Construction and Building Materials 317 (2022) 125838

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Review

Utilization of alternative aggregates for roller compacted concrete

pavements – A state-of-the-art review
M. Selvam a, Solomon Debbarma b, Surender Singh c, *, Xijun Shi d
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai 600036, India
b
Ingram School of Engineering, Texas State University, San Marcos, TX 78666, USA
c
Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai 600036, India
d
Ingram School of Engineering, Texas State University, San Marcos, TX 78666, USA

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In the last few decades, much attention has been given to Roller-Compacted Concrete Pavement (RCCP) tech­
Roller compacted concrete pavement nology for highway applications due to its numerous advantages over other conventional paving materials; lower
Alternative aggregates life-cycle cost, lesser shrinkage, early opening to traffic, and reduction in the urban heat island are the main
Recycled aggregates
benefits associated with RCCP. Efforts have been made in the recent past by researchers to inculcate sustainable
Review
practices in RCCP by incorporating alternative materials. The present study is a state-of-the-art review of the
studies published between 1997 and 2021 on the use of alternative materials for RCCP. The alternative aggre­
gates that have been considered are recycled concrete aggregates, reclaimed asphalt pavement aggregates, crumb
rubber, and electric-arc furnace steel slag aggregates. The potential of these alternative aggregates for RCCP has
been critically assessed based on the fresh (optimum moisture content, maximum dry density, vebe time), me­
chanical (compressive strength, flexural strength, split tensile strength, abrasion resistance, modulus of elastic­
ity), and durability properties (porosity, water absorption, freeze–thaw, and alkali-silica reaction). Consequently,
the fundamental parameters of these materials affecting the behavior of RCCP and the ways to address them are
summarized. Based on the extensive survey, the optimum proportion of these alternative aggregates for the
production of sustainable RCCP have been identified and reported. Various gaps that need to be bridged through
scientific as well as field understandings are also highlighted in this paper, along with outlining the possible
future research scopes.

1. Introduction traditional vibratory drum/rubber-tired rollers [2,5-7]. Fig. 1 shows the

Roller-compacted concrete pavement (RCCP) is emerging as the next
choice to the conventional jointed plain concrete pavements (JPCP) due
to its lower cost and fast construction [1-3]. RCCP technology is a fusion
of three different technologies – soil compaction, asphalt pavement, and
concrete pavement technologies [4]. These combined features of soil,
concrete, and asphalt pavement technologies make RCCP a fast-to-
design, construct, and low-cost paving option [2,5,6]. The material
constituents of RCCP are similar to that of the JPCPs; however, they are
blended following the soil compaction approach and have a higher
proportion of fine aggregates along with lesser cement and water con­
tent than JPCP to achieve similar properties [2]. On the other hand,
RCCP follows the construction practices of asphalt pavement technol­
ogy; RCCP is typically placed with asphalt pavers and compacted using
typical machines/equipment that is used to mix, place, and compact the
fresh RCCP mixes. Generally, RCCP can be used for both base-course and
surface-course applications; when used for base-layer, the cement
requirement is almost similar to that of the econocrete, and dry lean
concretes but generally higher than that required for producing cement-
treated base [7-12] (Fig. 2). When RCCP acts as a surface layer, a higher
compressive strength in the range of 28–41 MPa is generally desired at
28 days of water curing ages.
In recent years, there has been a growing interest in bringing sus­
tainability to the highway sector, mainly by lowering the consumption
of non-renewable resources [13]. To a large extent, sustainability could
be induced in pavements by optimizing the mix design, adopting inno­
vative paving solutions, and reducing the need for virgin materials [13-
19]. The most common practice of pavement sustainability is to lower

