Construction and Building Materials 191 (2018) 619–634

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Effect of nano-clay on workability, mechanical, and durability properties

of self-consolidating concrete containing mineral admixtures
Mir Alimohammad Mirgozar Langaroudi, Yaghoub Mohammadi ⇑
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Ardabil, Iran

h i g h l i g h t s

The addition of nano-clay to self-consolidating concrete mix increased the viscosity and therefore prevented the segregation and bleeding.

Mechanical and more specifically, durability properties of self-consolidating concrete were enhanced with the addition of nano-clay.

Use of by-product mineral admixtures generally enhanced the properties of self-consolidating concrete.

Significant improvements in durability properties were observed with the addition of nano-clay to self-consolidating concretes, containing by-product
mineral admixtures.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The effects of nano-clay (NC) addition on fresh state, mechanical, and durability properties of plain and
Received 13 April 2018 blended cement self-consolidating concrete (SCC) incorporating mineral admixtures as supplementary
Received in revised form 24 September cementitious materials were investigated. Mineral admixtures such as silica fume (SF), class F fly ash
2018
(FA), rice husk ash (RHA), and ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) were used as partial replace-
Accepted 5 October 2018
Available online 15 October 2018
ment of cement. Initially, SCC mixes with 1%, 2%, and 3% NC as cement replacement, by weight, were pre-
pared and the workability properties (i.e. slump flow, T50 and V-funnel flow time, and passing ability
ratio via L-box test), the mechanical properties (i.e. compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, the
Keywords:
Self-consolidating concrete (SCC)
modulus of elasticity and the ultrasonic pulse velocity), and the durability properties (i.e. water absorp-
Nano-clay tion, water penetration depth via water permeability test, electrical resistivity, chloride migration coef-
Mineral admixtures ficient and the time-dependent corrosion current variation via impressed voltage test) were
Workability characteristics determined for evaluating the effectiveness of NC inclusion on characteristics of SCC. According to the
Mechanical properties results, the addition of NC to plain SCC satisfied all the required specifications for SCC as per EFNARC
Durability properties (European Federation for Specialist Construction Chemicals and Concrete Systems). While the addition
of 3% NC by weight of cement improved the durability performance significantly, its effects on mechan-
ical properties were observed to be limited. However, NC replacement dosage of 3%, by weight of cement,
can be considered as the optimal content for SCC in comparison with the NC replacement of 1% and 2%. In
the second step of this experiment, the effects of 3% NC inclusion on properties of blended cement SCC
containing optimum levels of SF, FA, RHA and GGBFS (15%, 30%, 15%, and 45%, respectively, based on lit-
erature) were assessed. The results indicated that by incorporating 3% NC in blended cement SCC, satis-
factory workability and mechanical properties can be achieved. Remarkable enhancements were also
observed in durability properties of blended cement SCC with the presence of NC compared to that of
the reference concretes confirming that a small dosage of NC can effectively be used to make big
improvements in the properties of environmentally friendly SCC mixes.
Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
SCC is a new generation of concrete characterized by its ability
to settle into the heavily reinforced, deep and narrow sections
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: yaghoubm@uma.ac.ir (Y. Mohammadi).
under its own weight without any need for external or internal
vibration and maintain its stability without leading to segregation
and bleeding [1]. The production of SCC is aimed at producing con-
cretes with high strength and durability which can be achieved by
reducing the water/binder ratio and aggregates content and also
the use of high range water reducing agents [2]. Therefore, the
use of higher cement volumes seems to be inevitable. However

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.10.044
0950-0618/Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
620 M.A. Mirgozar Langaroudi, Y. Mohammadi / Construction and Building Materials 191 (2018) 619–634

