compact ability owing to the round shape of FA par-
ticles. Similarly, Wongkeo et al. [7] explore the influence of adding
50, 60 and 70 wt% high calcium class C FA and SF as replacement of
Portland cement on compressive strength and chloride resistance
of SCC. They found that FA and SF enhance the chloride resistance
of SCC at high volume replacement of Portland cement. Further-
more, Yazici [8] replaced cement with class C FA from 30% to
60% to assess the mechanical and durability properties of SCC
mixes with 10% addition of SF and a constant w/b ratio of 0.28.
He found that an addition of 10% SF improves both fresh and hard-
ened properties of the concrete. Moreover, the compactivity of
SCHPC is influenced by the properties of the constituent materials.
Therefore, when a high volume of cement is replaced, the strength
development of the concrete must be investigated. Fig. 1. Grading curve of fine aggregate in relation to ASTM C33 limits.
In view of the foregoing, this paper examines the influence of
partial replacement of Portland cement by 25%, 40%, 50%, and
The fine aggregates used in the mixtures were natural river
65% ASTM C618 class F FA and 10% SF on the fresh properties
sand with relative density (SSD), water absorption and fineness
and compressive strength of SCHPC. Six different mixes were made
modulus of 2.65 kg/m3, 1.15% and 3.17, respectively. Fig. 1 presents
with 0%, 25%, 40%, 50%, 65% and 75% cement replacement by FA
the result of the grading of fine aggregate as determined from sieve
and SF. However, SF was maintained at 10% constant replacement.
analysis. The grading of the different sizes of the fine aggregate
The w/b ratio was fixed at 0.31 for all the mixes. Tests on fresh con-
falls within the upper and lower limits specified by ASTM
crete such as slump flow, L-Box, and V-funnel were conducted to
C33/C33M-13 [11]. Therefore, the fine aggregate was well graded.
assess the fresh properties of SCHPC. Compressive strength test
A well-graded aggregate usually reduces the demand for water and
was determined on concrete cubes of 100 mm2 at curing ages of
superplasticizer, thereby improving the packing density, flexibility,
7, 28 and 56 days.
and workability of SCHPC. A well-graded 10 mm aggregate, with
SSD and water absorption value of 2.66 kg/m3 and 1.0% respec-
tively, was used as coarse aggregate. The third generation of poly-
2. Experimental program carboxylate ether-based superplasticizer referred to as Sika
Viscocrete-2044 that complies with ASTMC494 [12] was added
2.1. Materials to achieve the required consistency.

Ordinary Portland cement of CEM 1 with 42.5 MPa strength and
specific gravity of 3.15 was used in producing the SCHPC mixtures.
To achieve the desired workability and consistency of SCHPC while
reducing the possibility of segregation and heat of hydration, low
calcium FA equivalent to ASTM C618-12a, [9] Class F with gravity
of 2.1, obtained from Tanjung Bin power plant at Johor Bahru,
was added in different percentages. Densified SF with bulk density
in the range of 550–650 kg/m3 and gravity of 2.1–2.4 was added to
compensate for the relatively low early strength of the FA concrete.
10% of SF was added, as suggested by Muller et al. [10].
The chemical composition of Portland cement and SCMs,
obtained from X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis, are shown in
Table 1. According to ASTM C618-12a, [9], Class F FA contains a
minimum composition of silicon dioxide (SiO2), aluminium oxide
(Al2O3) and iron oxide (Fe2O3) of 70%, while the total calcium oxide
(CaO) composition is less than 7%.
2.2. Mix proportions and specimen preparation
Six different mixes were made with 0%, 25%, 35%, 50%, 60%, and
75% replacement of cement by FA and SF while maintaining con-
stant SF at 10% replacement. The w/b ratio was fixed at 0.31 for
all mixes. Replacement levels of constant 10% of SF were used to
produce the SCHPC concrete with improved strength and durabil-
ity [10]. SF improves the pore structure of concrete and acts as a
filler in enhancing the density of concrete. A summary of the differ-
ent mixture proportions is presented in Table 2. A rotary mixer of
volume 0.03 m3 was used to mix the concrete. After mixing, slump
flow, L-Box, and V-Funnel tests were conducted on the fresh con-
crete to explore the features of the rheological properties of SCMs,
as recommended by EFNARC [13]. Concrete cubes of size
100  100 mm were prepared for measuring compressive strength,
and the specimen was cured in water at 20 ± 5 °C for 7 and 28 days.
 F.A. Mustapha et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings 39 (2021) 965–969 967

Table 2
Summary of Mixture proportion of SCHPC.

