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Utilization of high-volume treated palm oil fuel ash to produce sustainable

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DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.07.133

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 Journal of Cleaner Production 137 (2016) 982e996

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Utilization of high-volume treated palm oil fuel ash to produce

sustainable self-compacting concrete
Belal Alsubari a, Payam Shafigh b, *, Mohd Zamin Jumaat a
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
b
Department of Building Survey, Faculty of Built Environment, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Palm oil fuel ash is a supplementary cementitious material (SCM) generated from the combustion of
Received 13 January 2016 palm oil fibers and shells in palm oil mills to produce electricity, and One approach to reduce the carbon
Received in revised form dioxide emissions and increase the sustainability of concrete by substitute a significant amount of or-
20 July 2016
dinary Portland cement (OPC) with it. This study conducted laboratory investigations to evaluate the use
Accepted 21 July 2016
Available online 25 July 2016
of high-volume treated palm oil fuel ash (T-POFA) in producing economical and eco-friendly self-com-
pacting concrete (SCC). The concrete mixtures were prepared with 0%, 50%, 60% and 70% replacement (by
mass) of OPC with T-POFA at a constant water/binder ratio of 0.35. Self-compactability testing methods
Keywords:
Concrete cost
were also employed to evaluate the fresh properties of SCC. Compressive strength and drying shrinkage
Greenhouse gases tests were performed and investigated for up to 6 months and 1 year, respectively. An acid attack
Self-compacting concrete resistance test was also conducted on the concrete specimens. Results show that the substitution of OPC
Sustainability: treated palm oil fuel ash with high-volume T-POFA can improve the fresh properties of concrete. At an early age, SCCs containing
50%e70% T-POFA have lower compressive strength than the control SCC mix containing 100% OPC.
However, the concrete specimens attained a compressive strength equivalent to that of the control at an
age of 28 days and an even higher compressive strength at later ages. The specimens containing high-
volume T-POFA have lower drying shrinkage and exhibited better performance against aggressive
chemical attack. Cost analysis and carbon dioxide (CO2) emission calculation showed that the T-POFA
concrete specimens have 8%e12% lower cost and up to 45% lower CO2 emission than the control SCC mix.
The results suggest that T-POFA can be utilized as a cement replacement up to 70% in SCC to produce
low-cost and sustainable concrete.
© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction 2008). Globally, 40% of the energy consumption is attributed to

After water, concrete is the most widely used construction
material in the world (Gambhir, 2004), with a worldwide con-
sumption rate of around 25
109 metric tons (25 gigatons) per year
and an annual cement usage of about 3.3 billion tons (Celik et al.,
2015). Cement production processes contribute about 7% of the
global CO2 emissions, which cause environmental and greenhouse
gas problems (Bouzoubaa and Lachemi, 2001; De Schutter et al.,
Abbreviations: POFA, palm oil fuel ash; G-POFA, ground palm oil fuel ash; T-
POFA, treated palm oil fuel ash; SF, Slump flow; JF, J-ring flow; GCR, reduction in
compressive strength reduction; ML, mass loss; Tv, V-funnel flow time; T50cm, T50cm
flow time.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ60 172437383; fax: þ60 379675318.
E-mail addresses: belalalsubari@gmail.com (B. Alsubari), pshafigh@gmail.com
(P. Shafigh), zamin@um.edu.my (M.Z. Jumaat).
building operations, which contributes 40% of greenhouse gas
emissions (Lippiatt, 2007). The huge consumption of non-
renewable natural materials and the greenhouse gas emissions
associated with concrete production exert substantial environ-
mental impact.
Having many advantages to conventional concrete, self-
compacting concrete (SCC) is one of the most advanced de-
velopments in the construction industry (Nazari and Riahi, 2011;
Ouchi et al., 2003). SCC was developed to solve the problems of
conventional concrete (Sable and Rathi, 2012), such as the difficulty
of its compaction when the reinforcement is highly congested. SCC
is a kind of concrete that has minimal resistance to flow and can
therefore be casted and compacted under its own weight without
any external vibration, bleeding and segregation during casting
(Aslani and Nejadi, 2013; Okamura and Ouchi, 2003). Given its easy
placement, SCC saves cost by reducing the construction period,

