j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l .

2 0 2 0;9(1):806–818

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Original Article

Durability and strength characteristics of

high-strength concrete incorporated with volcanic
pumice powder and polypropylene fibers

Abdullah M. Zeyad a,∗ , Afzal Husain Khan a , Bassam A. Tayeh b

a Jazan University, Faculty of Engineering, Civil Engineering Department, 114 Jazan, Saudi Arabia
b Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, The Islamic University of Gaza, Gaza, Palestine

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this paper, the partial replacement of volcanic pumice powder (VPP) was investigated for
Received 7 September 2019 use as a supplementary cementitious material. High-strength concrete (HSC) was prepared
Accepted 9 November 2019 using two sets of VPP (10% and 20%) incorporated with three sets of polypropylene fiber (PF)
Available online 22 November 2019 (0.20%, 0.35%, and 0.50%) to produce different concrete mixtures. Several tests, including
slump, compressive strength, indirect tensile strength, flexural strength, water absorption,
Keywords: initial surface absorption, and sorptivity, were conducted to evaluate HSC performance.
Compressive strength Results showed the prepared specimens with 10% cement replacement with VPP and 0.20%
Cementitious material PF content indicated a slight increase in compressive strength compared with the control
Environmental pollution concrete at later ages. Indirect tensile and flexural strengths were optimized at 10% VPP
High-strength concrete replacement with 0.50% PF content. Furthermore, adding PFs to mixes increased indirect
Polypropylene fiber tensile and flexural strength but decreased slump. The sorptivity test indicated low water
Workability soaking due to VPP content in the mixes compared with the control mix (HSC); it declined as
Volcanic pumice the replacement of VPP increased. The different standard tests on mixes depicted favorable
results and good prospects for the inclusion of VPP in HSC structures.
© 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the
CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

ness requirement for individual sections, reducing the weight

1. Introduction
Global demand and urbanization have contributed to the
consumption of large quantities of concrete. Nowadays, the
demand for high-strength concrete (HSC) has increased due to
its high resistance to compressive loads and minimum thick-
of the structure. In addition, reduction in space can eco-
nomically benefit an owner. HSC demand has also increased
in the construction of heavy structures, such as bridges,
tunnels, shear walls, foundations, and skyscrapers. HSC pro-
duction typically uses high Portland cement content with low
water–cement ratio, water-reducing admixtures, superplasti-

