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Influence of supplementary cementitious materials on engineering properties

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Article in Construction and Building Materials · May 2011

DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2010.12.013

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 Construction and Building Materials 25 (2011) 2639–2648

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Influence of supplementary cementitious materials on engineering properties

of high strength concrete
M.A. Megat Johari a,⇑, J.J. Brooks b, Shahid Kabir a, Patrice Rivard c
a
School of Civil Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia
b
School of Civil Engineering, University of Leeds, United Kingdom
c
University of Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The influence of supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs), namely silica fume, metakaolin, fly ash
Received 24 May 2009 and ground granulated blast-furnace slag, on the engineering properties of high strength concrete
Received in revised form 27 November 2010 (HSC) has been investigated in this study. Workability, compressive strength, elastic modulus, porosity
Accepted 7 December 2010
and pore size distribution were assessed in order to quantify the effects of the different materials. The
Available online 7 January 2011
results show that the inclusion of the different SCMs has considerable influence on the workability of
HSC. Silica fume and metakaolin significantly enhanced the strength of HSC. Fly ash reduced the early-
Keywords:
age strength; however, it enhanced the long-term strength of the HSC. Likewise, ground granulated
Supplementary cementitious materials
Workability
blast-furnace slag impaired the early-age strength, but marginally improved the long-term strength at
Strength low replacement levels. The general effect of the different SCMs on the elastic modulus of HSC is rather
Elastic modulus small compared to their effect on strength. There are good correlations between both static and dynamic
Porosity moduli and compressive strength. The EC 2 and ACI 209 provide a good estimate of static modulus of
Pore size distribution elasticity from compressive strength, while the BS8110 gives a good estimate of static modulus of elas-
High strength concrete ticity from dynamic modulus of HSC containing the different SCMs. Porosity and pore size were reduced
with the addition of the different SCMs. The volume of mesopores in the ranges of <15 nm and 15 – 30 nm
was notably increased for HSC containing SCMs, whereas the percentage of macropores was significantly
reduced.
Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction metakaolin is not an industrial by-product; it is produced by cal-

The use of supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) such as
fly ash, ground granulated blast-furnace slag, silica fume and
metakaolin as part of binders for concrete has been increasing
throughout the world, particularly in the production of high
strength and high performance concrete. This is due to the potential
ability of these materials to enhance the properties and performance
of concrete through their filler effect, as well as pozzolanic reaction.
In addition, most of the SCMs are by-product materials; hence, their
inclusion in concrete could serve as an effective means of disposal.
Furthermore, their utilization as mineral admixtures to partially re-
place cement could somehow preserve the non-renewable re-
sources required for the production of cement, and hence could
somehow contribute to sustainable concrete construction [1–3].
Metakaolin is the most recent SCM to be commercially intro-
duced to the concrete construction industry. Unlike other SCMs,
⇑ Corresponding author. Address: School of Civil Engineering, Universiti Sains
Malaysia, Engineering Campus, Nibong Tebal 14300, Penang, Malaysia. Tel.: +60 4
599 6208; fax: +60 4 594 1009.
E-mail address: cemamj@eng.usm.my (M.A. Megat Johari).
cining high purity kaolin clay at temperatures of 700–800 °C. It
has been shown that the inclusion of metakaolin could improve
the properties and durability performance of concrete [3–6].
The inclusion of different SCMs normally alters the properties of
concrete to a certain degree both in the fresh and hardened states.
For example, the use of SCMs could retard the setting times of HSC
with constant dose of superplasticiser and similar water/binder ra-
tio [7]. Fly ash normally improves the workability of concrete, but
the early-age strength may be reduced [8,9]. Depending on the
type of materials, their use as partial cement replacement materi-
als or as mineral additives could have different effects on the prop-
erties of concrete. This is because they possess different chemical
and mineralogical compositions, as well as different particle char-
acteristics, which determine their water requirement, packing abil-
ity, as well as reactivity when used as part of binder for concrete. In
general, the use of these materials in concrete has been associated
with the refinement of the concrete pore structure. This in turn
could affect the properties of concrete in the fresh and hardened
states, including strength, deformation and durability performance
[10–14].

0950-0618/$ - see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2010.12.013
2640 M.A. Megat Johari et al. / Construction and Building Materials 25 (2011) 2639–2648

Table 1 mass-for-mass basis. An optimum water/cement ratio of 0.28 was obtained for
Chemical compositions and physical properties of OPC and SCMs. the control HSC mix and the same water/binder ratio was used for the other con-
crete mixes with the same amount of superplasticiser so that the workability
Item Cementitious materials, (%) changes due to the effect of the different SCM. The superplasticiser used is based
OPC SF MK FA GGBS on sulphonated vinyl copolymer.

SiO2 20.69 94.02 51.6 47.8 35.84

Al2O3 4.72 0.43 41.3 24.9 14.00 3. Test procedures
Fe2O3 3.06 1.65 4.64 8.7 0.53
CaO 63.76 0.13 0.09 1.8 39.72
3.1. Workability
MgO 2.08 0.53 0.16 1.2 8.57
Mn2O3 – – – 0.48
TiO2 – 0.01 0.83 1.0 0.56 The term workability is broadly defined; no single test method
SO3 2.92 – 0.9 0.15 measures all aspects of workability. The ACI Committee 116 [15]
K2O 0.61 0.65 0.62 3.6 –
describes workability as ‘‘that property of freshly mixed concrete
Na2O 0.26 0.20 0.01 1.2 –
LOI 0.87 1.56 – 5.2 0.43
or mortar that determines the ease with which it can be mixed,
placed, consolidated, and finished to a homogenous mass’’. Suffi-
Compounds
C3S 53.9 – – –
cient workability is necessary so that the concrete can be placed
C2S 18.2 – – – and compacted to maximum density. In this study, the workability
C3A 7.2 – – – of the fresh concrete was measured by means of the slump test in
C4AF 9.2 – – – accordance to BS EN 12350-2 [16].
Fineness
SSA (m2/kg) 380 20,000 15,000 380 426
3.2. Compressive strength
>45 lm – – – 8.9 –