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.07.133
0959-6526/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 B. Alsubari et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 137 (2016) 982e996
equipment and skilled labor requirements. It also provides a better
working environment by eliminating the vibration and noise dur-
ing its production (De Schutter et al., 2008; Sua-iam and Makul,
2013). Furthermore, the improvement in the flowability of SCC can
enhance the appearance and improve the durability of the finished
element (Alsubari et al., 2014; Safiuddin et al., 2008). However,
producing SCC requires one or two types of chemical admixtures,
which are expensive. SCC has a lower aggregate content and a
higher volume of binder than vibrated concrete (Okamura and
Ouchi, 2003; Su et al., 2001), which in turn increases the cost of
construction.
An alternative to overcome the abovementioned problems is the
reduction of the OPC volume in SCCs using supplementary
cementitious materials (SCMs) as a partial replacement for OPC
(Sua-iam and Makul, 2014). The inclusion of SCMs in SCC improves
concrete workability, enhances concrete characteristics, increases
jobsite productivity and decreases cost (Sua-iam and Makul, 2015;
Uysal and Yilmaz, 2011). Moreover, the incorporation of SCMs re-
duces the use of cement in concrete and therefore reduces green-
house gas emissions and energy consumption; as such, it saves
energy and natural resources and is a sustainable construction
method (Alsubari et al., 2015; Persson, 2001).
Palm oil fuel ash (POFA) is a type of agro-waste generated from
palm oil mills and dumped into open fields without any profitable
return or recycling (Hussin and Awal, 1996; Mujah, 2016). Annually,
it was estimated that the total production of POFA was 2.6 million in
Malaysia (Hassan et al., 2014). It was reported that POFA is a
nuisance to the environment because of the method of its disposal
in open areas. POFA includes large amounts of silica (44%e66%) and
has recently been used as a cement replacement to produce a
different types of concrete (Safiuddin et al., 2011a). It has been
utilized to produce normal and high-strength concrete (Awal and
Hussin, 1999; Sata et al., 2004). However, problems associated
with the reduction in its workability, its early-age compressive
strength and its limited level of replacement have been encoun-
tered, as shown in previous researches (Alsubari et al., 2014;
Safiuddin and Jumaat, 2011; Tay, 1990). Recently, ground POFA
(G-POFA) was treated via heat treatment and being utilized to
produce high strength concrete (Johari et al., 2012). However,
research on the use of high-volume T-POFA in SCC is lacking.
The efficiency factor (k-value) of POFA and T-POFA has not been
reported in previous studies. The concept of the k-value of SCMs has
been introduced in previous studies (Papadakis and Tsimas, 2002;
Sethy et al., 2015). This factor is described as the part of SCMs in
pozzolanic cement materials that can be considered comparable to
OPC and therefore possesses the same characteristics as concrete
made with cement (Papadakis and Tsimas, 2002). Suvarna et al.
(2012) defined this factor as the ability of SCM to function as a
cementing material, given that the contribution of SCMs to con-
crete properties is mainly its ability to react with the free lime
Ca(OH)2 produced during cement hydration. The rate of this
pozzolanic reaction when compared with cement hydration rate
determines the value of k. The pozzolanic reaction rate in concrete
containing SCM is slower than the cement hydration rate without
SCM when the k-value is less than 1.0. This normally occurs during
the early age of the concrete specimen. The rate of pozzolanic re-
action and the rate of cement hydration are the same when the k-
value is 1.0. The pozzolanic reaction rate is more efficient than
cement hydration when SCMs are used to partially replace cement
in concrete and the k-value is greater than 1.0 (Suvarna et al., 2012).
This study treats G-POFA and uses it in high volume to produce
cheap SCC with less effect on the environment. Heat treatment is
conducted to treat G-POFA and reduce its high content of loss of
ignition (LOI) and improve its chemical composition. T-POFA is used
as substitute cement by a mass of up to 70% of OPC. The fresh self-
983
compatibility properties, compressive strength, drying shrinkage
strain and acid attack tests of SCC were studied. The k-value of SCC
containing T-POFA is also determined throughout its different ages.
Moreover, the cost of concrete and that of carbon dioxide emissions
are calculated.
2. Experimental program
2.1. Materials
2.1.1. Binder
OPC and T-POFA were used as binder. Raw POFA was brought
from a palm oil factory located in Selangor state, Malaysia. In order
to dry the moisture of the raw POFA, it was placed in an electrical
oven at 105 ± 5  C for 24 h. To remove the coarse residues, the dried
POFA was sieved through a 300 mm sieve. Sieved POFA was grinded
using Los Angeles machine to reduce the particle size and increase
the surface area. A total of 30 mild steel rods with a diameter of
10 mm and length of 500 mm were placed in the rotating cylinder,
together with 6 kg of the dried and sieved POFA. To grind the sieved
POFA, the machine was timed to run for 18 h using an electric motor
at a speed of 33.3 rpm. After that, the G-POFA was placed in an
electrical furnace at 600  C for 2 h. The T-POFA was then ground
again as in the first round to obtain a fine particle size. Scanning
electron microscope (SEM) was carried out to check the changes in
the morphology of the POFA before heat treatment (G-POFA) and
POFA after heat treatment (T-POFA) as shown in Fig. 1. The SEM
results of G-POFA and T-POFA show that the particles were angular
and irregular in shape and having porous texture. In addition, it can
be observed that there was no agglomeration of the particles after
the heat treatment. Additionally, X-ray fluorescence (XRF) tech-
nique was performed to determine the chemical compositions of
the OPC, G-POFA and T-POFA as shown in Table 1. The physical
characteristics and chemical composition of the binder are shown
in Tables 1 and 2, respectively. Moreover, The G-POFA and T-POFA
samples were subjected to X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) analysis to
check their silica structure. Fig. 2 shows that major phase of G-POFA
and T-POFA was Q ¼ Quartz (SiO2) and F ¼ iron oxide (Fe2 O3) and
P ¼ Portlandite (H2CaO2) and as minor phases.
2.1.2. Aggregate
A natural crushed stone with a nominal maximum size of
12.5 mm was used as coarse aggregate (BIBM and ERMCO, 2005;
EFNARC, 2002). The specific gravity, fineness modulus and water
absorption of the coarse aggregate were 2.62%, 6.3% and 0.44%,
respectively. Local mining sand with a grain size of 0e4.75 mm was
used as fine aggregate. The fineness modulus, specific gravity and
water absorption of the sand were 2.88%, 2.56% and 1.13%,
respectively.
2.2. Concrete mix proportions and mixing procedure
The materials and mix proportions in this study were generally
chosen according to the recommendations of EFNARC 2002 for self-
compacting concrete (EFNARC, 2002). A suitable control mix that
satisfied the requirement for the fresh properties of SCC was
selected from different trial SCC mixes. A total of four different SCC
mixes were produced with 0%, 50%, 60%and 70% T-POFA substitu-
tion (by weight) of the total binder. Table 3 shows the mix pro-
portions of all SCCs mixes. The binder content and water/binder
ratio were 480 kg/m3 and 0.35, respectively, for all mixes. A
modified polycarboxylate copolymers superplasticizer (EFNARC)
which is designed for the production of high flow concrete with a
specific gravity of 1.09 ± 0.02 was used in SCC mixes to obtain the
required fresh SCC properties. The superplasticizer met the
984 B. Alsubari et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 137 (2016) 982e996

Fig. 1. SEM for G-POFA and T-POFA.

Table 1
Physical characteristics of aggregate, OPC, G-POFA, T-POFA.