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mails: azmohsen@jazanu.edu.sa (A.M. Zeyad), ahkhan@jazanu.edu.sa (A.H. Khan), btayeh@iugaza.edu.ps (B.A. Tayeh).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2019.11.021
2238-7854/© 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 2 0;9(1):806–818
Fig. 1 – Volcanic pumice from Jabal Al Akwa Al Shamiya, Sabiya Jazan.
cizer (SP), and furnace slag or silica fume [1].
Recent research has shown that Portland cement pro-
duction has high environmental effects and greenhouse gas
emissions [2,3]. In 2015, the amount of cement consumed
globally amounted to 4.5 billion metric tons [4]. However,
researchers have developed alternate replacements for Port-
land cement to reduce cement consumption [5–9,10]. In
addition, the partial replacement of Portland cement with
other materials not only reduces CO2 emission and energy
consumption but also improves the properties of concrete and
the sustainability of construction [11]. Hence, volcanic pumice
(VP) can be a supplementary cementitious material (SCM) to
replace Portland cement [12]. Furthermore, SCMs have been
adopted widely due to their environmental and economic ben-
efits. The effects of SCM on the hydration behavior of fresh
and hardened cement paste and concrete mixtures were com-
pared, and results indicated the greater suitability of pumice
for precast application compared with ready mix concrete [13].
Pozzolanic materials are limited and cannot replace more
than 60% of cement mass because using these materials in
concrete involves several problems, such as decrease in work-
ability, and requires the addition of large amounts of water
or SPs [14–16]. Maximum strength is achieved by an opti-
mum pozzolana/cement ratio, which results in maximum
productivity and efficiency [17–19]. SCMs have been widely
investigated as a replacement for Portland cement in indus-
trial waste materials, such as palm oil clinker [19], pyrite
cinders [20], rice husk ash [21], waste glass[22,23], zeolite
[24,25], and fly ash [26]. The properties of these materials may
also decline in addition to a decrease in strength [16,27].
Using natural pozzolanic (NP) materials resulting from
volcanic activity in concrete applications is remarkable, espe-
cially for HSC, which consumes large amounts of cement (at
least 500 kg/m3 ). Furthermore, cement consumption savings
of up to 50% was achieved on a 28-day compressive strength,
indicating a substantial reduction in cost, energy, and raw
material consumption [28]. Previous studies on the hydration
and strength of mortar and concrete containing volcanic ash
(VA) based on global standards are limited [7,12,17]. However,
NP materials cannot be used in any region; their use depends
on the data sources of VA and volcanic tuff (VT). Factors such
as origin region, mineralogical components, particle size dis-
tribution, and manner of formation may change the properties
of cement [29,30]. Volcanic wastes that are classified as NP
807
materials, such as VA, VT, and VP, are abundant in the south-