Compressive strength test determines behavior of materials un-

This paper presents the results of an investigation into the influ-
ence of supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) on the engi-
neering properties of high strength concrete (HSC) with 28-days
cube compressive strength in excess of 80 MPa. The workability,
compressive strength, elastic modulus, porosity and pore size dis-
tribution of HSC containing different proportions of SCMs, namely
silica fume (SF), metakaolin (MK), fly ash (FA) and ground granu-
lated blast-furnace slag (GGBS), are compared with those of a con-
trol HSC mix having identical mix proportions but without SCMs.
Hence, the study will provide comparison on the effects of the dif-
ferent SCMs on properties of HSC and enlighten the potential of the
SCMs with regard to their application in high strength and high
performance concrete. In addition, the available standards indicate
that proper provision on the potential influence of the different
SCMs on the estimation of elastic modulus is currently lacking or
not available. Hence, the paper also attempts at evaluating the
suitability of several available standards in predicting the moduli
of elasticity of the HSC containing the different SCMs.
2. Materials and mix proportions
The cementitious materials used were Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), SF, MK,
FA and GGBS. The chemical compositions and the physical properties of the cemen-
titious materials are given in Table 1. Details of the mix proportions for the concrete
containing SCMs are given in Table 2. Natural river sand and quartzite natural grav-
el with a nominal maximum size of 10 mm were used as the aggregates. The control
mix was cast using OPC, while the other mixes were prepared by replacing part of
the cement with the different SCMs at three different replacement levels on a
der compressive loads; the specimen is compressed and the max-
imum sustained load is recorded. In this study, the compressive
strength test was performed on 100 mm cube specimens at the
age of 1, 3, 7, 14, 28, 90, 180 and 365 days. Three specimens were
tested at each testing age and the average strength was reported.
The compressive strength was determined in accordance to BS
EN 12390-3[17]. The specimens were tested for compressive
strength using a 3000 kN capacity concrete compression machine.
3.3. Static and dynamic moduli of elasticity
The static modulus of elasticity was measured on
100  100  500 mm prism specimens according to BS 1881: Part
121 [18]. Strain was measured on two opposite faces of the prisms
where a pair of Demec points was fixed at 200-mm gauge length.
Two specimens were tested at the age of 28 days. The results re-
ported were obtained from the average of the two specimens.
The dynamic modulus of elasticity was performed on the same
specimens prepared for static modulus. As in the case of static
modulus, the test was conducted at the age of 28 days in accor-
dance to BS 1881: Part 209 [19]. The specimen was clamped at
the middle section, and an electro-magnetic exciter was placed
against one end face of the specimen. A pick-up unit was placed
against the other end face of the specimen. The exciter induced
longitudinal vibrations, which were propagated within the speci-
men and received by the pick-up unit. The frequency was varied
until a resonance frequency was obtained, i.e. the lowest frequency

Table 2
Concrete mix proportions and slump values of HSC mixes.