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: ce19d759@smail.iitm.ac.in (M. Selvam), sdebbarma@txstate.edu (S. Debbarma), surender@iitm.ac.in (S. Singh), xijun.shi@txstate.edu (X. Shi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.125838
Received 6 June 2021; Received in revised form 8 November 2021; Accepted 23 November 2021
Available online 7 December 2021
0950-0618/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Selvam et al.
the consumption of virgin aggregates by partially or fully replacing them
with alternative aggregates. The most commonly used alternative ag­
gregates for RCCP are recycled concrete aggregates (RCA), Mixed RCA,
reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP), electric arc furnace steel slag
(EAFSS), and tire rubber aggregate. The utilization of these recycled
aggregates has numerous enfolded benefits, such as reduction in the cost
of natural aggregates, reduction in the virgin materials related trans­
portation costs, elimination of solid waste disposal issues, and reduction
in the carbon footprint [20,21]. However, there also exist some limita­
tions to the effective utilization of these recycled aggregates. For
instance, RCA has a layer of porous adhered old mortar, which may
cause significant strength reductions [22]. Similarly, the interfacial
bonding energy between the asphalt-coated RAP aggregates and
cement-mortar paste has been noticed to be much lower, leading to
drastic strength reductions [23-25]. Cross-recycling of RAP is a common
practice nowadays. Although RAP is reused in asphalt pavements, not all
of it can be recycled. About 88% (nearly 85.1 million tons) of excess RAP
was reported by the US contractors by the year 2015 [20]. Therefore,
proper waste management and/or effective utilization of these excess
RAP in concrete pavements is often welcome. Singh et al. [26] observed
that RAP could be used for both the pavement types (concrete & bitu­
minous), however, the optimum proportion of the same need to be
explored based on the fresh & hardened state behavior of the target mix.
Despite strength reductions, the use of RAP in concrete has several
enfolded benefits such as improved ductility, cracking resistance, and
impact resistance compared to conventional concrete materials
[21,25,27]. Likewise, the use of tire rubber aggregates could improve
the toughness despite the reduction in the strength of concrete [28-30].
On the contrary, the use of coarse EAFSS aggregate may increase/
decrease the concrete compressive strength based on its surface rough­
ness and angularity [31]. The plastic and hardened behavior of RCCP
largely depends on the type and size of aggregates, gradation of aggre­
gates, cementitious content (cement and mineral admixtures), and water
content. Hence, this review paper would function as a single document
addressing and discussing all the merits and demerits of producing a
sustainable RCCP using recycled materials.
2. Research significance and methodology
2.1. Research significance
The main focus of the present study is to critically appraise the
existing literature on the utilization of alternative aggregate for RCCP.
The volume occupied by the aggregate in RCCP is 10–15% higher than
conventional concrete mixtures. Therefore, utilization of the recycled
aggregates (RCA, RAP, EAFSS, and tire rubber aggregates) in RCCP
seems to be a better choice than its counterparts. Although the use of
alternative aggregate may lead to many-fold benefits such as reduction
in the natural aggregates demand, mitigation of waste disposal issues,
and lower carbon footprints, still hesitation due to lack of scientific/
fundamental/application understanding has been seen amongst
Fig. 1. Typical machines and equipment used for RCCP construction.
2
Construction and Building Materials 317 (2022) 125838
academicians, field practitioner/contractors, and construction engineers
related to the utilization of alternative aggregates for RCCP. Some of the
critical questions that have been addressed in the present review are:
1. Is it possible to incorporate recycled aggregate for RCCP? If yes, what
are the implications of alternative aggregate on the fresh, mechani­
cal, and durable properties?
2. What are the key factors affecting the strength and durability of
recycled aggregate inclusive RCCP mixtures?
3. What are the treatment methods available to mitigate the negative
effect of alternative aggregate?
4. What is the optimum replacement level for recycled aggregates up to
which the deterioration in the strength and durability is minimal?
5. What are the research prospects available to induce sustainability in
the RCCP through the integration of recycled aggregate?
The present review would provide a clear solution to the afforested
question by critically assessing the influence of these recycled materials
on the fresh, hardened, and durability properties of RCCP mixes and
compile several researchers’ findings into one document.
2.2. Research methodology
Fig. 3 presents the research methodology structure followed in this
current review. Journal articles available in different abstracting &
indexing databases published between 1997 and 2021 were collected
during the preliminary stage of the review. Depending on the quality of
the journal & scope of the present article, the papers were further
scrutinized and considered for review analysis. In this review, only the
significant engineering properties of RCCP are considered. For instance,
optimum moisture content (OMC), maximum dry density (MDD), and
vebe time values are the governing design criteria for RCCP mixes, and
hence, the influence of recycled materials on these parameters is