west Arabian Peninsula. Research has suggested that locally
available pozzolanic material has potential for the production
of durable and sustainable concrete [31,32].
This paper investigates the performance of HSC mixtures
produced by partially replacing cementitious material from
locally available VP. Proposed mixes produced in the experi-
mental program were tested for compressive, indirect tensile
and flexural strength, slump, and water absorption.
2. Material investigation
2.1. Volcanic pumice powder
Volcanic pumice powder (VPP) was collected from the Jabal
Akwa Al–Shamiya volcanic region (area: 5.89 km2 ) in the north,
located in Sabya (Jazan Province) in the southwest corner of
Saudi Arabia [33], as shown in Fig. 1. The VPP sample was col-
lected from the quarry site, sieved (600 ␮m sieve), and ground
to powder in the laboratory using a ball mill (Fig. 2). The
fineness after grinding was 4298 cm2 /g. The mineral composi-
tion and score factor of VPP are provided in Table 1, and the
physical and chemical properties are provided in Table 2. The
physical properties of the VPP were measured through an air
permeability test (Blaine) and complied with ASTM C204 [34]
for surface area, gas pycnometer complied with ASTM C604
[35] for specific gravity, and pozzolana reactivity complied
with ASTM C311 [36]. In addition, the sum of major oxides
(SiO2 + Al2 O3 + Fe2 O3 ) for VPP exceeded 76%, which met the
ASTM requirements for classification as pozzolanic materials.
X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis was adopted to measure the
chemical composition percentage of VPP.
2.2. Cement
Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) used in all mixes meet the
required specifications of ASTM C150 [37]. The physical prop-
erties of OPC were measured through an air permeability test
(Blaine) and complied with ASTM C204 [34] for surface area.
The gas pycnometer complied with ASTM C604 [35] for specific
gravity. XRF analysis was performed to measure the chemical
composition percentage of OPC.
808 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 2 0;9(1):806–818

Table 1 – Main phase names and scores of VPP.

Ref. code Score Mineral name Scale factor Chemical formula

98-010-6045 20 Silicon oxide–Quartz-type (Amorphous) 0.481 SiO2

98-010-9496 14 Magnesioferrite 0.475 MgFe2 O4
98-004-6457 22 Anorthite 0.791 CaAl2 Si2 O8
98-003-4993 13 Monticellite 0.334 Ca(Mg0.88 Fe0.12 )SiO4
98-010-9102 21 Clinopyroxene 0.290 Ca0.9 Al0.29 Mg0.96 Si1.85 O6

Table 2 – Comparative study of VPP and OPC.

Chemical composition (% by mass) Physical properties (% by mass)

Major compounds OPC VPP OPC VPP

SiO2 19.01 47.40 Specific gravity (g/cm3 ) 2610 3100

Al2 O3 4.68 18.57 Specific surface area (cm2 /g) Blaine 4298 3410
Fe2 O3 3.20 10.04 Pozzolan activity index (%) at 28 d – 87.5
Ca2 O 66.89 7.90
MgO 0.81 6.04
Na2 O 0.09 2.58
TiO2 0.22 1.62
K2 O 1.17 1.07
P2 O5 0.08 0.64
SO3 3.66 0.34
MnO 0.19 0.133
Cl – 0.01
SiO2 + Al2 O3 + Fe2 O3 – 76.01
LOI 2.48 2.21