Concrete mix Cement (kg/m3) SCM (kg/m3) Sand (kg/m3) Gravel (kg/m3) Water (kg/m3) SP (kg/m3) Slump (mm)
OPC 450 – 675 1125 126 14 100
SF5 427.5 22.5 675 1125 126 14 200
SF10 405 45 675 1125 126 14 150
SF15 382.5 67.5 675 1125 126 14 90
MK5 427.5 22.5 675 1125 126 14 30
MK10 405 45 675 1125 126 14 20
MK15 382.5 67.5 675 1125 126 14 5
FA10 405 45 675 1125 126 14 180
FA20 360 90 675 1125 126 14 220
FA30 315 135 675 1125 126 14 250
GGBS20 360 90 675 1125 126 14 110
GGBS40 270 180 675 1125 126 14 170
GGBS60 180 270 675 1125 126 14 200
 M.A. Megat Johari et al. / Construction and Building Materials 25 (2011) 2639–2648
of the specimen. Knowing the resonance frequency, the dynamic
modulus was calculated using the following equation:
Ed ¼ 4  n2 L2  q  1015
where Ed is the dynamic modulus of elasticity (GPa), n is resonant
frequency (Hz), L is length of specimen (mm), q is the density of
specimen (kg/m3).
3.4. Porosity and pore size distribution
The porosity and pore size distribution of the high strength
mortars were assessed using the Mercury Intrusion Porosimetry
(MIP) apparatus. Mortar samples obtained by wet sieving of fresh
concrete were used for the measurement of porosity and pore size
distribution. The samples were tested at the age of 28 days. At the
age of testing, cylindrical cores of 20-mm diameter were extracted
from 50-mm thick mortar slabs. The two ends of the cored samples
were cut and discarded to ensure homogeneity of samples and the
remaining piece was cut to about 20 mm long. Before testing, the
samples were dried in an oven at 105 ± 5 °C for 24 h. This removed
volatile materials such as adsorbed water, which evaporate during
the vacuum procedure and may prolong the time to achieve the de-
sired vacuum reading prior to mercury intrusion.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Influence of SCMs on workability of HSC
The results of the slump test are given in Table 2. From the re-
sults, it is clear that the different SCMs used in the concrete mixes
influence the workability of concrete.
The effect of replacing part of the cement with 5% and 10% SF is
that the workability of HSC improves; however, there is a decreas-
ing effect as replacement levels of SF increase from 5% to 10%. On
the other hand, at a higher replacement level of 15%, there is a mar-
ginal reduction in workability compared to the OPC concrete. The
improvement in workability at lower contents of SF could be ex-
plained as due to the combined effect of superplasticiser as well
as the particle characteristic of SF. The superplasticiser improved
workability by dispersing the cement and SF particles through its
adsorption and electrostatic repulsion mechanisms. At the same
time, the SF which is known for its extreme fineness and having
spherical shape could provide additional water reduction through
its potential ball-bearing effect [20], similar to the case of fly ash.
Nonetheless, in the case of SF15 concrete mix, the marginal reduc-
tion in workability could be due to the high content of SF that off-
set the potential water-reducing effect of superplasticiser and SF.
Hence, this seems to suggest that there could be an optimum SF
content which will provide maximum dispersion of cement and
SF, contributing to water reduction and higher workability. Above
this optimum content, the extremely higher fineness of SF will be
dominant, resulting in increase water demand and lower
workability.
In the case of MK concrete, Table 2 shows that there is an enor-
mous reduction in workability, as part of the cement is replaced by
MK. In fact, the results also indicate that the degree of workability
exhibited by the MK concrete mixes range from low to very low as
the replacement level increases. This shows that the addition of
MK significantly increases the water demand of concrete. This
can be attributed to the high surface area of the MK. Although
the MK concrete mixes exhibited a lower degree of workability
compared to the other concrete mixes, compaction of the concrete
was done successfully without any problem. These findings are
generally in agreement with previous findings of others [10]; and
they suggested that the MK imparts some degree of thixotropy to
2641
the concrete. Hence, relatively dry concrete can be induced to flow
and can be fully compacted under vibration.
For the concrete containing FA, there is a significant increase in
ð1Þ workability compared to the OPC concrete; workability increases
consistently with increasing levels of FA replacement. Hence, the
inclusion of FA reduced the water demand of the HSC and lead to
enhanced workability. Since water/binder ratio and superplasticis-
er dosage were kept constant, the inclusion of FA provided a great-
er plasticising effect when compared to the control concrete,
particularly at higher replacement levels. This is due to the spher-
ical shape, smooth glassy texture, and finer particle size distribu-
tion of FA or the ‘ball-bearing effect’ [21]. In addition, the other
probable effect of FA is that it acts like that of a superplasticiser,
through dispersion and adsorption of the FA on the particles of ce-
ment [22]. Nonetheless, the use of FA with high amounts of un-
burned carbon and containing a large fraction of particles coarser
than 45 lm could result in an increase in the water demand of con-
crete [22,23].
The results also portray that concrete containing GGBS exhibits
improved workability compared to the control concrete. Further-
more, as the replacement level increases, there is a significant in-
crease in workability. This is generally in line with previous
finding, although some researchers reported the opposite. Using
constant water/binder ratio and superplasticiser dosage as the con-
trol concrete, Marushima et al. [24] found a marginal increase in
workability for HSC containing 40% of very fine GGBS. In addition,
their results exhibited a reduction in the rate of slump loss for the
GGBS concrete. The improved workability exhibited by the con-
crete containing GGBS could be attributed to better cementitious
particle dispersion and the surface characteristics of the GGBS par-
ticles, which are smooth and dense, and thus absorb little water
during mixing [25].
4.2. Influence of SCMs on compressive strength of HSC
The results reveal that the addition of the different SCMs influ-
ences the compressive strength of the HSC mixes, as given in Ta-
ble 3 and shown in Figs. 1–4. For all the different concrete mixes
prepared, the 28-day cube compressive strength was found to
range between 82 MPa to 118 MPa, as presented in Table 3. The
FA30 and SF15 concrete mixes exhibited the lowest and the high-
est 28-day strength, respectively. Therefore, for all combinations of
cement and mineral admixtures, the target 28-day cube compres-
sive strength in excess of 80 MPa was achieved. In addition, the re-
sults also show that by using the adopted mix proportions and
combination of cement and the different SCMs, OPC content can
be reduced by 60% and 30%, for GGBS and FA, respectively, and
yet 28-day compressive strength comparable to OPC concrete is
still achievable. This could implicate significant materials cost sav-
ing and other technical benefits such as reduced heat development
as well as potential enhancement in durability performance.
Due to the different properties and replacement levels of the
mineral admixtures used, the strength development of the HSC
mixes should be differently affected. For many applications of
HSC, full loads may not be applied for several months after casting,
and therefore the long-term strength is often more important than
the strength at earlier ages. Nevertheless, the rate of strength gain
may be of importance to a construction programme. In addition, in
the precast and pre-stressed concrete industry or when early re-
moval of formwork is required, as well as for certain types of con-
creting work, such as slip forming, the early strength and early
strength development are rather important.
In this investigation, early strength development is considered
from the age of 1 to 28 days, while long-term strength develop-
ment is considered after the age of 28 days up to 1 year. For the
control HSC, the strength development should be principally
2642 M.A. Megat Johari et al. / Construction and Building Materials 25 (2011) 2639–2648

Table 3
Compressive strength of HSC mixes at different testing ages (N/mm2).

Concrete mix 1-day 3-day 7-day 28-day 90-day 180-day 365-day

OPC 43.2 66.4 74.8 86.7 95.6 102.4 105.7
SF5 47.3 74.1 85.9 105.7 115.1 121.7 124.1
SF10 46.9 72.8 86.4 113.9 123.8 126.1 127.5
SF15 46.4 72.4 87.0 117.5 126.9 128.3 129.1
MK5 49.4 70.6 79.0 91.5 99.3 104.0 107.0
MK10 45.3 69.8 83.0 103.7 106.7 107.9 110.0
MK15 42.2 68.0 83.8 103.4 105.4 106.8 109.0
FA10 39.8 62.6 71.7 85.7 97.5 106.0 109.5
FA20 28.9 58.0 69.6 84.3 100.0 109.9 116.8
FA30 20.6 48.6 61.6 82.1 97.9 109.2 117.9
GGBS20 30.9 61.5 79.6 95.3 103.8 109.6 111.2
GGBS40 19.5 51.7 73.9 87.6 99.0 102.9 104.6
GGBS60 2.0 32.2 57.6 86.7 97.7 99.9 102.5

OPC SF5 SF10 SF15 OPC FA10 FA20 FA30

140
Relative Compressive Strength (%)

Relative Compressive Strength (%)

140

120 120

100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0
0
1 10 100 1000
1 10 100 1000
Age (Days) Age (Days)
Fig. 1. Effect of SF on relative compressive strength of HSC.
Fig. 3. Effect of FA on relative compressive strength of HSC.