Property Coarse aggregate Fine aggregate OPC G-POFA T-POFA

Maximum size (mm) 12.5 4.76 e e e

Water absorption (%) 0.43 1.13 e e e
Specific gravity 2.62 2.56 e e e
Fineness modulus 6.3 2.88 e e e
Color e e Grey Dark grey Grey
Passed on a 45-mm (No. 325) sieve (%) e e 92 96 100
Surface area, BET (m2/g) e e 3.05 4.9 7.4
Relative density e e 3.16 2.04 2.20

Table 2 from the moulds and completely immersed in water to cure until
Chemical composition of OPC, G-POFA, and T-POFA (%). the testing time. The temperature and relative humidity of the
Oxide composition OPC G-POFA T-POFA laboratory were 27 ± 3  C and of 80 ± 5%, respectively.
Silicon dioxide (SiO2) 17.60 59.17 69.02
Aluminum trioxide (Al2O3) 4.02 3.73 3.9
Iron oxide (Fe2O3) 4.47 6.33 4.33
2.4. Testing methods
Calcium oxide (CaO) 67.43 5.80 5.01
Magnesium oxide (MgO) 1.33 4.87 5.18 To evaluate the effect of high volume T-POFA on SCC, some
Sodium oxide (Na2O) 0.03 0.18 0.18 properties were investigated as following:
Potassium oxide (K2O) 0.39 8.25 6.9
Sulfur trioxide (SO3) 4.18 0.72 0.41
SiO2 þ Al2O3 þ Fe2O3 e 69.23 77.25
Loss on ignition (LOI) 2.4 16.1 1.8
2.4.1. Fresh properties
The fresh properties of SCC were determined according to
(EFNARC, 2002). The following three characteristics were checked
to fulfill the requirements of SCC:
requirements of ASTM C494-86 Type G and BS 5075: Part 3.
For the mixing of the constituent materials, the coarse and fine
 Filling ability was evaluated in terms of the slump flow, T50cm
aggregates were mixed for 1 min. About 10% of mixing water was
flow time and V-funnel flow time.
initially added and mixed for 5 min. The cement and T-POFA were
 Passing ability was determined by evaluating L-box and J-ring
later added to the mix. The SP was then dissolved into the
flow tests.
remaining water and was added to the mix. The mixing was
 Segregation resistance was assessed through visual observation
continued for 7 min. The mixing process for SCC was longer than
during the SF and JF tests. The GTM screen stability test was also
that for conventional concrete mixes.
determined to confirm the visual observation.

2.3. Sample preparation and curing methods

A variety of tests were conducted before casting to evaluate the
fresh properties of the SCC. The mix was first subjected to a slump
flow test (SF) and T50cm flow time test (T50cm). When the mix passed
both tests, after that, L-box, J-ring flow (JF), V-funnel flow time (Tv)
and segregation tests were conducted. The fresh SCC mixes were
finally cast into moulds and kept for 24 h. Then, they were removed
2.4.2. Compressive strength
Three cubes of 100 mm were used to determine the compressive
strength of SCCs at the ages of 1, 3, 7, 28, 56, 90 and 180 days. The
compressive loading test on the cube concrete specimens was
conducted using a compression testing machine with a capacity of
3000 kN, as per BS EN 12390-3:2002 (EN, 2002).
 B. Alsubari et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 137 (2016) 982e996 985

Fig. 2. XRD for G-POFA and T-POFA.

Table 3
Mix proportions of SCC.

Mix no. Cement (kg/m3) Water (kg/m3) W/B ratio T-POFA (kg/m3) T-POFA (%) Fine aggregate (kg/m3) Coarse aggregate (kg/m3) S.P (% binder) Paste volume

SCC0 480 168 0.35 0 0 925 758.2 1.3 0.344

SCC50 240 168 0.35 240 50 925 758.2 1.3 0.367
SCC60 192 168 0.35 288 60 925 758.2 1.3 0.371
SCC70 144 168 0.35 336 70 925 758.2 1.3 0.375

2.4.3. Efficiency factor (k-value)

The following procedure was followed to calculate the k-value.
The compressive strength fcu (MPa) of the control concrete can be
calculated using the following equation (Bolomey's equation):
fcu ¼ Kfð1=W=CÞ  ag
fcu ¼ Kfð1=W=CÞ  0:5g (2)
where “C” is the cement content (kg/m3), “W” is the water content
(kg/m3), “K” is a parameter that depends on the type of cement
(MPa) and “a” is a parameter that depends on curing time. Eq. (2) is
modified when SCM is used as cement replacement. The modified
(1) equation involves the concept of the k-value:

For structural purposes, Eq. (1) can be simplified as follows fcu ¼ Kf1=ðW=ðC þ k
PÞÞ  0:5g (3)
(Suvarna et al., 2012):
986 B. Alsubari et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 137 (2016) 982e996

where “k” is the efficiency factor and “P” is the replacement level of
OPC by SCM.
2.4.4. Drying shrinkage strain
Prismatic concrete specimens with a dimension of
100
100
500 mm3 were used to measure the drying shrinkage
strain. The samples were removed 24 h after casting and kept in
moist curing for 7 days. The samples were then taken out from the
water. Demec points were placed at three sides of the sample at a
distance of 200 mm. The initial reading (zero reading) was then
measured and recorded. The concrete samples were then left to dry
in a laboratory at a temperature of 27 ± 3  C and a relative humidity
of 80 ± 5%.
2.4.5. Chemical attack test
Chemical resistance of SCCs specimens was evaluated by con-
ducting acid attack test. A total of six cubes with the dimension of
100
100
100 mm3 were used for each mix after 7 days of water
curing. The cubes were kept in water mixed with 3% hydrochloric
acid solution (HCL) with a pH concentration of about 2. This solu-
tion was replaced at regular intervals time of 14 days to keep a
constant pH value throughout the immersion time. The reduction
in compressive strength (fCR) and mass loss (ML) of the SCC speci-
mens were determined after 75 days (1800 h) of immersion time
(Budiea et al., 2010; Hussin et al., 2008).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Fresh properties
The fresh SCC mixes were tested according to the recommen-
dations of (EFNARC, 2002) to assess their filling ability, passing
ability and segregation resistance. The fresh properties of SCC
incorporating T-POFA were investigated, and the results are sum-
marized in Table 4.
3.1.1. Slump flow and T50cm flow time tests
Fig. 3 shows the relationship between the replacement level of
T-POFA and slump flow. The SFs for all SCCs mixes are in the range
of 700e740 mm, which is well within the values specified by the
EFNARC (2002). The mixes containing T-POFA could improve the SF
in comparison with to the control mix. The enhancement of the SF
can be attributed to several reasons: (1) As shown in Table 2, the LOI
content of the T-POFA is reduced from 16.1% to 1.8%, which in turn
decreases the unburned carbon content. The reduction in the LOI
content reduces the amount of SP absorbed by T-POFA (Chandara
et al., 2010), and this in turn improves the fluidity of SCC. Previ-
ous studies show that the use of G-POFA, which contains signifi-
cantly higher LOI than T-POFA, reduces the workability of concrete
as the replacement level increases (Alsubari et al., 2014; Safiuddin
et al., 2011a). This is because of the nature of the G-POFA contain-
ing a high amount of LOI, which absorbs more SP and water,
thereby decreasing the flowability of concrete (Chandara et al.,
2010).
(2) The substitution of OPC with T-POFA is in terms of mass.
Hence, the binder volume increases as the replacement level in-
creases. This is because T-POFA has specific gravity of less than that
of cement. Table 3 shows that the excess amount of paste volume
for the SCC50, SCC60 and SCC70 mixes are 6.4%, 7.7 and 8.9%,
respectively, compared with the mix made from OPC only. This
extra paste can improve the packing between the aggregates. The
paste fills the gaps and spaces between the aggregate particles,
provides better coating for them to move during the SF test, and
improves their flowability. (3) Given the high fineness of T-POFA,

Table 4
Fresh properties of SCC.