2.3. Aggregate
Table 3 – Configuration and physical properties of PF.
Properties Fiber
Coarse aggregate (CA) consisting of limestone crushed with a
maximum size of 12.7 mm, specific gravity of 2.71, and water Density 910 kg/m3
absorption of 0.46% was used. Fine aggregate (FA) consisting Length 12 mm
of desert sand with a specific gravity of 2.68 and water absorp- Diameter 18 ␮m
tion of 0.62% was used. The CA and FA aggregate gradients Specific surface area 200 m2 /kg
Tensile strength 350 MPa
conformed to ASTM specifications.

2.3.1. Superplasticizers mix combinations. The configuration and physical character-

ViscoCrete 1050-type SP was used. SP quantity was deter-
mined based on the slump test, that is, 180 ± 20 mm. SP was
constant for HSC and V HSCF , that is, 9.9 kg/m3 .
2.4. Polypropylene fiber
Three combinations (0.20%, 0.35%, and 0.50% of concrete vol-
ume) of polypropylene fiber (PF) were used to prepare different
istics of PF are shown in Table 3.
3. Mineralogical and thermal analysis
The microstructural behavior of VPP was analyzed using dif-
ferent characterization techniques. X-ray diffraction (XRD)
analysis of VPP was accomplished using a Bruker AXS D8

Fig. 2 – (a) VPP sample and (b) PF.

 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 2 0;9(1):806–818 809

Table 4 – Proportion of HSC mixtures.

Mix OPC VPPa FAb CAc Water SPd Slump

3
Code Proportion (kg/m )
00
HSC00 0%VPP + 0%PF 550 0 712 1006 176 9.9 180
10
HSC00 10%VPP + 0%PF 495 55 712 1006 176 9.9 200
10
HSC0.20 10%VPP + 0.20%PF 495 55 705 1006 176 9.9 170
10
HSC0.35 10%VPP + 0.35%PF 495 55 705 1006 176 9.9 150
10
HSC0.50 10%VPP + 0.50%PF 495 55 705 1006 176 9.9 125
20
HSC00 20%VPP + 0%PF 440 110 698 1006 176 9.9 210
20
HSC0.20 20%VPP + 0.20%PF 440 110 698 1006 176 9.9 180
20
HSC0.35 20%VPP + 0.35%PF 440 110 698 1006 176 9.9 170
20
HSC0.50 20%VPP + 0.50%PF 440 110 698 1006 176 9.9 150

a
VPP – Volcanic pumice powder.
b
FA – Fine aggregate.
c
CA – Coarse aggregate.
d
SP – Superplasticizer.

instrument. In addition, a scanning electron microscopy com-
bined with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM/EDX)
model Zeiss Supra 35 VPP was used. Thermogravimetric and
differential thermal analyses (TGA/DTA) were applied to esti-
mate the amount of Ca(OH)2 and C–S–H as well as C–S–A–H in
cement paste.
preparation of HSC mixes, the VPP replacement levels of 10%
and 20% of cement mass were adopted with PF content of
0.2%, 0.35%, and 0.50% of concrete volume. Table 4 shows the
proportion of mix design.
4.2. Sample preparation, casting, and curing

3.1. XRD analysis

Nine mixes of HSC samples were prepared for each test
category and the average value of three samples was com-
The mineralogical analysis of VPP presented in the diffrac-
puted. For the compressive strength test, samples were tested
tograph demonstrates the peaks of the crystalline phases of
on cubes (100 mm) at ages 7, 14, 28, 90, and 180 d. For
VP. Table 1 shows quartz as a main mineral constituent and
the flexural and indirect tensile strength tests, prismatic
an aluminosilicate amorphous phase developed by SiO2 and
(100 mm × 100 mm × 400 mm) and cylindrical ( = 100 mm and
Al2 O3 .
H = 200 mm) specimens were used. The specimen molds were
filled with two layers for the compaction of concrete using
3.2. SEM/EDX analysis a vibration table. The cast specimen was covered with wet
cloth for 24 h as initial curing before demolding. The speci-
The morphology of VPP shows irregular micropores, and each
mens were demolded carefully within 24 h, and their identities
grain has small closed forms, as shown in Fig. 4. The main
were marked. The specimens were immersed in a water tank
chemical elements present in this pozzolan are Si, Al, K, Na,
under laboratory conditions (indoor) at 23 ± 2 ◦ C until testing
Ca, Fe, and Mg. The SEM micrograph in Fig. 4 shows fine poros-
age.
ity and angular particle sizes ranging from 1 ␮m to 15 ␮m.