OPC MK5 MK10 MK15

OPC GGBS20 GGBS40 GGBS60
Relative Compressive Strength (%)

140
Relative Compressive Strength (%)

140
120
120
100
100
80
80
60
60
40
40
20
20
0
0
1 10 100 1000 1 10 100 1000
Age (Days) Age (Days)
Fig. 2. Effect of MK on relative compressive strength of HSC. Fig. 4. Effect of GGBS on relative compressive strength of HSC.

dependent on the rate of OPC hydration. In the case of HSC mixes
containing SCMs, their strength development should be dependent
on the rate of OPC hydration as well as the reaction between the
SCMs and calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2. Therefore, the influence of
the SCMs on the strength development relative to the control
mix could be quantified from the relative strength-time plots.
The influences of each SCM are discussed in detail in the following
sub-sections.
4.2.1. Influence of SF
Table 3 and Fig. 1 show that in comparison to the control mix,
the effect of SF is to enhance the strength of the HSC at all ages.
In fact, the results demonstrate that the inclusion of SF as partial
OPC replacement provided greater strength enhancement than
the other SCMs. The early strength development of the SF concrete
is greater than that of the control. Even at the age of 1 day, the rel-
ative strength of the SF concrete is 109.5%, 108.6% and 107.4% for
SF5, SF10 and SF15, respectively. The greater early strength devel-
opment could be attributed to the combined influence of an accel-
eration in OPC hydration and the ‘‘microfiller effect’’ as part of the
cement was replaced by SF. According to Detwiler and Mehta [26],
due to the extreme fineness, SF particles provide nucleation sites
for calcium silicate hydrate, C–S–H, and Ca(OH)2. In addition, the
ultrafine SF particles act as microfiller, densifying the transition
 M.A. Megat Johari et al. / Construction and Building Materials 25 (2011) 2639–2648
zone, thus, enhancing the matrix-aggregate bond and increasing
the concrete strength [26,27]. Fig. 1 clearly shows that the relative
strength starts to increase significantly after the age of 3 days,
which seems to suggest that the onset of pozzolanic reaction com-
mences from about 3 days. The maximum contribution of SF in
enhancing the strength of the HSC took place between the ages
of 28 and 90 days. The relative strength of SF5, SF10 and SF15 at
28 days was 122%, 131%, and 136%, respectively. This significant
increase in strength could be due to the pozzolanic reaction be-
tween SF and Ca(OH)2 to produce C–S–H. As more Ca(OH)2 is con-
verted to C–S–H, the strength of the concrete will continue to
increase. According to Hanehara et al. [28], the onset of pozzolanic
reaction in a cement-SF system normally takes place after 3–
4 days, and this is confirmed by the results of the present study.
It has also been reported that about 24% of SF by weight of OPC
is required to eliminate the Ca(OH)2 content in the hardened SF-
OPC paste system [20]. Therefore, as presented in Fig. 1, the con-
crete mixes containing SF particularly at higher replacement levels
provided greater strength development due to pozzolanic reaction.
After about 90 days of moist curing, the strength development
seems to reduce, which could be attributed to the depletion of SF.
Although the long-term relative strength of the SF concretes
tends to reduce, the actual strength is still significantly higher than
that of the control mix. The 1-year strength for SF5, SF10, and SF15,
respectively, was 17%, 21%, and 22% higher than that of the OPC
mix. Therefore, between the three replacement levels, the SF15
concrete exhibits a maximum long-term strength. However, the
long-term strength of the SF15 concrete is only marginally higher
than that of SF10.
4.2.2. Influence of MK
In the same manner as with the SF, the general effect of MK is to
improve the strength of the HSC, except for the MK15 concrete at
the early age of 1 day (Table 3 and Fig. 2). For the MK5 concrete, a
maximum relative strength of 114% occurred at the age of 1 day,
which then reduced with curing time to 101% at 1 year. The same
trend was observed by Wild et al. [6], and they attributed the early
enhancement in strength mainly to the initial acceleration in OPC
hydration, an effect that is lost with prolonged curing time. Since
the 5% replacement level is rather small, the dilution effect, filler
effect and contribution by pozzolanic reaction are expected to be
very minimal. Here, dilution effect can be explained by a reduction
in cement content as part of the cement is replaced by MK. As the
replacement level of MK is increased to 10% and 15%, there is a
consistent reduction in relative strength at the early age of 1 and
3 days when compared to those of the MK5 concrete, where a
greater reduction was noticed at higher replacement levels. The
relative strength of the MK10 and MK15 at the age of 1 day is
105% and 98%, respectively. This reduction could be attributed to
the dilution effect as higher amounts of cement are replaced by
MK.
For the concrete containing 10% and 15% MK, the maximum rel-
ative strength takes place between 14 and 28 days of curing time.
This seems to suggest that the maximum contribution by pozzola-
nic reaction for these concrete mixes occurs between the ages of 14
and 28 days. With prolonged curing time, the relative strength de-
creases and tends to approach a constant value after 180 days. At
the same replacement levels, Wild et al. [6] observed a maximum
development in relative strength at an earlier age of between 7 and
14 days, which subsequently reduced with curing time. This differ-
ence could be due to the much lower water/binder ratio, higher
superplasticiser dosage and different type of superplasticiser used
in the present investigation. The results (Table 3 and Fig. 2) also ex-
hibit that the optimum level of MK replacement to produce maxi-
mum long-term strength is about 10%.
2643
4.2.3. Influence of FA
As demonstrated in Table 3 and Fig. 3, the effect of replacing
part of the cement with FA is a reduction in the early strength,
as well as low early strength development of the HSC. At 1 day,
due to a dilution effect, there is a significant reduction in relative
strength, with a greater and consistent reduction at higher replace-
ment levels. However, this strength reduction effect decreases with
curing time. After 28 days of moist curing, the relative strength of
the FA10, FA20 and FA30 concrete was 99%, 97%, and 95%, respec-
tively. Therefore, the FA concrete develops early strength at a
slower rate than the OPC concrete. This can be attributed to the
slower rate of pozzolanic reaction between FA and lime generated
by the OPC hydration. The results obtained here are generally in
agreement with the established effect of FA on the strength of low-
er-strength concrete mixes. Apart from the pozzolanic reactivity of
FA, its chemical and mineralogical composition, fineness, curing
conditions and curing temperature could affect the strength and
other properties of FA concrete [21].
At later ages, the FA concrete mixes exhibit greater strength
development than the OPC concrete as the relative strength contin-
ues to increase with curing times (Fig. 3). This trend is totally in
contradiction with the long-term strength development character-
istics exhibited by the concretes containing SF, despite the higher
actual strength of the SF concretes. After 90 days of curing all FA
concrete mixes show higher strength than the control concrete.
At 1 year, the relative strength of the FA10, FA20 and FA30 was
104%, 111%, and 112%, respectively. Thus, the optimum level of
FA replacement to produce maximum long-term strength was
found to be 30%.
4.2.4. Influence of GGBS
The influence of GGBS is shown in Table 3 and Fig. 4. It is clear
that the inclusion of GGBS also results in a reduction in the early
strength of the concrete. Furthermore, as in the case of FA concrete,
the early strength development of the GGBS concrete is lower than
that of the OPC concrete, particularly at higher replacement levels.
This can be attributed to the dilution effect, as part of the cement
was replaced by GGBS, as well as the slower reactivity of GGBS;
this effect is much more apparent at higher replacement levels.
In addition, for the GGBS60 concrete, the significantly lower 1-
day strength may have also been contributed by the excessive
retardation in setting and hardening of the concrete as previously
observed [7]. The relative strength of the GGBS20, GGBS40 and
GGBS60 at the age of 1 day is 72%, 45% and 4.6%, respectively. At
a 20% replacement level, the GGBS concrete reaches strength great-
er than that of the control specimen after 7 days of curing. A max-
imum relative strength of 110% was achieved at 28 days, which
subsequently reduced with curing time to 105% at 1 year. At higher
replacement levels of 40% and 60%, a longer curing period of
28 days was required for the GGBS concrete to attain strength
greater than or comparable to that of the control specimen. For
both GGBS40 and GGBS60 concrete mixes, a maximum relative
strength of 104% and 102% was achieved at 90 days, respectively,
after which the relative strength exhibited some reduction. The
relative strength at 1 year was 99% and 97% for GGBBS40 and
GGBS60, respectively. Thus, for the GGBS concrete, a maximum
long-term strength was obtained at a replacement level of 20%.
These findings are generally in agreement with previous findings
of others [11].
4.3. Modulus of elasticity of HSC
The results for the measured static and dynamic moduli of elas-
ticity at the age of 28 days are given in Table 4. It is obvious that
the dynamic modulus is greater than the static modulus. Further-
more, it can generally be said that the relative effect of the different
2644 M.A. Megat Johari et al. / Construction and Building Materials 25 (2011) 2639–2648