Mix no. Filling ability Passing ability Segregation resistance

Slump flow (mm) T50cm spread time (s) V-funnel time (s) J-ring (mm) L-box Segregation Index (%)

Difference in heights (mm) Flow spread (mm)

SCC0 700 3.5 6.6 9.0 690 0.94 6.7

SCC50 730 2.9 5.8 5.0 710 1.0 8.2
SCC60 730 2.8 5.6 5.0 720 1.0 9.8
SCC70 740 2.5 5.5 4.0 730 1.0 10.7

750

740

730
flow value (mm)

720

710

700

690

680
J-ring flow (mm)
670
Slump flow (mm)
660
0 50 60 70
T-POFA content (%)
Fig. 3. slump flow and J-ring flow for SCCs mixes.
 B. Alsubari et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 137 (2016) 982e996
the fine particles of the T-POFA are adsorbed on the surface of the
oppositely charged cement particles. This prevents the flocculation
of OPC particles, which are dispersed and do not trap more water
(Alsubari et al., 2015). (Malhotra and Mehta, 2002) reported similar
conclusions on high-performance concrete incorporating high-
volume fly ash.
The T50cm flow time values are measured in combination with
the SF test. Table 4 shows that, as the T-POFA content increases, the
T50cm decreases. This is due to the decrease in the viscosity of fresh
SCC as the level of substitution increases. A low T50cm indicates
good filling ability. The results for T50cm are in line with previously
reported results on the SCC incorporating fly ash up to 50% cement
replacement (Dhiyaneshwaran et al., 2013).
The results and discussion in the above sections indicate that the
replacement of OPC with T-POFA in SCC reduces the amount of
water needed to obtain a given consistency. Another advantage of
using high-volume T-POFA is that, given the increase in the SF and
T50cm compared to the plain mix at the same mix proportions, the
water content in the T-POFA mixes can be reduced to obtain similar
values for the fresh properties of the control and T-POFA mixes,
which in turn improves the quality in the hardened state.
3.1.2. V-funnel flow time test
The filling ability of the fresh SCC was evaluated by conducting
V-funnel flow time test. The time values of the Tv are in the range of
5.5e6.6 s. Table 4 shows that the Tv decreases as the content of the
T-POFA increases. Shorter flow times indicate better filling ability.
The improvement in the mixes containing T-POFA can be credited
to greater paste volume of the SCCs especially at higher T-POFA
content leading to enhance the fluidity and made the concrete less
viscous (Dhiyaneshwaran et al., 2013) showed that the inclusion of
up to 50% fly ash in SCC improves the Tv. The tests results lead to the
conclusion that T-POFA enhances the flowability in terms of slump
flow, T50cm spread time and V-funnel flow time in comparison with
the SCC made with OPC only.
3.1.3. J-ring flow test
The J-ring flow test involves measuring the difference in the
height of the concrete inside the ring and that just outside the bars
of the ring (h1eh2). The average diameter of the spread fresh mix is
also measured. The results of the J-ring flow are shown in Table 4.
The differences in the height of the all mixes vary within the range
of 4e9 mm. No visible blocking occurs during the test. The higher
content of T-POFA (SCC70 mix) shows the lowest value. This is
because the high paste volume helps the concrete to flow and
spread more easily than the control mix. The values of the J-ring
flow are shown in Fig. 3. The difference between the slump flow
and J-ring flow (SFeJF) should be less than 50 mm for SCC to obtain
good passing ability and cohesiveness of the fresh concrete without
blockage (Safiuddin et al., 2011b). Hence, all the SCC mixes have a
good passing ability. The results obtained are in line with the pre-
vious findings on SCC containing up to 30% rice husk ash (Safiuddin
et al., 2012). They concluded that the SF increases as the content of
RHA increases.
3.1.4. L-box test
The results of the L-box test are shown in Table 4. The blocking
ratios of all the SCC mixtures are between 0.94 and 1.0, which
meets the acceptance criteria specified by the EFNARC (2002)
standard. This indicates the good passing ability of fresh SCC
when it is subjected to small openings and heavily reinforced
blocks. The test results indicate that the L-box value also increases
as the replacement level increases because of the same reasons as
in the case of the SF and J-ring.
987
3.1.5. Segregation resistance tests
The visual observations on the mixes during the SF and JF tests
indicate no bleeding or segregation in any of the mixes as shown in
Fig. 4. The values of the segregation ratios of the different SCC mixes
are presented in Fig. 5. The values of the segregation ratios of the
concrete mixtures containing 0%, 50%, 60% and 70% are 6.7%, 8.2%,
9.8% and 10.7%, respectively. The results show acceptable resistance
for segregation, and all the values are within the range stated in
(EFNARC, 2002), that is, less than 15%. The segregation values in-
crease as the substitution level increases because the replacement
of cement with T-POFA is by mass. Thus, the volume of paste in T-
POFA concrete mixes is higher than that in the control mix (SCC0),
which increases the mortar volume in the mix and the paste
passing through the sieve.
3.1.6. Correlation between the slump flow and J-ring flow tests
The slump flow test and J-ring flow tests were used to evaluate
flow ability and passing ability of fresh SCC. Fig. 6 shows the rela-
tionship between the SF and JF results for the different SCC mixes.
Fig. 6 shows that the SF and J-ring spread flow of the SCC mixes
have a strong linear relationship. This strong correlation is
observable because both the SF and JF vary with the T-POFA content
in a similar way. The SF and JF increase as the content of T-POFA
increases. The filling ability and passing ability of SCC are interre-
lated. Thus, the results for the filling ability can be used to predict
the passing ability of SCC.
3.1.7. Correlation between the slump flow, J-ring flow and
segregation ratio tests
The relationship between the SF and segregation ratio for fresh
SCC mixes is shown in Fig. 7. A strong relationship is found between
both tests and T-POFA content. The segregation ratio increases as
the SF increases. Hence, the SF results indicate the segregation
resistance of fresh SCC.
3.1.8. Correlation between the T50 cm flow time and V-funnel flow
time tests
The flow time of the fresh mix can be used to evaluate the vis-
cosity and cohesiveness of SCC. Fig. 8 shows the relationship be-
tween the T50cm flow time and V-funnel flow time. The Tv and T50cm
of the fresh mixes have a strong linear relationship. The flow time
decreases as the T-POFA content increases because of the high SF of
SCC with higher T-POFA. Such strong correlation is observable
because both the T50cm and Tv vary almost similarly with the
different T-POFA contents. This also suggests that the flow time of
fresh SCC can provide a good indication for the assessment of the
viscosity and cohesiveness of fresh SCC.
3.2. Compressive strength development
The results of compressive strength of SCC containing high
volume T-POFA were divided into two parts; early-age and later-age
compressive strength as follow:
3.2.1. Early-age compressive strength
Fig. 9 shows the development of the compressive strength of
SCC mixes containing T-POFA. All the SCC mixes containing high-
volume T-POFA at the early ages of 1, 3 and 7 days exhibit lower
compressive strength than the control concrete. The main reason
for the low compressive strength at an early ages is attributed to the
less hydration product, namely, calcium hydrate silicate (CeHeS),
caused by the huge dilution of the cement content. CeHeS is the
main component that contributes to the strength of concrete. The
results obtained are in agreement with the results for normally
vibrated concrete with high-volume G-POFA (Awal and Abubakar,
988 B. Alsubari et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 137 (2016) 982e996