3.3. TGA/DTA 4.3. Experimental testing

Simultaneous DTA and TGA were performed on a (Instrument
name-Mettler Toledo TGA/SDTA851) at a constant heating rate
of 10 ◦ C/min on a dry air flow until 1000 ◦ C.
4. Experimental procedure
4.1. Mix proportions
Nine different mixtures were studied; one as HSC and eight
other mixtures with different combinations of VPP and PF. All
concrete mixtures were designed to achieve high compression
strength (above 60 MPa). Mix combinations (HSC incorporated
with VPP and PF) were coded as V HSCF , where V and F indi-
cate % of VPP and PF, respectively. The concrete mixtures were
designed with a constant content of water/binder ratio of 0.32
and a total cementitious binder content of 550 kg/m3 . For the
The slump test was performed in accordance with ASTM C143
[38] for fresh concrete, whereas those for compressive, indi-
rect tensile and flexural strength, water absorption, and rate of
water absorption were performed on hardened concrete sam-
ples. The compressive, indirect tensile and flexural strength,
water absorption, and rate of water absorption tests of the
mixtures were performed in accordance with ASTM at ages 7,
14, 28, 90, and 180 d. Fig. 5 shows the test samples.
Durability is extensively associated with the water absorp-
tion capacity of concrete. Water absorption was used to assess
concrete durability. The specimens were dried in an oven at
105 ± 5 ◦ C for 48 h until mass stability (not exceeding 0.1% of
the initial mass for two successive weigh-ins) was achieved,
and their mass was recorded. The samples were cooled at lab-
oratory temperature for 3–4 h until the sample temperature
decreased to 25 ± 2 ◦ C. The samples were immersed com-
pletely in distilled water for 2 d. After 2 d, the samples were
810 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 2 0;9(1):806–818
Fig. 3 – XRD pattern of the processed VPP sample.
collected and cleaned using a cloth to remove excess water.
The wet specimen’s mass was measured in air.
For the sorptivity test, the sample was dried in an oven
at 105 ± 5 ◦ C for 48 h. The weight of the oven-dried samples
was recorded to the nearest 0.01 g. The specimen surface was
immersed in a tray of water at 25 ± 2 ◦ C with a maximum depth
of 2 ± 1 mm and supported on rods to allow water movement.
The water absorbed was measured through the increase in
sample mass at intervals of 10, 30, and 60 min. Before the test,
the sample surface was cleaned using a brush and cloth to
remove any impurities. The sorptivity test was conducted in
accordance with ASTM C1585 [39]. The average sorptivity of
the three samples was calculated and plotted. The sorptivity
at each time interval was calculated in accordance with the
following equation:
√
I = S ∗ t,
where
I = cumulative amount of water absorbed per unit (g/mm2 ),
S = sorptivity coefficient, and t = time measured in seconds
(g/mm2 /s1/2 ).
5. Results and discussion
5.1. Mineralogical analysis
Fig. 3 shows the XRD pattern of the processed sample centered
at 2 = 25◦ . The main crystalline phases are quartz, anorthite,
clinopyroxene, and a small fraction of monticellite. The major
peaks are associated with quartz, indicating a main crystalline
product. The results indicate the silica content exceeded 47%,
11% of which is amorphous (Fig. 3).
5.2. Microstructural analysis
5.2.1. Thermogravimetric analysis
DTA and TGA tests were used to identify the correlation
between the binding phases of concrete, such as C–H, C–S–H,
C–A–S–H, C–A–H, and C–A–F (C = CaO, S = SiO2 , A = Al2 O3 ,
F = Fe2 O3 , H = H2 O, or –OH) for three different cement–VPP
matrices and their mass loss was evaluated under controlled
heating. The thermal behaviors of the three samples (0%, 10%,
and 20% VPP replacement) are plotted in Figs. 6–8, respectively.
The three plots depict identical behavior and transformation
in temperatures in the range of 150–450 ◦ C, 450–550 ◦ C, and
550–850 ◦ C. Mass loss was observed for all plots until 200 ◦ C due
to C–S–H production [40,41]. Fig. 6 shows the DTA of the control
cement without VPP content. The major thermal transforma-
tion (endothermic) was observed in the range of 450–550 ◦ C.
This peak shows Ca(OH)2 or C–H decomposition on heating
[42]. A minor second peak, which is attributed to the loss of
H2 O from C–S–H gel and CaCO3 decomposition, was observed
between 550 ◦ C and 850 ◦ C [40,43].
A low Ca/Si ratio indicates more Al-absorbed content pro-
duces more C–A–S–H phases and that C–A–S–H gel crystallinity
decreases with increasing Al content [40].
5.3. Evaluation of fresh concrete testing
Table 4 shows the slump results according to ASTM C 143 for
all mix combinations. VPP replacement rates of 10% and 20%
of cement mass were high for HSC, whereas the amount of
SP was constant 9.25 kg/m3 . For a constant water/binder ratio
content, CA, and SP, the slump values of 10 HSC00 and 20 HSC00
were increased by 20 and 30 mm, respectively, without con-
sidering PFs. The increase in slump results may be due to
the reduction in cement content through the VPP replacement
and the high fineness of VPP content. The fineness of the VPP
contributed additional lubrication to the aggregates, which led
to decreased frictional resistance. These factors increased the
slump values in relation to the incorporation of VPP content
and are consistent with those of Soliman and Tagnit-Hamou
[44] in which the softness and shape of the substituted materi-
als affect the operability of concrete. However, the addition of
the PFs in concrete has a negative effect on workability lead-
ing to a decreased slump test value [45,46]. In the 10% and
20% VPP mixes with PF content of 0.20%, 0.35%, and 0.50%
by concrete volume, the slump values decreased by 30, 50,
and 75 mm and 30, 40, and 60 mm, respectively. Fig. 9 shows
the relationship between the percentage of PF and slump test
results. The results show the addition of PFs to concrete leads
to a decline in workability and that a high PF content is accom-
panied by a high reduction in workability. The results support
the findings of previous researchers when adding different
 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 2 0;9(1):806–818 811