the massive construction in recent decades which leads to a signif- the date the study has been done. This reveals the necessity of
icant production and consumption cycle of concrete has resulted in investigations that are needed to be carried out in this regard.
some undesirable environmental damaging impacts, causing the
concrete industry to be contradicted by the sustainable develop-
2. Experimental program and test specimens
ment approach [3]. At present, cement industry, more specifically
clinker production, accounts for around 7% of global human-
2.1. Materials used
made carbon dioxide emissions annually [4]. Furthermore, this
process consumes large amounts of energy and also results in con-
Type I Portland cement meeting the requirement of ASTM C150
sumption of very high amounts of raw materials. Therefore, the
was used. The NC used in this study was montmorillonite clay type,
demand for green concrete has encouraged researchers to seek
light yellow in color with purity greater than 95% with a maximum
solutions for producing high-quality concrete with the aim of
size of 1–2 nm. NC particles are typically hydrophilic which make
reducing greenhouse gas emissions, the need for natural resources
them easily dispersible in water without any special treatments
and the necessity for large landfill spaces [5]. In recent years, the
[19,32–34]. Four types of by-product supplementary cementitious
utilization of waste by-products as supplementary cementitious
mineral admixtures; i.e., SF, FA, RHA, and GGBFS were used in this
materials in producing more sustainable concretes has been inves-
investigation. The chemical composition of these materials is out-
tigated. Although, many attempts have been made to evaluate the
lined in Table 1. The particle size distribution curves of used min-
feasibility of producing greener, more sustainable and cost-
eral admixtures are also illustrated in Fig. 1.
effective SCC by the use of by-product additives, there is still a lack
As shown in Table 1, silica content in SF is 91.2% which is clearly
of knowledge in this regard. The use of these by-products can help
higher than the 85% limit based on ASTM C1240. Also, the total
to reduce cement consumption and subsequently reduce cement
amount of silica, alumina, and iron oxide in FA and RHA are
demand. The economic and environmental benefits of using these
91.15% and 91.11%, which clearly exceeds the 70% limit for class
additives have led researchers to look for solutions to get more
N raw and calcined natural Pozzolans, according to ASTM C618.
durable concrete with lower cement content, within a reasonable
A grade 80 GGBFS based on ASTM C989 was used.
cost [6]. But despite the great advantages, not all these additives
The XRD patterns and the SEM micrographs of NC and mineral
improve concrete specifications in all respects, especially at early
admixtures used in this study are shown in Figs. 2 and 3. As can be
ages [7–14]. Today, all concrete technology researchers around
seen, XRD patterns indicate the amorphous feature of SF and RHA.
the world believe that nanotechnology has the potential to create
The intensity peaks identified as quartz are related to 2h angles of
a massive revolution in the world of concrete technology. Because
22° and 27° for SF and RHA, respectively. A series of sharp diffrac-
all the basic parameters in the performance of cement composites
tion peaks identified as mullite, quartz, and minor quantities of
such as rheological, mechanical, and durability properties originate
hematite can be observed in XRD patterns of FA while the main
from its nanostructure [15–18]. One of the types of nano-scale
peak is related to calcite in the case of GGBFS. The XRD patterns
additives that can be useful in this regard is NC. Although, NC is
of NC show diffraction peaks which refer to Montmorillonite and
a general name used for nanoparticles of layered mineral silicates
also demonstrate crystalline phases at 2h angles of 21°, 27°, 37°,
which can be classified into various groups of bentonite, kaolinite,
50°, 60°, and 68° indicating the presence of quartz.
montmorillonite, hectorite, halloysite, and organically- modified
Natural river fine (0–4.75 mm) and coarse (4.75–12.5 mm)
NC based on their chemical compositions and morphology [19].
aggregates meeting the requirements of ASTM C33 standard were
So far, few studies have been conducted on the effect of using NC
used. The sieve analysis and physical properties of aggregates are
on the characteristics of cement composites which declared some
reported in Table 2.
enhancements on the properties of cement pastes and mortars
The essential component of SCC is a chemical composition with
[20–29]. Some authors reported the 1% as the generally optimum
a capacity of high range water reduction which is also known as
level of replacement of NC by weight of cement, while others
superplasticizer (SP) [35]. A F-type Polycarboxylate-based SP in
reported 6%. However, the NC addition was limited up to 2.5% by
conformity with ASTM C494 was incorporated in all mixes to
most of the authors [18]. Montmorillonite is the most common
ensure obtaining desired fluidity and compressive strength. Fur-
NC used in materials applications. It consists of 1 nm thick alumi-
thermore, commercially available viscosity modifying agent
nosilicate layers surface-substituted with metal cations. In existing
(VMA) was used for better consistency. Moreover, the water used
literature, Hakamy et al. [30] reported that the flexural strength
for mixing and curing of all concrete mixes and specimens was
and the fracture toughness of hemp fabric reinforced NC-cement
clean, fresh, and free of any impurities.
pastes containing nano montmorillonite particles were both higher
than those of hemp fabric reinforced cement paste. In another
study by Hakamy et al. [31], the addition of montmorillonite NC 2.2. Mixture details
to 1% by weight showed to decrease the porosity and water absorp-
tion by 31.2% and 34%, respectively and also caused an increase in The experimental work was divided into two phases. In the first
density, compressive strength, flexural strength, fracture tough- phase, the effect of 1%, 2%, and 3% NC addition, by weight of
ness, impact strength and Rockwell hardness by 9.7%, 40%, 42.9%, cement, on SCC properties was investigated. In the second phase,
40%, 33.6%, and 31.1%, respectively, compared to the reference the effect of 3% NC (which can be introduced as the most suitable
cement paste. Material properties and microstructures of Portland replacement ratio among the studied proportions at the first
cement paste with nano-montmorillonite addition investigated by phase) on mechanical and durability properties of SCC containing
Chang et al. [27] revealed that the addition of nano- 15% SF, 30% FA, 15% RHA, and 45% GGBFS as partial replacement
montmorillonite into the cement paste led to some improvements, of cement (by weight) was evaluated. The above contents for SF,
especially in durability parameters. Despite all these researches on FA, RHA, and GGBFS are reported as optimal values of replacement
the effects of NC on properties of cement composites including based on literature [18,36–41]. The water/binder ratio was kept
cement pastes and mortars, there is still a limited knowledge about constant at 0.34 and the binder content was fixed at 500 kg/m3
the effect of these nanoparticles on various concrete specifications. for all mixes. The mixes were designed for a constant slump flow
According to the best of knowledge of authors, no study on the of 70 ± 2 cm. Therefore, several trial mixes were prepared to deter-
effect of NC inclusion on characteristics of SCC when a number of mine the amount of SP and VMA needed to provide the required
by-product mineral admixtures are used has been reported up specifications for SCC as per EFNARC [42] standards. Detailed mix
 M.A. Mirgozar Langaroudi, Y. Mohammadi / Construction and Building Materials 191 (2018) 619–634 621

Table 1
Chemical composition and physical properties of cement and mineral admixtures include NC.

Chemical composition (%) Cement NC SF FA RHA GGBFS

SiO2 20.95 50.95 91.2 53.41 90.38 35.8
Al2O3 4.98 19.60 1.35 24.62 0.42 15.24
Fe2O3 4.09 5.62 2.0 13.12 0.31 0.96
CaO 63.21 1.97 2.42 1.74 1.43 31.53
MgO 1.37 3.29 0.06 1.22 0.67 12.16
SO3 2.27 – 0.45 0.21 0.42 0.97
Na2O 0.48 0.98 – 0.35 0.05 0.53
K2O 0.78 0.86 – 0.72 4.35 0.72
TiO2 – 0.62 – 1.47 – –
MnO – – – 0.1 – –
P2O5 – – – 1.28 – –
Loss on ignition (%) 1.65 15.45 1.3 0.5 0.45 0.41
Physical properties
Particle size 16.03 lm 1–2 nm 1 lm 15.64 lm 14.12 lm 38.36 lm
Specific gravity 3.16 0.7 2.2 2.1 2.15 2.31
Surface area (m2/g) 0.335 265 2.108 0.360 0.412 0.243

continued to blend for another two minutes. Subsequently, half

of the mix water containing the whole amount of superplasticizer
was added, followed by NC solution and a small dose of VMA if it
was needed with the remaining water. Mixing continued for fur-
ther six minutes in order to obtain a homogeneous mixture. In
the second protocol, the NC was mixed with cementitious materi-
als including ordinary Portland cement or a combination of cement
and other mineral admixtures in dry form for two minutes. Then
aggregates were added and the mixing continued for another
two minutes. Then half of the water followed by the mixture of
superplasticiser and a quarter of water was added and mixing con-
tinued for three minutes. Then required VMA with the remaining
water was added and the mix continued to blend for another three
minutes. Performing fresh-state and mechanical experiments on
Fig. 1. Particle size distribution curves of binders.
mixes with 1%, 2% and 3% NC represented the same results from
both methods which demonstrate the proper diffusion of NC parti-
cles in both ways. The following specimens were cast without
compacting for mechanical and durability tests:

1. 100 mm cubes for water absorption test

2. 150 mm cubes for compressive strength and water imperme-
ability test
3. 150  300 mm cylinders for splitting tensile, modulus of elas-
ticity and electrical resistivity test
4. 100  200 mm cylinders for rapid chloride migration test
(RCMT) test
5. 100  200 mm cylinders with a centrally embedded 14 mm
diameter reinforcement steel bar for impressed voltage test.
The steel bar was cleaned with a wire brush before use. The
embedded length of steel bar was set at 180 mm and it was cov-
ered with epoxy on the exit from the concrete to prevent early
corrosion.

Fig. 2. XRD pattern of used NC and mineral admixtures.

After casting, all the specimens were covered with plastic
sheets and remained undisturbed for 24 h in lab conditions. Then,
the specimens were demoulded and immersed in water curing
proportions of each phase are given in Table 3. All the mixes were
tank at approximately 23 ± 2 °C until the date of testing [43].
designed based on the typical range of SCC mix composition pro-
posed by EFNARC committee.