reviewed and discussed. The mechanical properties considered for re­
view are compressive strength, flexural strength, split tensile strength,
modulus of elasticity, and abrasion resistance. Subsequently, the influ­
ence of recycled materials on the durability properties, namely, porosity,
water absorption, freeze–thaw, and alkali-silica reaction of RCCP mixes,
is reviewed and discussed comprehensively. Based on the review anal­
ysis, the major conclusions and future recommendations are outlined.
The outline of the literature review adopted in this present study is
shown in Fig. 4.
3. Characterization of alternative aggregates
Based on the parent source properties, the morphological and me­
chanical characteristics of alternative aggregates may vary significantly
and hence needs to be mapped judiciously and linked with the resultant
concrete performance. For instance, RCA and RAP are the main con­
stituents of construction and demolition (C&D) waste and possess
completely different characteristics (Table 1). RCA originates from the
M. Selvam et al.
demolition of concrete infrastructures, and the aggregates are usually
covered with a thick rough-textured porous adhered old mortar layer
[34]. Similarly, mixed recycled concrete aggregates contain porous
adhered old mortar layer and a higher fraction of ceramic particles,
which entails more water due to higher water absorption capacity [35].
Whereas demolishing distressed bituminous/asphalt pavements leads to
the RAP, and the aggregates are surrounded by a thin, smooth hydro­
phobic asphalt coating [36,37]. The residual mortar content in RCAs is
typically in the range of 30–60%, and the specific gravity of RCA usually
ranges between 2.1 and 2.5 [22]. The asphalt content in RAP may range
from 2 to 7.5%, and the reported specific gravity typically varies be­
tween 2.1 and 2.6 for the coarser fraction and 1.8–2.4 for the finer
fraction [38-40]. The absorption capacity of RCA is usually higher than
natural aggregates due to adhered porous mortar, whereas the hydro­
phobic layer in RAP restricts the absorption of water. However, the
water absorption of RAP could be higher if extracted through uncon­
trolled milling technique, which produces external water soaking dust
contaminants [38,41].
Tire rubber aggregate can be used in varying sizes to generate proper
gradation. Chipped rubber (CiR) is generally utilized to replace coarse
aggregates; irregularly-shaped crumb rubber (CR) is employed as fine
aggregates, and powdered rubber may be utilized as filler, binder, or fine
aggregates in concrete mixes [32]. The specific gravity of tire rubber
aggregates may vary between 0.6 and 1.5. The low water absorption
capacity and density make tire rubber aggregate a potential lightweight
aggregate [42].
EAFSS is a by-product of steel production and has very good me­
chanical properties; it is a crushed product with a black color stone
appearance and a rough surface texture [31,43]. In comparison to RCA
and RAP, EAFSS has a relatively high specific gravity of about 2.9–3.4
and has high abrasion resistance, low aggregate crushing value, and
excellent resistance to fragmentation. These properties make EAFSS
particularly suitable for concrete applications; however, this artificial
material may result in expansion due to the presence of free CaO and
MgO that may lead to volumetric instability [31]. Mitigating this
negative effect may make EAFSS one of the potential alternative ag­
gregates for the production of concrete mixes. A visual representation of
the coarser fraction of these alternative aggregates is shown in Fig. 5.
Also, the composition and physical properties of recycled aggregates are
Econocrete
• Low cement content (107-208
kg/m3)
• Compressive strength (7-14 MPa)
• Used as shoulder, subbase and
base course
Dry lean concrete
• Low cement content (150 kg/m3)
• Compressive strength (14-18
MPa)
• Used as upper subbase and
subbase
Fig. 2. Comparison between econocrete, lean concrete, cement-treated base, and RCCP [7-12].
3
Construction and Building Materials 317 (2022) 125838
shown in Table.1.
4. Influence of alternative aggregates on RCCP properties
4.1. Fresh properties
4.1.1. Optimum moisture content
Since RCCP mixes have to be compacted with static/vibratory rol­
lers, they are designed following the soil compaction approach; the
moisture content shall be adequate (OMC) to achieve the maximum
compactness (MDD). The modified proctor method, in accordance with
ASTM D1557 [55], is the most preferred method for determining the
OMC of RCCP mixes. But in the case of weak aggregates, the standard
proctor method, as per ASTM D698, could be adopted [2]. Some re­
searchers have also employed the Superpave gyratory compactor to
determine the OMC and to prepare laboratory specimens due to its
better ability to simulate and reproduce the actual field compaction
conditions in the laboratory [56-61]. Typically, the OMC of RCCP mixes
made with natural aggregates ranges between 5 and 8% (mass of total
dry materials) [2]. But in the case of RCA-RCCP mixes, the OMC is
generally higher by about 1.6–5.1% when RCA is utilized in the pro­
portion of 5–30% [48]. At higher RCA replacement levels, i.e.,
50–100%, the increase in the OMC could be much higher, nearly about
25–35% higher than the conventional RCCP [47]. This increase in the
OMC is mainly due to the presence of old adhered mortar in the RCA,
which is ascribed for higher water absorption capacities [62]. Also, the
composition of RCA could have a significant influence on the fresh
properties. For instance, MRCA from mixed C&D waste could lead to an
increase in the OMC by about 35–53% [35]. This could be due to the