Fig. 4 – SEM and EDX analyses of studied VPP samples at points A and B.

Fig. 5 – Tests of hardened concrete.

812 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 2 0;9(1):806–818

Fig. 6 – TGA and DTA analyses of paste cement with 0% VPP at 28 d.

Fig. 7 – TGA and DTA analyses of paste cement with 10% VPP at 28 d.

percentages of the PFs for HSC [9,47]. In this case, the addi-
tion of VPP contributed to the reduction of the effect of PFs on
concrete workability.
5.4. Evaluation of hardened concrete testing
5.4.1. Compressive strength
Compressive strength (fc’), which is one of the most important
properties of hardened concrete, is used generally as a charac-
teristic material value for concrete classification. The concrete
properties are affected by VPP and fiber content.
Fig. 10 shows the logarithmic trend of the compressive
strength results of the HSC, 10HSC, 10 HSC0.20 , 10 HSC0.35 , and
10 HSC
0.50 at 7, 14, 28, and 90 d. The graphical representation
of compressive strength shows similar patterns for all spec-
imen cases. The 10% VPP replacement at early age (7 and
14 d) exhibited lower compressive strength as compared to
HSC. This lower compressive strength may be attributed to

Fig. 8 – TGA and DTA analyses of paste cement with 20% VPP at 28 d.
 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 2 0;9(1):806–818
Fig. 9 – Relationship between the percentage of PF and
slump test results.
Fig. 10 – Compressive strength of the control HSC mix and
10 HSC .
F improves compressive strength [51]. However, this reduction
the low cement content and may be associated with low level
of compounds responsible for early strength. Moreover, the
pozzolanic materials in VPP required a long period to interact
with Ca(OH)2 . The use of 0.20% of PFs yielded a slight increase
in compressive strength at 28 and 90 d [47]. The incorporation
of 0.20% of PF enhanced the compressive strength by 5% at
an early age (7 d) unlike other added ratios of the PF caused
a decline in the compressive strength as compared to HSC.
The experimental results showed that 10 HSC0 and 10 HSC0.20
mixes gained higher compressive strength compared with the
HSC at the late strength ages (28 and 90 d). The compressive
strength values of 10 HSC0 and 10 HSC0.20 increased by 2.79%,
4.33%, and 2.13%, 2.8% at 28 and 90 d, respectively, compared
with HSC. The combination of VPP with PF is favorable in gain-
ing strength at certain proportions and ages. Therefore, the
use of VPP in HSC production is feasible and advantageous.
The rate of strength development from the observed results
is associated with the chemical and physical effects of VPP
and PFs. Behnood and Ghandehari [48] observed the chemi-
cal effects of PF in the range of 300–600 ◦ C and reported that
the relative compressive strength of PF concrete is higher
than that without PF concrete. In this study, the compressive
strength results for 10 HSC0.20 showed almost higher values in
all mixes at 7, 14, 28, and 90 d. All plotted trends showed a
high compressive strength for HSC production can be achieved
when the mixes are cured for a longer period.
The 10 HSC0 strength curve shows that compressive
strength improved at 28 and 90 d compared with the test at 7 d,
which may be attributed to accelerated pozzolanic reactions
813
Fig. 11 – Compressive strength of the HSC and 20 HSCF .
at a long period. Turanli et al. [29] reported that using differ-
ent SCMs indicates improvement in compressive strength and
durability under long curing time. Moreover, adding 0.20% PFs
of concrete volume (10 HSC0.20 ) resulted in high compressive
strength. The PFs decreased workability, resulting in incom-
plete compaction compared with concrete having a higher
PF content. [49,50] concluded that the improvement in com-
pressive strength is associated with a certain PF content, and
strength starts declining once PF content exceeds 0.5%.
By contrast, the 20% VPP replacement rate reduced the
compressive strength for all mixes as shown in Fig. 11. Accord-
ing to Samimi et al. [8], the use of pumice for up to 15%
in compressive strength is attributed to low cement content
and free water hydration [52]. For the same VPP content (20%),
the compressive strength grew at 90 d but did not even attain
the 100% compressive strength of HSC.
Fig. 12 shows the compressive strength results of HSC and
V HSC at 7, 14, 28, and 90 d. The partial VPP replacement was
F
limited by 10% of the cement mass. A further improvement in
compressive strength was observed at the optimum PF con-
tent (0.20%) of concrete volume.
5.4.2. Indirect tensile strength and flexural strength
Figs. 13 and 14 show the indirect tensile and flexural strength
results of the HSC and V HSCF at 7, 14, 28, and 90 d. These
results were similar to those of compressive strength, except
that PF incorporation improved its strength further because
the addition of the PF reinforced the HSC mix, consequently
increasing the indirect tensile and flexural strength for all
mixes. In addition, the increases in indirect tensile and flexu-
ral strengths can be attributed to a greater extent through PF
compared with VPP content for HSC mixes. The results show
that indirect tensile and flexural strength increase with the
increased in PF content.
At early age (7 d), the tensile strength for 10 HSC0.20 ,
10 HSC 10
0.35 , and HSC0.50 increased by 3%, 5.5%, and 7%, respec-
tively, compared with HSC. The tensile strength development
for the same PF incorporation stalled at a later age (28 and
90 d). Flexural strength results followed the same pattern as
tensile strength. The same trends were reported by Anan-
thi and Karthikeyan [53] and Matar and Assaad [54] in which
split (indirect) tensile and flexural strength increase with the
increase in PF.
814 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 2 0;9(1):806–818

Fig. 12 – Compressive strength of HSC and V HSCF .