Table 4 Table 5
Measured static and dynamic moduli of elasticity at the age of 28 days. Measured and predicted static modulus of elasticity (GPa).

Concrete mix Static modulus (GPa) Dynamic modulus (GPa) Concrete mix Measured EC 2 ACI 209 ACI 363 BS 8110
OPC 44.58 50.24 OPC 44.58 42.60 44.99 35.19 40.28
SF5 46.08 53.46 SF5 46.08 46.12 50.32 38.77 43.03
SF10 47.06 54.24 SF10 47.06 47.33 51.30 40.03 44.11
SF15 48.26 54.98 SF15 48.26 48.30 52.77 41.05 44.57
MK5 45.73 52.86 MK5 45.73 43.76 46.12 36.35 41.01
MK10 45.5 51.78 MK10 45.5 45.86 49.14 38.50 42.76
MK15 46.26 52.18 MK15 46.26 45.39 48.40 38.01 42.71
FA10 43.74 49.64 FA10 43.74 42.83 44.54 35.42 40.12
FA20 43.06 48.84 FA20 43.06 42.60 43.98 35.19 39.90
FA30 42.36 48.22 FA30 42.36 41.81 42.51 34.40 39.54
GGBS20 45.04 50.96 GGBS20 45.04 43.78 46.61 36.37 41.57
GGBS40 44.84 49.15 GGBS40 44.84 41.77 43.25 34.36 40.41
GGBS60 43.09 47.56 GGBS60 43.09 40.68 41.84 33.29 40.27
Error coefficient (%) 3.2 5.6 18.7 7.9

80
Static Modulus of Elasticity (GPa)

ACI 209 ACI 363 EC2 Measured

70

Static Modulus of Elasticity (GPa)