2.3. Sample preparation and casting details
To ensure good dispersion of NC particles, two protocols were
used. In the first protocol, the NC was dispersed within a quarter
of mix water using an ultrasonic Sonicator. The cementitious mate-
rials were fed into the mixer and were mixed for two minutes.
Then fine and coarse aggregates were added and the materials
3. Experimental procedures
3.1. Fresh concrete tests
According to the EFNARC procedure, in a general classification
of consistency, characteristics of fresh mixes can be categorized
as flowability, viscosity, passing ability, and segregation resistance.
The flowability of concrete can be evaluated by slump flow test.
622 M.A. Mirgozar Langaroudi, Y. Mohammadi / Construction and Building Materials 191 (2018) 619–634

Fig. 3. SEM micrographs of used cement, NC, SF, FA, RHA, and GGBFS.

Table 2
Sieve analysis and physical properties of fine and coarse aggregates. 650 mm, 660–750 mm, and 760–850 mm, respectively. Concretes
in these three classes are different in terms of application.
Sieve size (mm) Fine aggregate Coarse aggregate
Although slump flow alone is not a suitable factor to represent
(% Passing) (% Passing)
the fresh properties of SCC, however, if it is kept within a specific
12.5 100 97.1
range, it is possible to evaluate the requirements for self-
9.5 100 76.2
4.75 97.23 9.7 consolidation of mixes [44]. Viscosity can be evaluated by measur-
2.36 72.65 0 ing the time required for the outer edge of the fresh concrete to
1.18 51.23 0 reach 50 cm of slump flow, namely T50, or by the V-funnel flow
0.6 41.48 0 time which is the time taken for the concrete to flow out of a V-
0.3 15.12 0
0.15 2.83 0
shaped funnel. These time values do not measure the viscosity,
0.075 0 0 but they provide a good criterion for comparing the rheological
Physical properties
properties of different mixes. Based on EFNARC, SCC can be classi-
Bulk density (kg/m3) 1463 1455 fied into two major classes, VS1/VF1, which refers to T50  2 s and
Specific gravity 2.63 2.61 V-funnel time 8 s and VS2/VF2, which is related to T50 > 2 s and
the corresponding value for V-funnel time between 9 s and 25 s.
Passing ability is the ability of concrete to flow through confined
spaces and tight openings under its own weight. The test was per-
This test is an important test that is considered as a primary check formed by L-box apparatus and the passing ability can be calcu-
for the fresh concrete consistency to see if it meets the specifica- lated by the following equation:
tion. In terms of fluidity, SCC is divided into three classes namely
Passing ability ¼ H2 =H1
SF1, SF2, and SF3 with slump flow ranges between 550 and

Table 3
Detailed mix proportions.

Mix code Cement NC SF FA RHA GGBFS Sand Gravel Water SP VMA

(kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (%) (%)
Phase I Control 500 – – – – – 1000 800 170 0.7 0.3
NC1 495 5 – – – – 992 793 170 0.8 –
NC2 490 10 – – – – 983 786 170 0.8 –
NC3 485 15 – – – – 975 780 170 0.9 –
Phase II SF15 425 – 75 – – – 984 787 170 0.9 –
SF15NC3 410 15 75 – – – 960 768 170 1.2 –
FA30 350 – – 150 – – 964 771 170 0.4 0.3
FA30NC3 335 15 – 150 – – 940 752 170 0.9 0.3
RHA15 425 – – – 75 – 983 786 170 2.1 –
RHA15NC3 410 15 – – 75 – 959 767 170 2.4 –
GGBFS45 275 – – – – 225 987 789 170 0.7 0.3
GGBFS45NC3 260 15 – – – 225 962 769 170 0.8 –
 M.A. Mirgozar Langaroudi, Y. Mohammadi / Construction and Building Materials 191 (2018) 619–634
where H1 and H2 indicate to the height of fresh concrete behind the
gate and at the end of the box, respectively. SCC passability can be
classified into two classes based on L-box height ratio, PA1 with
passing ability greater than 0.8 and PA2 with a lower passability
less than 0.8. Visual observations during slump flow test and
measuring the T50 time provides additional information on the seg-
regation resistance of concrete [42]. In order to confirm the self-
compactibility properties, slump flow, T50 time, V-funnel flow time,
and L-box blocking ratio tests were performed in accordance with
EFNARC procedure immediately after mixing for all the mixes.
Segregation was also visually checked during the slump flow test.
3.2. Mechanical tests
Mechanical tests including compressive strength, splitting ten-
sile strength and the modulus of elasticity tests were carried out on
specimens to evaluate the effects of NC on mechanical properties
of SCC containing various supplementary cementitious materials.
The compressive strength test was conducted on 150 mm cube at
a loading rate of 2.5 kN/s after measuring the velocity of an ultra-
sonic pulse passing through the specimen. The tests were per-
formed at the ages of 3, 7, 14, 28, and 90 day. the maximum
applied load indicated by the testing machine at failure in splitting
tensile strength test was obtained at the age of 28 days at a loading
rate of 1.2 kN/s based on ASTM C496 [45]. The splitting tensile
strength of cylindrical 150  300 mm specimens can be calculated
as follows:
T ¼ 2P=pld
where T is splitting tensile strength (MPa), P is the maximum
applied load (N), l and d are the length (mm) and diameter (mm)
of the cylindrical specimen, respectively. The modulus of elasticity
was measured at the age of 28 days according to ASTM C469 [46].
The specimens with strain-measuring equipment attached were
placed in compression testing machine in a saturated surface dry
condition and loaded at a rate of 4.25 kN/s. The calculation of the
elastic modulus is as follows:
E ¼ ðS2  S1 Þ=ð2  0:000050Þ
where E is the modulus of elasticity (MPa), S2 is the stress corre-
sponding to 40% of ultimate load, S1 is the stress corresponding to
a longitudinal strain, 1 , of 50 millionths (MPa), and 2 is longitudi-
nal strain produced by stress S2.
3.3. Durability tests
The pore structure of the concrete is strongly affected by the
curing time. As more hydration products are produced at later ages
of curing, especially in binary blended concretes containing differ-
ent mineral admixtures, the durability tests were planned to be
conducted at the age of 90-days to ensure the improvement of
Fig. 4. Rapid chloride migration test setup used in this study: (a) Schematic (b) Actual equipment.
623
hydration process and formation of microstructure in presence of
mineral admixtures in all mixes. Water absorption test was carried
out on 100 mm cubes after 90 days of moisture curing according to
ASTM C642 [47] to measure the volume of permeable voids. The
specimens were oven-dried at a temperature of 100–110 °C to a
constant weight and then allowed to cool back to the room tem-
perature. Then, the specimens were immersed in tap water with
approximate temperature of 21 °C. After 30 min, free water of the
surface of the specimens were removed using a cloth and the
weight was measured. The measured values is used to determine
the initial water absorption. To evaluate the final water absorption,
the weight of the surface dried specimens was measured periodi-
cally every 24 h. When the weight change in two subsequent read-
ing was less than 0.5% of the larger value, the measurement
stopped. Initial and final water absorption were calculated by
dividing the water content of surface dried specimens (after
30 min and after saturation, respectively) by the weight of dried
sample. EN 12390-8 [48] was followed in the evaluation of the
water permeability of specimens. A water pressure of 0.5 N/mm2
was applied on 150 mm cube specimen for a period of 72 h. After
the specified time, the sample was split into two halves and the
water penetration profile on the broken surface was marked. The
maximum water penetration depth was measured in millimeters
and the average of three test results was reported as the water
penetration depth. The four-point Wenner probe was used to mea-
sure the surface electrical resistivity of specimens at 90 days of
curing. This measurement can be used to represent the possible
corrosion activity if the steel is depassivated [49]. A low-
frequency alternating current was applied through two outer
probes and the voltage difference was detected by the inner
probes. Electrical resistivity can be calculated as follows:
q ¼ 2paV=I
where a is the spacing between the probes, V is the voltage differ-
ence, and I is the applied current across the outer probes. The mea-
sured resistance depends significantly on the moisture content of
concrete. Therefore, specimens should be completely saturated
before the test [50]. In order to evaluate the chloride diffusion prop-
erty of concrete, RCMT was conducted on disk specimens, 50 mm
thick and 100 mm in diameter according to NordTest Build 492
(also called NTbuild492) procedure [51]. The schematic and actual
test setup of RCMT are illustrated in Fig. 4.
After preconditioning the specimen with Ca(OH)2 solution in a
vacuum container, it was placed into a rubber sleeve and then
were exposed to 10% sodium chloride (NaCl) solution as catholyte
on one side and a 0.3 M sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution as ano-
lyte on the other side. Based on the quality of concrete, an initial
current was passed through the specimen as a result of applying
an external electrical potential of 30 V. Applied voltage after
adjustment and test duration were obtained from the Table 4 [51].
624 M.A. Mirgozar Langaroudi, Y. Mohammadi / Construction and Building Materials 191 (2018) 619–634