Concrete mix Water kg/m3 Fine agg Coarse agg SP (%)

W/B = 0.31 PC FA SF
100%OPC 188 587.50 0 0 796.33 837.00 15.28 (2.6%)
75%PC-25% FA 188 440.62 146.88 0 734.50 837.00 11.75 (2.0%)
65%PC-25%FA-10%SF 188 381.88 146.88 58.75 713.38 837.00 14.69 (2.5%)
50%PC-40%FA-10%SF 188 293.75 235.00 58.75 675.75 837.00 15.86 (2.7%)
40%PC-50%FA-10%SF 188 235.00 293.75 58.75 651.37 837.00 15.69 (2.67%)
25%PC-65%FA-10%SF 188 146.88 381.88 58.75 614.27 837.00 16.16 (2.75%)

3. Test methods Table 3

The fresh properties of concrete mixes.

3.1. Tests on fresh properties Concrete mixes Requirement limit by EFNARC [13]
Slump flow L-Box (H2/H1) V-Funnel
Slump Flow Test was carried out using Abram’s slump cone. The (mm) Ratio (s)
test was performed according to European Standard BS EN 12350-2 Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max.
[14]. The workability, consistency and filling ability of SCHPC can 550 850 0.80 1.0 6.0 12.0

be assessed using this test. 100%PC 550 0.80 12.0

L-Box Test was used to assess the passing ability of SCHPC to 75%PC-25%FA 640 0.84 11.6
65%PC-25%FA-10%SF 600 0.83 11.9
flow through tight openings, including spaces between reinforcing 50%PC-40%FA-10%SF 650 0.87 10.7
bars and other obstructions without segregation or blocking 40%PC-50%FA-10%SF 630 0.88 10.2
EFNARC [13]. 25%PC-65%FA-10%SF 650 0.88 10.2
V-Funnel Test was used to assess the viscosity and filling ability
of SCHPC using a V-funnel apparatus EFNARC [13].
between 0.8 and 1.0. Therefore, all the SCHPC mixes satisfy the
3.2. Compressive strength test requirement for the passing ability class PA2. Nagaratnam et al.
[16] confirm that the passing ratio of SCHPC improves with an
A 3000 kN capacity universal testing machine was employed to increase in FA replacement level.
measure the compressive strength of cube specimens V-funnel flow time: The V-funnel flow time (Tv) of the fresh
100  100 mm according to BS EN 12390-3 [15]. The test was con- mixes varied in the range of 10–12 s. Thus, the Tv for all respective
ducted at the ages of 7 and 28 days. Three specimens for each batch SCHPC lies within the range of 9–15 s as established by EFNARC
were measured, and the average value was calculated to determine [13] for VF2 viscosity class. The incorporation of silica fume
the compressive strength. The operational procedure of the com- increases the viscosity of the concrete [17]. The fresh properties
pressive strength test was shown in Fig. 2. of SCHPC were summarized in Table 3.

4. Results and discussion 4.2. Compressive strength

4.1. Fresh properties
Slump Flow: The slump flow of the respective SCHPC varied in
the range of 550–650 mm, as shown in Table 3. This slump flow
values lies within Class SF1 of EFNARC [13] and is an indication
of good filling ability. It is consistent with most of the researches
on SCHPC.
L-Box passing ratio: The L-box passing ratio for the control mix
is 0.76 ( 0.8). Conversely, the passing ratio is between 0.84 and
0.88 for all other mixes. The range of values for L-box passing ratio
recommended by EFNARC [13] for passing ratio Class PA2 is
The results of the average compressive strength and maximum
compressive strength of individual samples were presented in
Fig. 3 and Fig. 4, respectively. The compressive strength of all
SCHPC increased with increasing curing time. The compressive
strength of SCHPC containing 25% FA with 0% SF is 35% lower than
the control specimen. This was due to the slow pozzolanic reaction
and dilution effect of FA. Again, the compressive strength of 65%
PC; 25% FA; 10% SF is less than that of the control specimen by
4%. Conversely, the compressive strength of control specimen is
just 1% greater than the compressive strength of 50% PC; 40% FA;
10% SF and 40% PC; 50% FA; 10% SF. However, the compressive