Fig. 4. Visual appearance for Slump flow (1 and 2) and J-ring flow (3 and 4).

18

15
Segregation ratio (%)

12 Maximum limit

0
0
SCC0 50
SCC50 60
SCC60 70
SCC70
T-POFA content (%)
Fig. 5. Segregation resistance for SCC with T-POFA.

2011). The reductions in the compressive strengths of the mixes
containing 50%, 60% and 70% T-POFA at 1 day are 29%, 56% and 65%,
respectively. Those at 3 days are 21.8%, 43% and 49%, respectively.
Those at 7 days are 9.5%, 13.03% and 18.2%, respectively. The dif-
ference between the compressive strength of the control concrete
and POFA concretes at 1 and 3 days is significant, whereas the
difference at 7 days is significantly reduced. The concrete mixes
containing high-volume fly ash with a 1-day compressive strength
of 10 MPa are considered to be early-age high-strength concrete
(Malhotra and Mehta, 2002). All the concrete mixes containing T-
POFA in this study have considerably higher 1-day compressive
strength than the requirement. Thus, the concrete mixes even at an
 B. Alsubari et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 137 (2016) 982e996 989

735
730 JF = 0.9444(SF) + 27.778
R² = 0.9175
725

J-ring flow, JF (mm)

720
715
710
705
700
695
690
685
695 700 705 710 715 720 725 730 735 740 745
Slump flow, SF (mm)
Fig. 6. Correlation between slump flow and J-ring flow of SCCs mixes.

Fig. 7. Correlation between slump flow, Segregation ratio and T-POFA content of SCCs.

6.8

6.6
Tv = 1.1611(T50) + 2.4787
V-funnel flow time, Tv (s)

6.4 R² = 0.9514
6.2

5.8

5.6

5.4

5.2

5
2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.2 3.4 3.6
T50cm slump flow time, T50 (s)

Fig. 8. Correlation between V-funnel flow time and T50cm slump flow time of concrete.

early age of 1 day can be categorized as high-strength concrete. As 3.2.2. Later-age compressive strength
shown in Table 5, the 7- to 28-day compressive strengths of SCC50, Fig. 9 shows that the compressive strength continues to increase
SCC60 and SCC70 mixes are about 90%, 86% and 81%, respectively. with an increase in the curing period of up to 180 days. The
Thus, the strength of the concrete is satisfactory. reduction in the compressive strength of SCC is overcome by
990 B. Alsubari et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 137 (2016) 982e996

90

80

Compressive strength (MPa)

70

60

50

40

30

20
SCC0 SCC50 SCC60 SCC70
10

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Curing time (days)

Fig. 9. Compressive strength development of SCCs.

Table 5
Compressive strength and the relative compressive strength for SCCs.

Curing time (days) Item SCC0 SCC50 SCC60 SCC70

1 Compressive strength (MPa) 39.0 28.0 17.0 14.0

Relative strength 100.0 71.7 43.5 35.0
R1/28cr (%) 58.1 41.7 25.3 20.8
3 Compressive strength (MPa) 51.2 40.0 29.0 26.0
Relative strength 100.0 78.1 56.6 50.7
R3/28cr (%) 76.3 59.6 43.2 38.7
7 Compressive strength (MPa) 57.5 52.0 50.0 47.0
Relative strength 100.0 90.4 86.9 81.7
R7/28cr (%) 85.7 77.4 74.5 70.0
28 Compressive strength (MPa) 67.1 69.0 68.0 65.5
Relative strength 100.0 102.8 101.3 97.6
R28/28cr (%) 100.0 102.8 101.3 97.6
56 Compressive strength (MPa) 70.5 75.2 74.7 72.9
Relative strength 100 106.6 105.9 103.4
R56/28cr (%) 105.1 112.7 111.3 108.6
90 Compressive strength (MPa) 72.0 78.4 76.6 74.5
Relative strength 100.0 108.8 106.3 103.4
R90/28cr (%) 105.1 116.8 114.1 111.0
180 Compressive strength (MPa) 74.0 83.0 81.4 78.8
Relative strength 100.0 112.2 109.8 106.5
R180/28cr (%) 110.0 123.6 121.3 117.6

Rx/28cr is the relative compressive strengths with regard to 28 days compressive strength for control SCC.