After the test time passed, the sample was axially split into two

I0  360
pieces. 0.1 M silver nitrate (AgNO3) solution was sprayed at the
split surface. After 15 min, the silver chloride precipitates formed

10
6
was measured to determine the penetration depth. Non-steady-
state migration coefficient can be calculated by the following sim-

180  I0 < 360

plified formula, based on NordTest Build 492 procedure:
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi!
0:0239ð273 þ T ÞL ð273 þ T ÞLxd
Dnssm ¼ xd  0:0238
ðU  2Þt U2
24
10

where
120  I0 < 180

Dnssm is non-steady-state migration coefficient, 1012 m2/s; U

denotes absolute value of the applied voltage, V; T is average value
of the initial and final temperatures in the anolyte solution, °C; L
15
24

represents the thickness of the specimen, mm; Xd is average value

of the penetration depths, mm; and t indicates to the test duration,
90  I0 < 120

hour [51]. It is well recognized that the service life of the reinforced
concrete structures is directly affected by the corrosion of steel
reinforcements [52]. Therefore, an accelerated corrosion test tech-
24
20

nique named the impressed voltage test was carried out at the age
of 90 days in order to evaluate the effect of NC on the corrosion
60  I0 < 90

resistance of plain and blended cement concretes. The specimen

was immersed in a 4% NaCl solution and the embedded steel bar
was connected to a positive terminal of a DC power source as the
25
24

anode while the negative terminal was connected to two steel

plates which act as the cathode, placed near the specimen in solu-
40  I0 < 60

tion. The NaCl solution was also used as the electrolyte. A fix ano-
dic potential of 30 V was applied to the system to accelerate the
corrosion procedure. A schematic drawing of the impressed voltage
24
30

test setup is represented in Fig. 5. As can be seen, a data logger was

used to record the variation of the current which was passed
30  I0 < 40

through the specimen with time. When the specimen cracks, a sud-
den increment in time-dependent corrosion current value occurs
35
24

which can be considered as an indicator for cracking [53–55].

20  I0 < 30

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Fresh concrete properties

24
40

Based on EFNARC considerations, a concrete mix can only be

15  I0 < 20

categorized as SCC if it fulfills all the requirements for filling abil-

ity, passing ability, and segregation resistance [56]. Therefore, prior
to doing any other studies, it is necessary to investigate the fresh
24
50

properties of the mixes whether they are within the recommended

values of the used standard. The fresh state properties of all mixes
10  I0 < 15

with typical acceptance criteria for the workability of SCC mixes

based on EFNARC recommendations are presented in Table 5. As
24
60

mentioned previously and can be seen in Fig. 6, the slump flow

diameter was kept in the range of 680–720 mm which is within
5  I0 < 10

the acceptable range of EFNARC. All the mixes can be categorized

as the SF2 class according to EFNARC procedure. Concretes in this
class are suitable for many normal structural applications, e.g.,
48
60
Test voltage and duration for concrete specimen.

walls, and columns [42]. The mix details in Table 3 which have
been achieved based on several trial and error attempts, shows
I0 < 5

96
60

that a dosage of SP was adjusted for each of the mixes in order

to produce a highly flowable SCC with a slump flow in a specified
range of 700 ± 20 mm. For the mix contains RHA, there was a great
Initial current with 30 V (mA)

deal of need to use SP in comparison with the mixes containing

other mineral admixtures. Adding 3% NC to this mix even increased
Test duration t (hour)
Applied voltage U (V)

the requirement for SP by 14.3%. This means that the addition of

RHA significantly reduces the slump flow diameter of fresh SCC.
Based on a similar explanation, the addition of NC and SF also
slightly reduces the fluidity of fresh concrete mixes. Such tendency
is assumed to be caused by the higher surface area of RHA, SF, and
Table 4

especially NC compared to ordinary Portland cement. It seems that

the addition of GGBFS as a partial replacement of cement to the
 M.A. Mirgozar Langaroudi, Y. Mohammadi / Construction and Building Materials 191 (2018) 619–634 625

Fig. 5. The used impressed voltage test setup: (a) Schematic (b) Actual equipment.

Table 5
Fresh properties of mixes.