Indirect tensile and flexural strength improved consider-
ably when 10% VPP replacement of cement mass was used,
and compressive strength was delayed at 28 and 90 d.
5.4.3. Water absorption
The water-absorption capacity of concrete was measured
through standard specimen cubes measuring 100 mm. Fig. 15
shows the water absorption results of HSC and V HSCF mixes
at 7, 14, 28, and 90 d. The trend lines of different specimens
showed mixed absorption rate behavior at different ages. Max-
imum absorption was observed for the HSC control specimen
for all ages.
Fig. 15 shows the water absorption capacities at 3, 7, 28,
and 90 d. The results show that the water absorption rates
decreased when the VPP content increased. This reduction in
water absorption may be due to the contribution of VPP in
filling the pores of the specimen, reducing water movement
through the free voids in the concrete specimen. By contrast,
the addition of PFs led to increased water absorption rates for
all mixes of the HSC and V HSCF at all test ages. This result may
be attributed to the effect of PFs on workability; the PFs led to
decreased flowability and additional pores in the concrete mix
[55].
5.4.4. Sorptivity
This test determines the sorptivity capacity of concrete by
using cube specimens with a size of 100 mm. Figs. 16–18 show
the results of the water absorption of the HSC and V HSCF
mixes at 10, 30, and 60 min, respectively. All tests were per-
formed at 7, 14, 28, and 90 d.
All sorptivity test results (10, 30, and 60 min) exhibited
similar patterns. Water absorption was initiated abruptly (i.e.
10 min) and decelerated at 30 and 60 min. The reduction in
water absorption after a long time (30 and 60 min) can be

Fig. 13 – Indirect tensile strength of HSC and V HSCF .

 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 2 0;9(1):806–818 815

Fig. 14 – Flexural strength of HSC and V HSCF .

Fig. 15 – Water absorption of HSC and V HSCF .

Fig. 16 – Sorptivity test at 10 min.

816 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 2 0;9(1):806–818

Fig. 17 – Sorptivity test at 30 min.

Fig. 18 – Sorptivity test at 60 min.

attributed to the slow water flow in the capillary pores. The
sorptivity test result indicated that water absorption was
higher for the HSC control sample without VPP content for
all test ages. Sample specimen 20 HSC0.20 displayed the lowest
water absorption results because of the closely packed pores
by the VPP. These closely packed pores developed because of
the high surface area of the VPP (4298 cm2 /g) as compared
with cement (3410 cm2 /g). Thus, filling the pores contributed
to impeding the movement of water and decelerating the
absorption. However, the addition of PFs led to increased initial
surface absorption for all mixes compared with mixes without
PFs. This result may be due to the effect of PFs on workabil-
ity. The PFs led to decreased workability, which in turn led to
additional pores on the concrete mix as compared with the
mix without PFs [56].
6. Conclusions
In this paper, the role of VPP incorporation in HSC production
was investigated. The following conclusions are drawn based
on the results and discussion:
1. Maximum compressive strength and durability were
observed at 10% VPP replacement rate combined with
0.20% PF content, but its reduction started as a percentage
of PF increased above 0.20%.
2. Maximum durability was observed at 20% VPP replace-
ment rate combined with 0.20% PF content, and it started
to decline as the percentage of PF increased to above
0.20%.
3. The use of VPP improved fresh concrete properties
because of the decreased cement content. For 10% and
20% VPP replacement rates without PFs, the slump results
increased from 200 and 210, respectively.
4. The slump value decreased as the addition of PFs
increased, indicating lower workability compared with
concrete mixes without PFs.
5. Indirect tensile and flexural strength were optimized at
10% VPP replacement rate with 0.50% PF.
6. High VPP replacement rates with 20% cement mass
decreased the properties of hardened concrete.
7. Adding PFs above 0.35% and 0.50% of concrete volume
to V HSCF led to reduced compressive strength. How-
 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 2 0;9(1):806–818
ever, indirect tensile and flexural strength improved with
increased PF content.
8. HSC produced by the replacement of VPP content exhib-
ited higher durability compared with control HSC by
depicting low water absorption and initial surface absorp-
tion results. These properties increased as the VPP
replacement rates increased.
9. The combination of 10% VPP and 0.20% PF was most suit-
able among all combinations for HSC.
10. HSC production by (locally available) VPP replacement
from cement also reduced the cost of construction.
The conclusions above demonstrate the feasibility of using
VPP in concrete production with some constraints, such as
VPP composition, VPP replacement rates, and PF incorporation
rates. Moreover, using VPP in HSC production minimizes mas-
sive cement production and protects the environment from
pollution.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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