continuing the curing time. In contrast to their early-age
compressive strengths, the later-age compressive strengths of all
the mixes containing high-volume T-POFA are higher than those of
the SCC made with OPC only. The compressive strengths of the
SCC0, SCC50, SCC60 and SCC70 mixes at 28 days curing are about
67, 69, 68 and 66 MPa, respectively. Thus, the compressive strength
of the SCC concrete containing T-POFA is similar to that of the
control mix at the age of 28 days. With prolonged curing time, the
increments in the strengths of the SCC50, SCC60 and SCC70 mixes
are 12%, 11% and 8% at 56 days, respectively, and 16%, 15% and 11% at
90 days, respectively. The main factor contributing to the late-age
strength is the pozzolanic reaction of T-POFA. Calcium hydroxide
(CH), which results from primary cement hydration, reacts with T-
POFA. The silica and aluminum in T-POFA combine with CH to
produce secondary hydration products (additional CeSeH). This
process densifies and improves the micro-structure of SCC and
increases its compressive strength. Moreover, T-POFA has signifi-
cantly lower LOI than G-POFA (Table 2). The reduction in LOI con-
tent enhances the chemical composition, especially SOi2, from
59.17% to 69.02%. This improves the pozzolanic activity, thereby
increasing the compressive strength. However, previous research
(Alsubari et al., 2014; Safiuddin et al., 2011a) shows that the
replacement level in concrete should not be more than 30% because
of the high LOI of G-POFA (i.e., more than 10%). The main reason for
this limitation is the significant reduction in workability and
compressive strength when the replacement level is more than 30%
(Awal and Abubakar, 2011; Safiuddin et al., 2011a). The results
obtained in the present study are in line with those of the study of
(Johari et al., 2012) on high-strength concrete that contains T-POFA.
The results of this study lead to the conclusion that T-POFA can be
utilized up to 70% to replace OPC and produce an SCC with high
strength at early and later ages. The performance of T-POFA is
compared with that of other types of supplementary cementitious
materials in terms of the development of compressive strength. The
SCC70 mix in this study, which has almost the same cement con-
tent, W/B ratio and fresh properties as the self-compacting concrete
containing 70% type-F fly ash reported by (Dinakar et al., 2008), has
a significantly higher later-age compressive strength. The
compressive strengths of the present mix at 28-, 90- and 180-day
ages are about 88%, 64% and 38%, respectively, which are higher
 B. Alsubari et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 137 (2016) 982e996
than the strengths reported by (Dinakar et al., 2008) for SCC fly ash
concrete. Moreover, the SCC70 mix, which has the same cement
content and W/B ratio as the SCC containing 70% fly ash reported by
(Wongkeo et al., 2014), has about 65% and 49% higher 28- and 90-
day compressive strengths, respectively. Moreover, a reported SCC
containing 60% fly ash has almost the same cement content and W/
B ratio as the SCC60 mix in the present study (Khatib, 2008).
However, the 28-day compressive strength of this fly ash SCC is
about 26% lower than the SCC60 mix in this study.
3.3. Efficiency factor (k-value) of T-POFA
The k-value was calculated using a modified Bolomey's strength
equation. k-values are normally used to describe the effect of SCM
replacement on the enhancement of the strength and durability of
concrete (Papadakis and Tsimas, 2002; Suvarna et al., 2012). Eqs.
(1e3) were used to calculate the k-values. For the OPC utilized in
this study, K was calculated as 28.5 MPa using Eq. (2). The “A”
values were calculated as 1.48, 1.06, 0.857, 0.5, 0.383, 0.33 and 0.26
for 1, 3, 7, 28, 56, 90 and 180 days, respectively, using the mean
measured values of the compressive strength of the control spec-
imen. The k-values of the concrete mixes containing high-volume
T-POFA are presented in Table 6. The k-value mainly depends on
the age of concrete and the percentage of replacement. The k-value
for all the mixes at an early age (i.e., 1 and 3 days) are less than 1.0.
This is because of the slow pozzolanic reaction rate compared with
the hydration reaction of cement. However, the k-values exceeded
1.0 with prolonged time of curing. Increasing the curing time in-
creases the rate of pozzolanic reaction and results in more CeSeH,
which enhances the paste structure and increases the compressive
strength of the specimens. These results agree well with those of
the previous research conducted by (Suvarna et al., 2012) on high-
volume fly ash (HVFA) of up to 70%. Authors concluded that the k-
values for 50% FA at 90 and 180 days are between 1.45 and 2.14.
3.4. Drying shrinkage strain
The effect of incorporating T-POFA on the drying shrinkage of
SCC mixes is shown in Fig. 8. Most of the shrinkage occurred within
90 days after casting the specimens. The drying shrinkage strain
values of the all SCC samples were low and did not exceed 400
microstrain at 360 days of drying. All the SCC mixes with T-POFA
showed lower drying shrinkage than the SCC made with OPC only.
Fig. 10 shows that utilization of T-POFA up to 70% as a cement
replacement (by mass) could reduce the drying shrinkage of SCC.
The reductions in the drying shrinkage of the SCC50, SCC60 and
SCC70 mixes in 6 months are 7%, 11% and 13%, respectively,
compared with that of SCC0. The average reductions in the three
SCC mixes containing 50%, 60% and 70% T-POFA are 14%, 12%, 11%
and 12% at 56, 90, 180 and 360 days, respectively. The reduction in
the drying shrinkage of SCC incorporating T-POFA content can be
accredited to the good pozzolanic activity and high packing effect.
The high fineness of the T-POFA particles promotes pozzolanic re-
actions and micro-filler effects, which cause pore refinement and
structure densification, which in turn reduce the loss of water and
decrease drying shrinkage. Moreover, POFA particles that have no
Table 6
Efficiency factor (k-value) of SCC containing T-POFA.
Mix no. 1 day 3 days 7 days 28 days 56 days 90 days
SCC50 0.72 0.73 1.01 1.05 1.12 1.16
SCC60 0.54 0.55 0.86 1.02 1.08 1.10
SCC70 0.55 0.56 0.83 0.98 1.05 1.05
991
role in the pozzolanic reactions act as a micro-filler; thus, more
POFA replacement leads to more restraints to paste shrinkage
(Altwair et al., 2013). Moreover, SCC had better compaction, less
empty voids on the surface and lower porosity than normal con-
crete (Alsubari et al., 2015; Safiuddin et al., 2008). These charac-
teristics reduce the water evaporation and drying shrinkage of
concrete. These results are in line with those of the previous studies
conducted by (Mehta, 2004) and (Altwair et al., 2013) on SCMs,
such as fly ash (FA) and G-POFA, which can be used to reduce the
drying shrinkage of concrete. Altwair et al. reported that the drying
shrinkage decreases as the POFA content increases. Moreover,
(Ayub et al., 2014) reviewed the effect of mineral admixtures, such
as FA and GGBS, on drying shrinkage. Authors concluded that the
use of SCMs refines the pore configuration by reducing the size of
pores. Thus, the shrinkage of concrete incorporating mineral ad-
mixtures is lower because of the reduced diameter compared with
concrete made with OPC only. The results therefore suggest that the
use of high-volume T-POFA in SCC can reduce drying shrinkage.
3.5. Acid attack
The results of acid attack are reported in terms of weight loss,
reduction in compressive strength, degradation at corners and
faces and change in the color of the specimens. Studies on acid
attack are conducted to evaluate the performance of SCC with and
without T-POFA against aggressive chemical attack. The tests were
conducted after immersing the specimens in 3% HCL solution for a
period of 1800 h.
3.5.1. The mechanism of acid attack
Concrete is alkaline in nature. Any environment with a pH less
than 12.5 is considered to be destructive and harmful to concrete
because a reduction of the alkalinity can eventually cause the
decomposition of cement hydration products. Acid attack occurs as
a result of the reaction of aggressive acid ions with calcium hy-
droxide Ca(OH)2, which forms highly soluble calcium salt, as shown
in Eq. (4) and Eq. (5) (O'neill et al., 2001; Zivica and Bajza, 2001).
The calcium salts can be easily leached away from the cement paste,
which weakens the paste's structure. Thus, exposure to acidic en-
vironments reduces the alkalinity of concrete (Siad et al., 2010),
thereby rendering its whole structure unstable and weak.
Calcium silicate þ water/calcium silicate hydrate
þ calcium hydroxide (4)
Acid þ calcium hydroxide/calcium salt þ water (5)
3.5.2. Mass loss
The relationship between weight loss and T-POFA content is
presented in Fig. 11. The reductions in the mass of SCC0, SCC50,
SCC60 and SCC70 are 2.8%, 1.83%, 1.75% and 1.92%, respectively. The
results reveal that the mass losses of all the specimens containing
T-POFA are lower than those of plain concrete. This is because acid
attack is mainly associated with the cement content in concrete. As
the cement content increases, the calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2
content increases, which makes the concrete highly susceptible to
chemical attack. Thus, when T-POFA is used as cement replacement,
Ca(OH)2 is consumed during pozzolanic reactions to form CeSeH,
180 days
thereby resulting in a denser concrete with higher resistance
1.22 against acid attack. The higher mass loss of the plain SCC is pri-
1.15 marily attributed the formation of weak and soluble calcium salt,
1.09
which can be easily removed from the specimen's surfaces and
992 B. Alsubari et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 137 (2016) 982e996