Mix code Slump flow V-funnel flow time (s) L-box (H2/H1)
D (mm) T50 (s)
Control 700 3.9 8.1 0.91
NC1 700 4 8.8 0.84
NC2 680 4.5 9.4 0.87
NC3 680 4.9 10.6 0.89
SF15 690 3.4 8.1 0.89
SF15NC3 680 3.7 10.1 0.86
FA30 720 2.9 7.6 1
FA30NC3 700 3.4 7.7 0.94
RHA15 680 4.9 12.3 0.82
RHA15NC3 680 6.7 14.6 0.83
GGBFS45 700 3.8 9.1 0.83
GGBFS45NC3 680 4.2 9.8 0.86
EFNARC recommended values for fresh state properties of SCC
Min. 650 2 6 0.8
Max. 800 5 12 1

extent mentioned in this study does not have a significant effect on
the slump flow of SCC. However, the addition of FA reduced the
need for SP. This could be related to the spherical geometry and
smooth surface characteristics of FA particles which led to a phe-
nomenon called lubricating effect. However, slump flow cannot
be considered as an acceptable indicator to characterize the fresh
state behavior of SCC concretes [57].
The relationship between T50 and V-funnel flow time is illus-
trated in Fig. 7. From the results, it can be seen that the T50 values var-
ied in the range of 2.9–6.7 s and the V-funnel flow time varied from
7.6 s to 14.6 s. Therefore, all the mixes except FA30 and FA30NC3 can
be classified into the VS2/VF2 class while the FA30 and FA30NC3 lie
within the ranges of VS2/VF1 class based on EFNARC.
From the results, the lowest V-funnel flow time of 7.6 s was
measured for FA30 mix while the RHA15NC3 had the highest V-
funnel flow time of 14.6 s. The green area in Fig. 6 shows the
EFNARC recommended range for viscosity. As can be seen, RHA15
and RHA15NC3 mixes exceeded the upper limits of acceptable V-
funnel values. RHA15NC3 also exceeded the recommended range
for the T50 time. As T50 and V-funnel have used by many research-
ers as an indicator of viscosity, therefore the viscosity of these two
mixes seems to be more than appropriate values. Therefore, it can
be concluded that the addition of both RHA and NC contributes to
increase the viscosity of concrete mixtures. It also can be con-
cluded that no VMA is expected to be needed in the fabrication
of RHA15 and RHA15NC3 mixes. This was previously noted in
Table 2 based on the results obtained from conducting several
experimental attempts. Although all the mixes did not fulfill the
requirements of EFNARC, however, they all filled the moulds with
their own weight without any need for vibration. From the results,
it also can be observed that there is an acceptable meaningful lin-
ear relationship (R2 = 0.9477) between T50 and V-funnel flow time
in Control, NC1, NC2, and NC3 mixes. According to Fig. 7, increased
T50 of the binary blended cement mix containing different dosages
of NC (red dots in the graph) resulted in an increase in V-funnel
flow time. A number of relationships between T50 and V-funnel
in binary blended cement concretes containing different portions
of mineral admixtures was reported by other researchers [44,57].
The L-box test results indicate the passing ability of SCC. The
L-box values of all mixes are presented in Fig. 8. From the results,
the blocking ratio for different mixes varied between 0.82 and 1
which is in an acceptable range for SCC with regard to passing
ability based on EFNARC.
The visual appearance of flow spread of a fresh mix is shown in
Fig. 9(a). Based on visual inspection for the segregation resistance,
no evidence of segregation and slight bleeding was observed in
slump flow test and generally, a VSI of 0 was observed for all the
mixes which indicates to a desirable stability. The correctness of
this conclusion can be verified by observing the distribution of
aggregates in broken splitting tensile test specimens. Fig. 9(b)
represents broken surfaces of a specimen after the splitting tensile
test was conducted. As can be seen, a uniform distribution of
aggregates was observed which is in an agreement with the results
obtained from the slump flow test.
626 M.A. Mirgozar Langaroudi, Y. Mohammadi / Construction and Building Materials 191 (2018) 619–634
Fig. 6. Slump flow values of all mixes.
Fig. 7. The relationship between T50 and V-funnel flow time.
Fig. 8. The L-box blocking ratio for different mixes.
Fig. 9. The visual appearance of: (a) a SCC mix during slump flow test, (b) Broken surfaces of a specimen from the same mix after the splitting tensile test was conducted.
4.2. Hardened concrete properties
The hardened properties of concrete including mechanical
properties, durability properties, and corrosion behavior were
evaluated. Although the fresh properties of some mixes did not
meet the requirements proposed by EFNARC, the hardened con-
crete tests were conducted on all mixes since they were moulded
by their own weight without the need for mechanical compaction.
4.2.1. Compressive strength
The compressive strengths of control and binary blended Port-
land cement SCC containing different portions of NC at 3, 7, 14,
28, and 90 days are shown in Fig. 10. The results show that the
compressive strength of SCC mixes increased with increasing NC
content at all test ages. The 28-days compressive strength of con-
trol mix was 49.2 MPa, while the 28-days compressive strength
of NC3 mix was almost 10.8% higher than that of the control mix.
The same trend was observed for 90-days compressive strength
with an increment of 8.5%. The enhancement in compressive
strength can be justified by seeding effect and filler effect due to
the high specific surface area and the fineness of NC particles,
respectively [58]. A pronounced pozzolanic effect in the case of
montmorillonite NC was also reported in the literature [27]. SEM
micrographs of plain and NC blended cement pastes at 28 days
are presented in Fig. 11. As can be seen, NC inclusion caused to a
denser microstructure comparing with the control mix. The accel-
eration of hydration process in the presence of NC is also evident
from the graphs. As shown in Fig. 10, the use of NC increased the
early age strength (3-days to 14- days) of SCC as well as its
Fig. 10. The compressive strength of plain and NC blended cement SCC at different
ages.
 M.A. Mirgozar Langaroudi, Y. Mohammadi / Construction and Building Materials 191 (2018) 619–634
Fig. 11. SEM micrographs of plain and NC blended cement pastes at 28 days of curing.
Fig. 12. The compressive strength of control and binary blended cement SCC
containing mineral admixtures with/without NC.
long-term strength (28-days to 90-days). But the rate of strength
gain is more significant in the first 14 days which is probably due
to the rapid consumption of Ca(OH)2 formed during hydration of
Portland cement because of the high reactivity of NC particles.
These observations are in agreement with the results obtained
elsewhere from the evaluation of cement composites properties
in presence of NC [59].
The compressive strength of control, binary blende cement con-
cretes containing 15% SF, 30% FA, 15% RHA, and 45% GGBFS and
ternary mixes with 3% NC inclusion at various ages is presented
in Fig. 12. As expected, the compressive strength of SCC containing
SF at 15% cement replacement level was higher than control mix at
all ages. This enhancement was observed about 16.9% and 17% at
the age of 28 and 90-days, respectively. While replacing cement
with FA and RHA as much as indicated before, led to a slight
decrease in the compressive strength compared to that of the con-
trol mix, the use of GGBFS induced a notable decrease in compres-
sive strength regardless of the age of the specimens. The observed
627
remarkable decrease may be related to the high particle size of
used GGBFS which can reduce its chemical reactivity due to its
low specific surface area.
Addition of 3% NC to the binary blended cement mixes contain-
ing 15%SF, showed an increase of about 5.9% in compressive
strength at 28-days while, the addition of 3% NC to FA30, RHA15,