Es = 12.184fcu0.287
60 R2 = 0.8517
60
50
50
40
40
30 Es = 9.1fcu1/3
30
20
20
10
10
0
0 50 100 150 0
Compressive Strength (MPa) 0 50 100 150
Compressive Strength (MPa)
Fig. 5. Static modulus of elasticity as a function of compressive strength.
Fig. 6. Comparison between measured and predicted static modulus of elasticity as
a function of compressive strength.
SCMs on the static and dynamic moduli of elasticity of the HSC is
not as significant as their effect on compressive strength, despite
the apparent general trend for higher strength to lead to higher prediction models, such as those described in EC 2 [30], ACI 209
elastic modulus. [31] and ACI 363 [32]. The measured values of static modulus
and those estimated by the different prediction models, as well
as the error coefficients, are given in Table 5. From Fig. 6 and Ta-
4.3.1. Relationship between static modulus and strength
ble 5, it is clear that the EC 2 [30] and ACI 209 [31] models give
The static modulus of elasticity at the age of 28 days is pre-
good estimates of the static modulus, with an error coefficient of
sented as a function of cube compressive strength in Fig. 5. It is
3.2% and 5.6%, respectively. On the other hand, the ACI 363 [32]
obvious that the relationship between static modulus and com-
tends to underestimate the static modulus of elasticity with a
pressive strength is adequately represented by Eq. (2), with a coef-
much higher error coefficient of 18.7%.
ficient of determination, (R2) of greater than 0.85. This shows that
there is strong correlation between compressive strength and sta-
4.3.2. Relationship between dynamic modulus and strength
tic modulus of elasticity.
In Fig. 7, the dynamic modulus of elasticity was plotted as a
Es ¼ 12:184 fc0:287 ð2Þ function of cube compressive strength raised to the power of 0.5.
It is clear that the dynamic modulus of elasticity can be related
where Es is the static modulus of elasticity (GPa), fc is compressive to compressive strength by the following equation:
strength (MPa).
Fig. 5 also shows that the equation given in BS 8110 [29] slightly Ed ¼ 3:57 fc1=2 þ 16:6 ð4Þ
underestimates the static modulus of elasticity of HSC, with a rea-
where Ed is the dynamic modulus of elasticity (GPa), fc is compres-
sonable error coefficient of 7.9% (Table 5). Here, the error coeffi-
sive strength (MPa).
cient was determined as follows:
The coefficient of determination, (R2) obtained for Eq. (4) is 0.92.
0 sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi1
P This high value of R2 indicates that the dynamic modulus of elastic-
1 ðX p  X m Þ2 A
M ¼ 100  @ ð3Þ ity of the HSC can be successfully expressed as a function of cube
Xm n1 compressive strength by Eq. (4). Earlier, Brooks and Wainwright
[33] found that the relationship between dynamic modulus of elas-
where M is the error coefficient (%), X m is average of measured val- ticity and cube strength of HSC with 28 days cube strength ranging
ues, Xp is predicted values, Xm is measured values, n is the number from 74 to 94 MPa, is adequately described by the equation given
of observations. in CP110 [34], which is as follows:
In Fig. 6, the experimental data for the relationship between
static modulus and compressive strength are compared with Ed ¼ 2:8 fc1=2 þ 22 ð5Þ
 M.A. Megat Johari et al. / Construction and Building Materials 25 (2011) 2639–2648 2645

Dynamic Modulus of Elasticity (GPa)

70

Volume of Pores in different

Ed = 3.57fcu1/2+16.6
60

size range (%)

50

40

30
Ed = 2.8fcu1/2+22
20

10

0
0 50 100 150 200
Mortar Mixture
Cube Compressive Strength (MPa)
Fig. 9. Volume of pores in different size range for the different mortar mixtures.
Fig. 7. Measured and predicted dynamic modulus of elasticity as a function of
compressive strength.

Es ¼ 1:25 Ed  19 ð8Þ
The measured values of the static modulus of elasticity at the age of
55
28 days are compared those estimated using Eqs. (7) and (8) in
53 Fig. 8 together with the upper and lower limits (±4 GPa) of Eq.
51 Es = 0.88Ed (8), as given in the Code of Practice. It can be seen that all points fall
Static Modulus (GPa)