Fig. 2. (a) Compression test set-up, (b) Weighing of the specimen before testing and (c) Compression test on cube.
968 F.A. Mustapha et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings 39 (2021) 965–969

Fig. 3. Average compressive strength of SCHPC.

Fig. 4. Maximum compressive strength of individual samples of SCHPC.

strength of 25% PC; 65% FA; 10% SF is greater than the compressive
strength of Portland cement control by 2%. Nevertheless, owing to
the high pozzolanic reaction and the micro-filler effect of SF than
that of FA, there was an improvement in the compressive strength
of Portland-fly ash-silica fume concrete. Silica fume is very effec-
tive in the development of HPC. Wongkeo et al. [7] reports similar
observations.
Fig. 3 indicates that the compressive strength of 40% PC; 50%
FA; 10% SF at the age of 7 days is greater than that of 25% PC;
65% FA; 10% SF; whereas the compressive strength of 25% PC;
65% FA; 10% SF at the age of 28 days is higher than that of 40%
PC; 50% FA; 10% SF. This is primarily due to the slow pozzolanic
reaction and dilution effect of fly ash. Fly ash improves the com-
pressive strength of concrete with time. Its application in high
quantities might influence the early strength of concrete but can
also attain remarkable strength at a later age [18].
The compressive strength of 3 samples from 50% PC; 40% FA;
10% SF SCHPC (M = 77.32, SD = 2.59) compared to the compressive
strength of 3 samples from 40% PC; 50% FA; 10%SF SCHPC
(M = 77.79, SD = 8.14) demonstrates significant t-test value,
p = .096. There was no significant difference in the compressive
strength of SCHPC with 40% FA and 50% FA cement replacement
at the age of 28 days.
Fly ash chemically reacts with the non-durable calcium hydrox-
ide (lime) generated by the hydration of Portland cement concrete
and converts calcium hydroxide into calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-
H), which is the durable and strongest portion of the paste in con-
crete. By yielding C-S-H, the paste becomes stronger with time and
thus reduces the capillaries that allow the movement of moisture
through the concrete, thereby resulting in a stronger, durable and
less permeable concrete [3]. Furthermore, the ‘‘ball bearing” effect
of fly ash aids in the lubricating effect when concrete is in a plastic
state, thus improves the workability and finishing, reduces bleed-
ing and segregation, and enhance ease of pumping of SCHPC
[19,20].
5. Conclusions
Based on the findings of this study, the following conclusions
were made:
 The slump flow of the respective SCHPC lies within class SF1
and is an indication of good filling ability; all the SCHPC mixes
satisfy the requirement for the passing ability class PA2; and the
V-funnel flow time for all respective SCHPC lies within viscosity
class VF2.
 Maximum compressive strength of 87.06 MPa was achieved by
Portland-fly ash-silica fume blend of 40% PC; 50% FA; 10% SF at
28 days curing age, which is 5% higher than the control speci-
men with 82.39 MPa and the cement content of this mixture
is only 235.00 kg/m3.
 F.A. Mustapha et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings 39 (2021) 965–969
CRediT authorship contribution statement
F.A. Mustapha: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software,
Data curation, Writing - original draft, Visualization, Investigation.
A. Sulaiman: Supervision. R.N. Mohamed: Software, Validation. S.
A. Umara: Writing - review & editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to express their gratitude to the
Ministry of Higher Education (MOE) Malaysia, Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia and UTM Tier 2 Research Grant with Reference
No: PY/2017/01513.
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