and GGBFS45 increased the compressive strength by 8.7%, 7.2%,
and 15.9%, respectively, at the same age. At the age of 28 days,
FA30NC3 and RHA20NC3 mixes had generally comparable strength
values to that of the control mix. However in the case of
GGBFS40NC3 mix, it appears that beneficial effects due to the addi-
tion of NC to the mix were not able to increase the compressive
strength to a value close to the compressive strength of the control
mix.
4.2.2. Splitting tensile strength
Fig. 13 shows the 28-days tensile strength of all the mixes. As
can be seen, the splitting tensile strength increased with an
increase in NC content that the highest increase was observed
about 18.5% for 3% NC addition. From the results, the addition of
15% SF and 15% RHA resulted in a 24.9% and 1.5% increase in split-
ting tensile, respectively, compared to normal SCC. However, the
addition of 30% FA and 45% GGBFS showed a decrease in tensile
strength of 8.3% and 31.7%, respectively. All the mixes containing
SF, FA, RHA, and GGBFS show an enhancement by adding 3% NC.
The maximum increase was about 8.7% related to FA30NC3. Tensile
strength increase in RHA20NC3, SF15NC3, and GGBFS40NC3 was
observed about 6.4%, 2.7% and 0.9%, respectively.
The relationship between splitting tensile (f t ) and compressive
strength (f cy ) for all SCC mixes is presented in Fig. 14, Where f cy is
the cylindrical compressive strength which was obtained from the
cube compressive strength by applying a suitable conversion coef-
ficient for SCC concretes [60]. The results indicates that the tensile
strength values of all the SCC mixes lies within the suggested
ranges for ordinary concrete [61]. As can be seen, the proposed
CEB-FIP [61] mean values for tensile strength of normal concretes
628 M.A. Mirgozar Langaroudi, Y. Mohammadi / Construction and Building Materials 191 (2018) 619–634
Fig. 13. Splitting tensile strength of all mixes.
Fig. 14. The relationship between the splitting tensile and cylindrical compressive
strength for all mixes at 28-days.
showed higher values than the obtained values for SCC which is in
agreement with those reported by other researchers [62].
4.2.3. Modulus of elasticity
Modulus of elasticity is mainly related to the compressive
strength of concrete [36]. Many expressions have been proposed
to predict the modulus of elasticity of conventional concrete by
means of its compressive strength [61,63]. Therefore, a simi-
lar behavior to the compressive strength can be expected for the
modulus of elasticity. The modulus of elasticity of all the mixes
is shown in Fig. 15.
The results clearly showed that the modulus of elasticity of SCC
increased with an increase in NC content. Moreover, the addition of
15% SF showed an increase of 11.4%, while the incorporation of FA,
RHA and GGBFS to the specified values led to a decrement of 11.7%,
2.2%, and 22.5%, respectively. The addition of 3% NC to SF15, FA30,
RHA15, and GGBFS45 mixes also increased the elastic modulus by
0.8%, 7.7%, 5.4%, and 2%, respectively. The relationship between the
modulus of elasticity and compressive strength for all mixes at
28-days is presented in Fig. 16. Additionally the correlation
between modulus of elasticity and compressive strength for stan-
dard vibrated conventional concrete according to ACI 318[63],
CEB 1997 [61], and EHE 08 [64] are shown.
According to the results, the elastic modulus of all mixes coin-
cided well with the same properties of conventional concrete
Fig. 15. 28-days modulus of elasticity of all mixes.
Fig. 16. The relationship between the modulus of elasticity and cylindrical
compressive strength for all mixes at 28-days in comparison with ACI 318, CEB
1997, and EHE 08 codes.
based on ACI 318 for a constant strength. But the values obtained
from the proposed relationships of CEB 1997 and EHE 08 showed
that for a given strength, the modulus of elasticity of conventional
concrete is higher than that of SCC mixes. These two different con-
clusions can be found in the previous studies [57].
4.2.4. Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV)
Fig. 17 represents the relationships between UPV values and
compressive strength for different groups of mixes at different
ages. The values ranged from 4051 to 5185 m/s at 28-days. The
mix with 45% GGBFS showed the lowest velocity and the highest
velocity value was observed in the mix with 15% SF and 3% NC.
Whitehurst [65] presented a proposed classification for evaluating
the quality of concretes based on the results of UPV test. Accord-
ingly, concretes were classified as excellent, good, doubtful, poor,
and very poor for the velocity values of 4500 m/s and above,
3500–4500 m/s, 3000–3500 m/s, 2000–3000 m/s, and 2000 m/s,
respectively. Based on the UPV values at 28-days, all concrete
mixes were assessed as excellent and good In terms of quality.
4.2.5. Water absorption
Water absorption can be considered as a criterion of the poros-
ity of hardened concrete and mainly is affected by the paste phase
[66]. Actually, the absorption value of a concrete mix is directly
dependent on the extent of interconnected capillary porosity in
the paste [36]. The 90-days initial and final water absorption val-
ues for all mixes are presented in Fig. 18.
 M.A. Mirgozar Langaroudi, Y. Mohammadi / Construction and Building Materials 191 (2018) 619–634
Fig. 17. The relationships between UPV value and compressive strength at different ages.
Fig. 18. 90-days initial and final water absorption values for all mixes.
From the results, it can be seen that the incorporation of NC
reduced the values of water absorption in both initial and final
stages. This might be due to the improvements in microstructure
caused by NC inclusion which can lead to a denser matrix with
lower amount of interconnected voids. The addition of NC to 1%,
2%, and 3% by weight, reduced the initial water absorption of spec-
imens by 60.4%, 40.6%, and 65.6%, while the final water absorption
of the same specimens was decreased by 20.2%, 11%, and 53.2%,
Fig. 19. 90-days water penetration depth for all mixes.
629
respectively. The water absorption of NC2 was observed to be
higher than NC1 and NC3 which is similar to the results reported
by N. Farzadnia et al [67] in the case of mortars. It was stated that
more water absorption of mortars containing 2% halloysite NC may
be due to higher shrinkage after being oven dried as they
entrapped more water. The generalization of this conclusion also
seems to be reasonable for concretes. The initial and final absorp-
tion values of SCC showed a decrease with incorporating 15% SF
and 15% RHA by 36.3% and 7.5% for initial absorption and 47.8%
and 7.5% for final absorption, respectively. However, the addition
of 30% FA, and 45% GGBFS showed an increase in initial absorption
by 11.32%, and 47.2% while the final absorption values increased by
5.91%, and 30.91%, respectively. The addition of NC to all binary
mixes significantly reduced the water absorption, both in initial
and final stages.
4.2.6. Water penetration test
Permeability can be considered as one of the main factors of
concrete durability. low permeability concretes show better resis-
tance to chemical attack [36]. Fig. 19 presents the water perme-
ability of all mixes based on the penetration depth. In general,
the water permeability test results confirm the trends observed
in the results of the water absorption test.
The incorporation of NC to 1% and 2% by weight, reduced the
water penetration depth by 42.9% while a decreased penetration
depth by 64.3% was obtained in NC3 mix. The mixes with 15%SF,
30%FA, and 15%RHA had a lower water penetration depth while
Fig. 20. The electrical resistivity of all mixes at 90-days.
630 M.A. Mirgozar Langaroudi, Y. Mohammadi / Construction and Building Materials 191 (2018) 619–634