49
47
45
43
41
39
37
35
45 47 49
Dynamic Modulus (GPa)
Fig. 8. Relationship between static and dynamic modulus of elasticity.
Consequently, in Fig. 7, the measured dynamic modulus of elasticity
was plotted as a function of cube compressive strength together
with Eqs. (4) and (5). In comparison to the measured values of dy-
namic modulus, Eq. (5) appears to slightly underestimate the dy-
namic modulus of the HSC particularly at the higher range of
compressive strength, with an acceptable error coefficient of 5%.
4.3.3. Relationship between static and dynamic moduli
The relationship between static and dynamic moduli of elastic-
ity is shown in Fig. 8. It is clear that the static modulus of elasticity
could be related to the dynamic modulus of elasticity by Eq. (6) as
follows:
Es ¼ 0:88 Ed
where Es is the static modulus (GPa), Ed is dynamic modulus (GPa).
Here, the coefficient of determination, (R2) yielded a reasonably
high value of 0.83, indicating the potentially significant statistical
correlation between the two elastic moduli. Earlier, Lyndon and
Balendran [35] proposed a relationship between static and dy-
namic moduli of elasticity of plain concrete as given by Eq. (7).
Nonetheless, the equation tends to underestimate static modulus
of elasticity with an error coefficient of 6%.
Es ¼ 0:83 Ed
In BS 8110 [29], a general relation between static and dynamic
moduli of elasticity for concretes containing not more than
500 kg/m3 of cement is given as the following:
within these limits. In addition, the calculated value of error coeffi-
cient for the static modulus of elasticity determined using Eq. (8)
gives a very low value of about 3%. This shows that the equation
can be used to estimate the static modulus from the dynamic mod-
ulus of elasticity of HSC containing SCMs. Nonetheless, the EC 2 rec-
ommends that the elastic modulus should be specifically assessed if
Es = 0.83Ed the structure is likely to be sensitive to deviation from the esti-
mated values [30].
Es = 1.25Ed -19
4.4. Porosity and pore size distribution
51 53 55 57
The summary of the MIP test results, i.e. values of porosity,
median pore diameter, average pore diameter, and total intrusion
volume is tabulated in Table 6. In Table 7, the pore size of the mor-
tars is divided into several ranges of size from <15 nm to greater
than 50 nm to assess the influence of the different SCMs on pore
size distribution. The effect of the SCMs on the porosity, pore size
and pore size distribution of high strength mortar is discussed in
the following sub-sections.
4.4.1. Effect of SCM on porosity and pore size
From Table 6, it is evident that the effect of the SCMs is that
they reduce the porosity of the high strength mortars. In compar-
ison to the OPC mortar, the mortars containing SCMs exhibited a
reduction in porosity of between 9.7% and 37%, with the FA30 and
SF15 showing the lowest and highest reduction, respectively. At
the same replacement levels, SF seems to be more effective in
reducing porosity than MK, while GGBS is more effective than
ð6Þ
FA. Increasing the replacement levels of SF and MK reduces the
porosity of mortar, but the effect of FA and GGBS replacement
levels is rather inconsistent. Table 6 also gives the value of total
intrusion volume for every mortar sample. The total intrusion vol-
ume is independent of the shape and size of the pores; it is the
cumulative volume of all pores in the mortar sample intruded
by mercury, which may give an indication of the porosity of the
sample.
In term of pore size, the general effect of the SCMs is that they
significantly reduce the mean pore size and average pore size of
ð7Þ
the high strength mortars (Table 6). A reduction of between
16.7% to 79% and 41.3% to 80.9% was recorded for the mortars
containing SCMs, for median pore diameter and average pore
diameter, respectively. From the four SCMs, it seems that SF
2646 M.A. Megat Johari et al. / Construction and Building Materials 25 (2011) 2639–2648

Table 6
Summary of test results for pore structure of mortar.

Mortar Porosity Relative reduction Median pore diameter Relative reduction Average pore diameter Relative Total intrusion volume
mix (%) (%) (nm) (%) (nm) reduction (%) (mL/gm)
OPC 13.03 – 37.1 – 35.6 – 0.0585
SF5 9.69 25.6 15.3 58.8 20.9 41.3 0.0437
SF10 8.87 31.9 8.9 76.0 10.7 69.9 0.0405
SF15 8.21 37.0 10.8 70.9 10.2 71.3 0.0376
MK5 9.96 23.6 18.4 50.4 13.1 63.2 0.0448
MK10 9.67 25.8 11.8 68.2 9.0 74.7 0.0475
MK15 9.44 27.6 7.8 79.0 6.8 80.9 0.0430
FA10 11.47 12.0 30.9 16.7 21.7 39.0 0.0517
FA20 11.53 11.5 24.2 34.8 14.4 59.6 0.0525
FA30 11.77 9.7 21.8 41.2 14.3 59.8 0.0549
GGBS20 11.14 14.5 25.2 32.1 19.6 44.9 0.0508
GGBS40 9.03 30.7 25.6 31.0 19.6 44.9 0.0406
GGBS60 9.21 29.3 20.1 45.8 10.6 70.2 0.0424

Table 7
The influence of SCMs on the percentage of volume of pores in the size range of mesopores and macropores.

Mortar mix Volume of pores in different size range (%)

<15 nm Relative increase (%) 15–30 nm Relative increase (%) 30–50 nm Relative reduction (%) >50 nm Relative reduction (%)
OPC 6.15 – 7.35 – 43.25 – 43.25 –
SF5 43.48 607.0 27.00 267.3 18.08 58.2 11.44 73.5
SF10 60.25 879.7 11.85 61.2 7.65 82.3 20.25 53.2
SF15 52.66 756.3 14.63 99.0 9.04 79.1 23.67 45.3
MK5 29.24 375.4 48.21 555.9 14.51 66.5 8.04 81.4
MK10 57.26 831.1 32.63 343.9 4.21 90.3 5.89 86.4
MK15 70.47 1045.9 16.74 127.8 3.26 92.5 9.53 78.0
FA10 9.09 47.8 29.79 305.3 43.33 0.2 17.79 58.9
FA20 25.36 312.4 26.66 262.7 34.89 19.3 13.09 69.7
FA30 27.14 341.3 36.43 395.6 20.22 53.2 16.21 62.5
GGBS20 11.81 92.0 44.88 510.6 24.80 42.7 18.50 57.2
GGBS40 11.58 88.3 46.06 526.7 29.56 31.7 12.81 70.4
GGBS60 36.32 490.6 27.12 269.0 9.67 77.6 26.89 37.8