450
400
350

Drying shrinkage (με)

300
250
200
150
100
50 SCC0 SCC50 SCC60 SCC70
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Time (days)

Fig. 10. Drying shrinkage strain of SCCs containing T-POFA.

3.7

3.2 Result of this research

Hussin et al., (2008)

Mass loss (%)

2.7

2.2

1.7

1.2

0.7

0.2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
POFA content (%)
Fig. 11. Relationship between mass loss and T-POFA content.

corners. (O'neill et al., 2001) recommends the use of pozzolanic
materials to enhance the performance of concrete against aggres-
sive chemical attack. (Dinakar et al., 2008) reported a similar
conclusion in the case of SCC containing up to 85% HVFA. Dinakar
et al. investigated the effect of 3% H2SO4 acid on SCC containing
HVFA and concluded that the weight loss of SCC decreases as the fly
ash percentage increases. Hussin et al. (Hussin et al., 2008) reported
that utilization of 20% G-POFA in aerated concrete results in good
resistance against aggressive chemical attack. They showed that
only 0.9% mass reduction occurred in specimens immersed for
1800 h in 5% HCL. This is due to the pozzolanic reaction and low
content of CaO of concrete containing POFA compared with the
control concrete.
3.5.3. Residual compressive strength
All the SCC specimens suffered a reduction in compressive
strength after being immersed in hydrochloric acid solution for 75
days (1800 h). The relationship between the residual compressive
strength (fCR) and T-POFA content can be seen in Fig. 12. The highest
strength loss is found in the SCC0 specimens compared with SCC
incorporating T-POFA. The reductions in the compressive strengths
of SCC0, SCC50, SCC60 and SCC70 are about 18%, 12.8%, 12.4% and
13.3%, respectively. The improved resistance of SCC containing
high-volume T-POFA is mainly attributed to the consumption of
Ca(OH)2, which reduces the porosity and increases the imperme-
ability of SCC specimens. This prevents the penetration of the acid
ions into the inner part the specimen. This result suggests that the
use of high-volume T-POFA produces SCC with high resistance
against aggressive chemical attack. Siad et al. (Siad et al., 2010)
made similar observations in using natural pozzolan to produce
SCC. They reported that the use of natural pozzolan improves the
resistance of SCC against acid attack. Dinakar et al. (Dinakar et al.,
2008) and Verma et al. (Verma et al., 2013) studied the effect of
acid attack on SCC and normal vibrated concrete containing HVFA.
They reported that the inclusion of HVFA in concrete improves the
resistance against destructive chemical environment.
3.5.4. Relationship between the reduction in compressive strength
and mass loss
Fig. 13 shows the relationship between the reduction in
compressive strength (fCR) and mass loss (ML) of SCC after being
immersed in hydrochloric acid. A strong linear relationship is found
between both results. Compressive strength is reduced as the mass
loss increases. Exposing SCC to hydrochloric acid results in the loss
of cement paste and its structural integrity, which weakens the
concrete matrix.
3.5.5. Visual observations
Specimens with and without T-POFA exhibited a change in color
and degradation in the faces and corners after being immersed in
HCL acid, as shown in Fig. 14. SCC without T-POFA suffered from
more changes and degradation than SCC with T-POFA. The higher
 B. Alsubari et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 137 (2016) 982e996 993

of concrete, as shown in Fig. 15. The reductions in the cost of the

50%, 60% and 70% mixes are 7.9%, 9.6% and 11.3%, respectively. The
utilization of high-volume T-POFA considerably reduced the cost of
concrete. Aside from producing cheaper SCC, the utilization of this
waste as cement replacement improves mechanical properties and
durability and reduces potentially risky effects on the environment.

5. Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions

About 2.3 gigatons of CO2 were emitted globally in 2011 because

of the production of about 3.3 gigatons of Portland cement (Celik
et al., 2015). Hence, the substitution of Portland cement, which is
produced from non-renewable raw materials with wastes, leads the
production of sustainable and eco-friendly concrete and reduces
greenhouse gas emissions.
In this research, the system boundary approach is used to assess
the environmental impact of concrete material extraction, trans-
Fig. 12. Relationship between residual compressive strength and T-POFA content.
portation and treatment. The total energy consumed during prep-
aration, grinding and heat treatment for POFA was measured. In
degradation of SCC0 is primarily due to the formation of calcium addition, the total CO2 emitted due to transportation for materials
salt, which can be easily removed. Alsubari et al. (Alsubari et al., was calculated. The calculations for CO2 emission are based on the
2014) and Budiea et al. (Budiea et al., 2010) studied the effect of conversion factors obtained from the Department for Environment,
acid attack on SCC and high-strength concrete degradation. They Food and Rural Affairs, and the factors of electricity and transport
concluded that concrete containing G-POFA showed less degrada- emissions are based on the Department of Energy and Climate
tion and color changes. Change (DECC). The calculations are based on the information
presented in Table 7. The relationship between the estimated CO2
and cement replacement level is presented in Fig. 16. A significant
4. Cost analysis reduction in CO2 emissions is observed when T-POFA is used to
replace OPC. With the decreasing amount of Portland cement and
The cost of concrete is one of the important factors that should increasing amount of T-POFA, the CO2 from SCC50, SCC60 and
be considered during its production. Table 7 indicates the approx- SCC70 concrete mixes can be as low as 32%, 39% and 45%, respec-
imate prices of various materials used to produce SCC. The price tively, compared with SCC0 mixture made of OPC only. This
value of Portland cement is 8, 6 and 1.76 times more than those of reduction in CO2 is due to huge cement dilutions, which is the main
coarse aggregate, sand and T-POFA, respectively. Hence, cement is source of CO2 in concrete production. A similar result was reported
the main material that contributes to the cost of concrete. The raw by (Celik et al., 2015) on SCC containing fly ash (FA) and limestone
POFA was subjected to dying in oven, sieve, grinding and heat powder (LP). The replacement of OPC with 50% FA results in a
treatment processes to obtain the final product of T-POFA. The cost reduction of about 47%, while a combination of 60% FA and 15% LP
of G-POFA resulted from the preparation and grinding processes. cement replacement produces concrete with about 67% less CO2-eq
However, the cost of T-POFA is higher than that of G-POFA as a emission compared with the control concrete. The significant
result of the further energy consumption for the heat treatment reduction in CO2 emission and cost because of high-volume cement
processes. The cost of producing 1 kg T-POFA is calculated to be RM replacement with T-POFA can positively contribute to the envi-
0.25. Thus, the replacement of cement with T-POFA reduces the cost ronment and the economy.

19
Reduction in compressive sterngth, ƒ (%)

ƒCR= 5.3439(ML) + 3.0364

18 R² = 1

17

16

15

14

13

12
1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.7 2.9
Mass loss, ML (%)

Fig. 13. Relationship between reduction in compressive strength and mass loss.
994 B. Alsubari et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 137 (2016) 982e996

Fig. 14. Change in color and corner losses for SCCs with and without T- POFA. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web
version of this article.)

Table 7
Price and CO2 emission for the main constitutes of concrete.

Item Unit Price (RM)/unit CO2/unit Reference

DECC (2011)
Electricity kWh 0.21 0.25
DECC (2011)
Distance (medium car) km e 0.18
Celik et al. (2015)
Cement kg 0.44 0.91
Purnell and Black (2012)
Aggregate kg 0.055 0.005
Purnell and Black (2012)
Superplasticizer kg 38 0.01
G-POFA kg 0.19 0.23 From this research calculation
T-POFA kg 0.25 0.31 From this research calculation

RM is Ringgit Malaysia, 1 USD ¼ RM 3.25 (As of 1 September 2014).

Fig. 15. Cost of concrete based on T-POFA content.

 B. Alsubari et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 137 (2016) 982e996
Fig. 16. Relationship between the carbon dioxide (CO2) emission and T-POFA content.
6. Conclusions
In this study 50e70% of OPC was substituted with T-POFA by
mass in SCC. The fresh and hardened properties of SCC containing
high-volume T-POFA were investigated. The following conclusions
can be drawn from the test results of this study.
1) The fresh properties of SCC containing high-volume T-POFA in
terms of filling ability and passing ability are better than those of
the control SCC containing OPC only. The segregation index in-
creases. However, the segregation index remains in the range
specified by the EFNARC guidelines.
2) Strong correlations are found between the different fresh
properties. J-ring spread values and segregation resistance can
be predicted from the SF values. Moreover, the time of flow of
the fresh mix can be used to assess and evaluate the viscosity
and cohesiveness of SCC.
3) The substitution of OPC with high-volume T-POFA significantly
reduces the early-age compressive strength of SCC, particularly
at an age of 1 day. However, all high-volume T-POFA SCCs can be
considered high-strength class at an age of 1 day.
4) SCC containing 50e70% T-POFA has a compressive strength that
is equivalent to or higher than SCC containing 100% OPC at 28
days and beyond.
5) The k-value of T-POFA is introduced. The k-values for SCCs
containing high-volume T-POFA are less than 1.0 at the early
ages but more than 1.0 at 28 days and beyond.
6) All the SCC specimens exhibit lower shrinkage than the control
SCC after 12 months of drying shrinkage.
7) Resistance against chemical attack is improved by incorporating
T-POFA in SCC. All SCC specimens containing T-POFA exhibit
better resistance and less degradation against acid attack than
the control SCC.
8) The utilization of high-volume T-POFA reduces the cost of SCCs
between 8% and 12% compared with the SCC made with OPC
only. Moreover, the concrete specimens have up to 32%e45%
reduced carbon dioxide emissions (CO2).
Acknowledgment
This research work was supported by the University of Malaya
research grant RP037A-15AET and Institute of Research Manage-
ment & Monitoring (IPPP) grant PG170-2015B from the University
of Malaya.
995
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