the mix with 45%GGBFS showed to increase the penetration depth

by 28.6% when compared to that of the control concrete. This could
be due to the low degree of reactivity of GGBFS, providing lower
development of microstructure in 45% of replacement in compar-
ison with the other used mineral additives. Incorporation of NC
in all binary blends of used mineral admixtures provided better
performance and resulted in a considerable lower water perme-
ability especially for GGBFS45NC3.

4.2.7. Electrical resistivity

The electrical resistivity measurement of SCC mixes was carried
out, using Wenner probe method at the age of 90-days. According
to the results presented in Fig. 20, the addition of NC increased the
electrical resistivity of SCC mixes at 90-days of curing. The
enhancement of electrical resistivity was 122.1%, 96.7%, and
189% in NC1, NC2, and NC3 mixes, respectively, in comparison with Fig. 21. The relationship between electrical resistivity and water penetration depth
the control mix. Nano-montmorillonites form ordered arrays in the for all mixes.
microstructure of cement matrix which is due to the high aspect
ratio and high surface activity of nanoparticles [20]. Such ordered
array acts as a dense barrier as well as fiber reinforcement which
can results in a decrease in permeability and therefore an increase
in electrical resistivity [59].
From the results, NC2 mix produced almost the same compres-
sive strength at 90-days when compared to NC3 mix while a signif-
icant difference was observed in the electrical resistivity values for
these mixes at the same age. This finding indicates that, generally,
there is no expected direct correlation between the compressive
strength and electrical resistivity of the mixes. This might be due
to the effects of pozzolanic reactions on reducing the interconnec-
tivity of pore structure of the matrix, whereas this parameter does
not affect the mechanical properties. The electrical resistance is also
considerably related to the chemistry of pore structure which is
also affected by the pozzolanic reactions while the pore solution
chemistry has no effect on the strength properties of concrete
[68]. The strength of interlayer transition zone (ITZ) is one of the
Fig. 22. Chloride migration coefficient of concrete specimens at the age of 90-days.
main factors of compressive strength that has no considerable
effect on concrete resistivity [69]. Similar trends were also reported
concretes with different cementitious materials which directly
by other researchers [68,70]. From the results, the utilization of all
affects the electrical resistivity.
by-product mineral additives substantially increased the electrical
resistivity. But the effect of SF on increasing the electrical resistivity
was considerably higher than that of FA, RHA, and GGBFS. More- 4.2.8. Rapid chloride migration test (RCMT)
over, ternary mixes containing 3% NC showed a noticeable enhance- As mentioned before, the non-steady-state chloride migration
ment in electrical resistivity comparing to corresponded non-nano coefficient of concrete specimens can be calculated based on
mixes. A classification can be performed based on the existing rela- NordTest Build 492 procedure by means of the results obtained
tionship between the electrical resistivity of concrete and the corro- from the RCMT test. Fig. 22 presents the results of the RCMT test
sion rate of steel reinforcement, shown in Table 6 [71]. at the age of 90-days. From the results, the use of NC decreased
As can be seen, GGBFS45 and the control mix were classified as penetration of chloride ions into the concrete at 90-days and thus
‘‘Low to moderate”, while the other mixes showed to have more the resulting mix achieved lower chloride migration coefficient in
resistivity against corrosion and lay in ‘‘low” corrosion rate class. comparison with the control mix. The chloride migration coeffi-
From the results, there is an appropriate power relation with a cient for concrete containing 3% NC had the lowest value of
level of agreement of R2 = 0.95 between electrical resistivity and 1.84  1012 m2/s which refers to higher resistance against
water penetration depth for all mixes with different cementitious chloride penetration.
materials which is illustrated in Fig. 21. Although This is not a At 90 days of aging, the mixes with SF, FA, and RHA mineral
comprehensive conclusion and cannot be expected for concretes additives showed lower migration coefficient values compared to
containing other additives without conducting proper investiga- that of the control concrete. This can be explained at least partially
tions, however, Similar results were reported by other researchers by the effects of pozzolanic materials inclusion on the connectivity
[69]. This uncertainty is related to the different pore solutions in of porosity of matrix. Consumption of calcium hydroxide causes by
the pozzolanic reaction of mineral additives with cement leads to
Table 6 an increase in tortuosity and OH reduction in the pore solution.
The relationship between concrete resistivity and corrosion Consequently, the conductivity and the penetration of chloride
rate of steel reinforcement.
ions decrease [72,73]. The migration coefficient value of GGBFS45
Corrosion rate Electrical resistivity (kO cm) was obtained 14.5% higher than that of the control concrete. Higher
Low >20 particle size and lower specific surface area of used GGBFS in com-
Low to moderate 10–20 parison with cement can decrease its degree of pozzolanic reactiv-
High 5–10 ity comparing other used admixtures. Generally, the RCMT results
Very high <5
confirmed the results obtained from water permeability and
 M.A. Mirgozar Langaroudi, Y. Mohammadi / Construction and Building Materials 191 (2018) 619–634
Table 7
Concrete resistance against chloride penetration based on Dnssm according to NTbuild
492.
Chloride penetration resistance of concrete Dnssm (1012 m2/s)
Low >15
Moderate 10–15
High 5–10
Very high 2.5–5
Extremely high <2.5
electrical resistivity tests. As was expected, the ternary mixes with
NC exhibit considerably higher resistance to chloride penetration,
showing the beneficial use of NC particles on enhancing the dura-
bility properties of concretes with partial replacement of cement
by mineral additives. Table 7 represents a classification of the chlo-
ride penetration resistance of normal weight concrete based on the
chloride migration coefficient obtained from RCMT test. From the
results, the mixes NC3, SF15, and SF15NC3 showed the highest
degree of resistance to chloride penetration while the control and
GGBFS45 mixes showed that they are not suitable to be used in
aggressive environments.
Fig. 23 Shows that there is a linear relationship with a strong
level of agreement of R2 = 0.94 between the chloride migration
coefficient and initial current for all mixes. A similar trend was
observed by other researchers for mixes with different cementi-
tious materials with a constant water/binder ratio [73].
As presented in Fig. 24, the electrical resistivity of all mixes also
revealed to has an acceptable relationship with the chloride migra-
tion coefficient with R2 = 0.94. The electrical resistivity of concrete
represents the movement of ions through pore solution. Therefore,
Fig. 23. The relationship between the chloride migration coefficient and initial
current for all mixes.
Fig. 24. The relationship between the chloride migration coefficient and electrical