and MK are much more effective than FA and GGBS in reducing
the pore size of the mortars. This is due to the highly reactive
nature of both materials and their ability to act as filler [20,6].
The MK15 exhibits the smallest median pore diameter and aver-
age pore diameter, albeit it’s higher porosity than SF15. This could
be attributed to the formation of new hydrate phase (gehlenite
hydrate) replacing the tetracalcium aluminate hydrate at higher
MK content, as postulated by Wild et al. [36]. The lower density
gehlenite hydrate could have produced an overall volume in-
crease, filling the pores and thus lead to significant reduction in
pore size. The overall observations that the use of SCMs generally
reduces the pore size are in agreement with previous findings of
others [5,9,37].
4.4.2. Effect of SCMs on pore size distribution
In Table 7, the pores are subdivided into mesopores (<15 nm,
15–30 nm and 30–50 nm) and macropores (>50 nm). It is obvious
that the influence of the SCMs is to shift the distribution of pore
size of the high strength mortars towards a finer distribution.
Again the influence of SF and MK is much more apparent than that
of FA and GGBS. This trend could be clearly observed in Fig. 9.
The volume of mesopores in the ranges of <15 nm and 15–
30 nm is considerably increased, while the volume of mesopores
in the range of (15–30 nm and 30–50 nm), as well as macropores
(>50 nm) is significantly reduced for the mortars containing SCMs.
For the OPC mortar, more than 40% of the pores are in the range of
macropores (>50 nm), while the pores for mortars containing SCMs
consist of only 6–27% of macropores. Hence, there is a relative
reduction of between 38% and 86% in macropores for the mortars
containing SCMs. In the case of mesopores, the mortars containing
SF and MK, as well as the GGBS60, exhibit significant increases
(29–70%) in the percentage of mesopores in the range of <15 nm,
with the MK15 mortar showing the highest increase. The signifi-
cant reduction in volume of macropores and the considerable in-
crease in volume of mesopores as a result the inclusion of the
SCMs could be attributed to the pozzolanic reaction and possibly
the filler effect [26,27] of the SCMs. As a results of the pozzolanic
reaction, the calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) is transformed into sec-
ondary C–S–H gel, whose likely effect is to refine the pore structure
by transforming of coarser pores into finer ones. Owing to the net
reduction in Ca(OH)2 content in the hydrated matrix due to pozzo-
lanic reaction, the volume of continuous capillary pores is propor-
tionally decreased; the higher the Ca(OH)2 content in the hydrated
binder matrix, the higher the volume of continuous pores [38]. In
addition, for the case of MK15 mortar, the huge increase in mesop-
ores in the range of <15 nm could also be attributed to the forma-
tion of greater volume gehlenite hydrate as postulated by Wild
et al. [36]. Several researchers have highlighted the limitations of
the MIP technique in providing accurate or the true pore size and
pore size distribution in cement-based materials. The technique
has been shown to provide much smaller pore size and pore size
distribution than the actual ones due the ‘‘accessibility effect’’ as
not all pores are accessible to and could be intruded by mercury
[39–41]. In addition, the high pressure applied during the mercury
intrusion process could damage the pore walls within the cement
microstructure. Nonetheless, the relative positive influence of the
different SCMs in refining the pore structure of concrete presented
earlier could be realistic as the only parameter investigated is the
inclusion of the different admixtures at varying replacement levels.
In addition, the findings are generally in agreement with most
 M.A. Megat Johari et al. / Construction and Building Materials 25 (2011) 2639–2648
literatures on the general effect of mineral admixtures on pore
structures of concrete [5,9,37]. In general, the reduction in porosity
and the refinement of pore size as a result of the inclusion of the
different SCMs could have significant influence on strength, dura-
bility performance as well as deformation characteristics of con-
crete [5,9,11,12].
5. Conclusions
From the results presented earlier in this paper, the following
conclusions can be made:
1. The use of SF at a replacement level of up to 10% tends to
improve the workability of HSC. From the literature, this sce-
nario has been observed only in concrete produced with low
water/binder ratio in conjunction with the use of superplasticis-
er. The effect of MK is to reduce the workability of HSC with
greater reducing effects at higher replacement levels. The influ-
ence of FA and GGBS on the workability of HSC is the same as
that observed in normal strength concrete, which is to improve
the workability. Greater effects were observed at higher
replacement levels.
2. The inclusion of the different SCMs significantly influences the
compressive strength of the HSC mixes. The effect of SF is to
enhance the compressive strength of the concretes at all ages,
particularly between the ages of 28 and 90 days. Similarly, the
general effect of MK is to enhance the strength of the HSC,
except for the MK15, concrete at the age of 1 day. At a replace-
ment level of 5%, the maximum contribution of MK to the HSC
strength occurs at the age of 1 day, while at higher replacement
levels of 10% and 15%, the maximum contribution to strength
takes place between the ages of 14 and 28 days. Due to the
slower reactivity of FA and GGBS, as well as the dilution effect,
their inclusion reduces the early strength of the concrete, par-
ticularly at higher replacement levels. While the FA enhances
the later age strength of the HSC, the GGBS gives maximum
strength between the ages of 28 and 90 days. For each mineral
admixture, SF, MK, FA and GGBS, maximum long-term strength
was obtained at replacement levels of 15%, 10%, 30% and 20%,
respectively.
3. The general effect of the different SCMs on elastic modulus of
HSC is nominal compared to their effect on strength. The static
modulus of elasticity of the HSC at the age of 28 days can be
expressed as a function of compressive strength. The EC 2 and
ACI 209 models give good estimates of static modulus of elastic-
ity. The equation given in BS8110 tends to slightly underesti-
mate the static modulus of elasticity, while the ACI 363 tends
to underestimate static modulus of elasticity with higher error
coefficient.
4. The dynamic modulus of elasticity of the HSC can be expressed
as a function of the cube compressive strength raised to the
power of 0.5. The general relation between static and dynamic
moduli of elasticity, as given in BS 8110, could be applicable
to the HSC, with or without SCMs.
5. The effect of SCM is to reduce the porosity of mortar measured
using the MIP apparatus, while the mean and average pore sizes
are significantly reduced for all mortars containing SCMs. SF
and MK seem to have greater influences in reducing the poros-
ity and pore size of mortar.
6. The effect of the SCMs is to increase the volume of mesopores in
the ranges of <15 nm and 15–30 nm, but to significantly reduce
the percentage of macropores. The mortars containing SF and
MK, as well as the GGBS60 mortar, show significant increase
in the percentage of mesopores in the range of <15 nm, with
the MK15 mortar exhibiting the greatest increase.
2647
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank the Universiti Sains Malaysia
for providing the financial support while undertaking the research
work.
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