resistivity for all mixes.
631
a relationship between electrical resistivity and RCMT results is
expected. Since the chloride migration coefficient is a major indica-
tor of concrete durability, the electrical resistivity seems to be an
easy, fast and also accurate way for evaluating the durability of
concrete.
4.2.9. Impressed voltage test
Concrete deterioration due to reinforcement corrosion is proba-
bly the most important issue in the durability of reinforced con-
cretes [54]. Type and condition of steel bars, thickness, and
quality of concrete cover and the electrochemical conditions of
the reinforcement in contact with the solution, paste, mortar or
concrete were reported to be among the factors that influence
the performance of reinforced concrete against corrosion of
embedded bars [74–77]. Therefore, the quality of concrete is of
particular importance when conventional rebars are used and the
thickness of the cover is in a common range. The accelerated cor-
rosion behavior of steel bars embedded in plain and blended
cement SCC was studied. Impressing a constant anodic potential
of 30 V leads to accelerating the corrosion process of the steel
bar in the specimen. The volume of corrosion products (rust) is
2.5–6 times bigger than the volume of the steel. Therefore, these
products cause a big tensile stress that makes the specimen to be
cracked and damaged [55,78]. Fig. 25 represents the view of dam-
aged specimens after the termination of the test.
When the specimen cracks, an immediate increment in corro-
sion current is observed. Therefore, time of deterioration can be
obtained from the time-dependent corrosion current graph. The
change in corrosion current with respect to time in normal and
blended cement mixes containing nanoparticles is illustrated in
Figs. 26–28.
From the results, a visible decrease in initial current was
observed for the mixes containing NC. This can be explained by
the lower permeability of nano-containing concretes which led to
a decrease in initial corrosion current. As seen in Figs. 26–28, the
deterioration occurrence time extended with increment in nano
content in a way that the deterioration occurrence time for NC1,
NC2, and NC3 revealed an increment of 24.8%, 43.3%, and 77.1%,
respectively, in comparison with normal SCC. In Figs. 27 and 28,
the variations of corrosion current with respect to time for SF15,
RHA15, FA30, and GGBFS45 are represented. The time-dependent
corrosion current graphs for ternary mixes containing 3%NC are
also illustrated in order to be properly compared with the corre-
sponding mixes without NC. As can be seen, the deterioration
occurrence time was increased by incorporating of SF, RHA, and
FA mineral additives by 136.3% and 12.7%, and 2.5%, respectively,
while GGBFS showed to cause a decrease by 22.3%, compared to
the control mix. Also, it can be observed that the addition of 3%
Fig. 25. The view of deteriorated specimens after the impressed voltage test.
632 M.A. Mirgozar Langaroudi, Y. Mohammadi / Construction and Building Materials 191 (2018) 619–634
Fig. 26. The change in corrosion current with respect to time in normal, NC1, NC2,
and NC3 mixes at 90 days of aging.
Fig. 27. The change in corrosion current with respect to time in normal, SF15,
SF15NC3, RHA15, and RHA15NC3 mixes at 90 days of aging.
Fig. 28. The change in corrosion current with respect to time in normal, FA30,
FA30NC3, GGBFS45, and GGBFS45NC3 mixes at 90 days of aging.
NC, extended the deterioration occurrence time considerably. From
the results, the longest deterioration occurrence time was
observed for the mix SF15NC3 which was 174.5% longer than that
of the control mix. This suggests that the use of a small dosage of
NC to 3% can effectively reduce the corrosion rate of the reinforce-
ment in structures exposed to corrosive environments.
5. Conclusion
This study was carried out to investigate the effects of NC par-
ticles on fresh state behavior, mechanical and durability properties
of plain and blended cement SCC containing SF, FA, RHA, and
GGBFS as partial replacement of ordinary Portland cement. The fol-
lowing conclusions can be drawn according to the results of this
experimental work:
1. By keeping the water/binder ratio constant and adjusting the
slump flow at the range of 700 ± 20 mm by using various
dosages of SP, the addition of NC increased the viscosity of
concrete and thus prevented the segregation and bleeding of
fresh mixes without any need for VMA. Adding different types
of mineral admixtures showed to have reduced and incremental
effects on the viscosity of mixes while the addition of NC caused
to increase the viscosity of blended cement mixes. Fulfilling the
passing ability criteria, all the mixes could not fulfill the
requirements of EFNARC in the case of filling ability. However,
all the mixes filled the moulds by their own weight without
the need for mechanical vibration.
2. The addition of NC enhanced the mechanical properties of SCC
mixes, especially at the early ages. The 90-days compressive
strength, tensile strength, and the modulus of elasticity of all
blended cement mixes containing SF, FA, RHA, and GGBFS in
presence of NC revealed to have a limited increase in compar-
ison with the mixes without nano content. Conducting ultra-
sonic pulse velocity test confirmed that by the use of
mentioned mineral admixtures and NC, very high-quality SCC
can be achieved.
3. The incorporation of NC has generally reduced both the water
absorption and penetration depth which was in agreement with
the results obtained from conducting electrical resistivity test
on the same mixes. The addition of SF, FA, and RHA caused to
a decrease in absorption and permeability of SCC while the
addition of GGBFS showed to lead to an increase in the same
parameters compared to the control mix. Based on the relation-
ship between concrete resistivity and corrosion rate of steel
reinforcement suggested by Broomfield, all the mixes except
the control mix and GGBFS45 were classified as concretes with
low corrosion rate while the control mix and GGBFS45 revealed
to have higher corrosion rate, classified as low to moderate.
Based on the results obtained from RCMT test, NC inclusion
decreased the penetration of chloride ions into the concrete
matrix which causes a lower chloride migration coefficient.
Except for the control and GGBFS45 mixes with ‘‘Low” resis-
tance against chloride penetration, the remaining mixes exhib-
ited a ‘‘High” to ‘‘Extremely high” resistance against the
penetration of chloride ions. By applying an accelerated corro-
sion setup, almost a similar trend to the RCMT test results
was observed which the specimens with higher chloride migra-
tion coefficient mostly needed for a longer time to corrosion
cracking. The GGBFS45NC3 was expected to last for more time
based on RCMT test results compared to control mix. Lower
deterioration occurrence time for GGBFS45NC3 may be related
to its lower tensile strength in comparison with control mix
which can lead to an earlier cracking.
In general, the use of NC showed to improve the characteristics
of SCC mixes, especially in terms of durability. Therefore, the use of
small amount of NC for making big changes in properties of
blended cement SCC mixes in order to achieve an environmentally
friendly concrete seems to be reasonable.
Conflict of interest
The authors declared that there is no conflict of interest.
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