presence of a higher fraction of ceramic waste (11.4–23.4%) in the
Mixed RCA, which entails more water to achieve maximum compactness
of the mix [35].
Similar to RCA, the use of EAFSS aggregates could increase the OMC
by about 15–21% when utilized in the proportion of 50–100% [53]. This
implies that EAFSS aggregates may warrant more water to attain
maximum compactness. However, this water demand could be reduced
by the addition of fly ash, which exhibits the water reduction ability
owing to the ball-bearing effect of its spherical particles [53]. Contrarily
to RCA/EAFSS RCCP mixes, the use of RAP generally lowers the OMC
Cement treated base
• Low cement content (56 - 226
kg/m3)
• Compressive strength (1-12 MPa)
• Used as subbase and base course
RCCP
• Medium cement content (150-350
kg/m3)
• Compressive strength (28-41 MPa)
• Used for wearing course, subbase
and base course
M. Selvam et al.
Keyword Search: Roller compacted
concrete pavement, recycled concrete
aggregate, rubber tire, steel slag, and RAP
Data Range:
(From Past to
2021)
Search
O ptions Article Type:
Review;
technical
papers; case-
studies and
reports
Language:
English
Fig. 3. Databases and search options used in the present study.
value by about 8–12%, mainly due to the water-repelling ability of its
asphalt layer [63]. However, some researchers reported that the inclu­
sion of RAP might increase the OMC value up to 12% [49,64,65]. This
negative effect on the OMC was ascribed by the agglomeration of RAP
particles, which entraps the water into the voids [50]. In the case of CR-
RCCP mixes, Fakhri and Amoosoltani [29] reported that the inclusion of
CR particles lowered the OMC of RCCP mixes. Besides, due to the lower
water absorption of CR particles, more free mortar was available that
increased the workability and compaction efforts, leading to better
compaction and consistency of the fresh mixes. From the literature, it
has been observed that the incorporation of RCA and EAFSS can increase
the OMC values due to its higher water absorption capacities. Whereas
the inclusion of RAP and CR may lower the OMC due to their lower
water absorption values. Based on the source, the use of RAP may also
result in higher OMC values due to the presence of agglomerated par­
ticles and dust.
4.1.2. Maximum dry density
The incorporation of RCA could lead to a reduction in MDD mainly
due to its lower specific gravity [48]. However, the rate of change in
slope of the OMC-MDD plot of the RCA-RCCP mix could be flatter than
the control RCCP. This indicates that RCA-RCCP mixes can tolerate the
same or greater variations in moisture content than the control mixes
without compromising their dry density during compaction [47].
Similar to RCA, the incorporation of low-density RAP and CR has been
reported to reduce the MDD of RCCP mixes by about 5% and 7%,
respectively [50,66,67]. Nevertheless, the inclusion of RAP results in
better workability and compactability due to the combined effect of the
lubricating effect provided by the asphalt layer and the lesser angularity
of RAP aggregates [68]. On the other hand, the use of EAFSS has been
found to improve the MDD of RCCP mixes by approximately 0.7–3.9%,
primarily due to its higher density [53]. Irrespective of the type of
alternative aggregates utilized in RCCP mixes, the variation in the MDDs
was found to be minutely small. Hence, it proves the potential of these
alternative aggregates since the hardened strength of RCCP is directly
related to its maximum compactness of the fresh mix.
4.1.3. Vebe time
The vibrating table method determines the consistency of stiff and
very stiff RCCP mixes as per ASTM C1170 [69]. The time required to
form a mortar ring around the periphery of the surcharge is considered
as Vebe consistency time. According to ASTM C1170 [69], the maximum
allowable Vebe time is 60 s; whereas ACI 325 recommends a Vebe time
4
Construction and Building Materials 317 (2022) 125838
Web of
science
American
Science Society of
Direct Civil
Engineers
Database
TRID
(Transport
Scopus Research
International
Documentation)
Taylor &
Francis
of 30–40 s for RCCP mixes; Marchand et al. [70] suggests 50–75 secs; In
general, RCCP mixes having a Vebe time of about 32–39 s was found to
exhibit desirable performance [71]. To the best of the authors’ knowl­
edge, no study is available which investigated the Vebe time of RCCP
mixes made with alternative aggregates, except crumb rubber.
Mohammad and Adamu [66] demonstrated that the Vebe time decreases
from 33 s to 27 s when the dosage of crumb rubber was increased from
10% to 30%, respectively. This behavior was mainly ascribed to the
hydrophobic nature of crumb rubber, which repels the water away. As a
result, more free water becomes available in the mixture, leading to
lesser Vebe time and compaction energy [52,66,72].
On the other hand, ACI 327 recommends that the RCCP mixes should
be compacted using a vibrating hammer for a duration of 15–20 s or
until the mortar paste starts to appear around the corners of the tamping
plate. However, a much higher time is usually required for RCCP mixes
containing alternative aggregates to achieve their maximum compact­
ness. The RCCP mixes made with alternative aggregates should be
compacted for at least 15–25 s to achieve the MDD [35,47]. A summary
of the influence of alternative aggregates on the fresh properties of RCCP
mixes is shown in Table 2.
4.2. Mechanical properties
This section discusses the influence of alternative aggregates on some
of the important mechanical properties of RCCP, such as compressive
strength, flexural strength, split tensile strength, modulus of elasticity,
and abrasion resistance. Compressive strength and flexural strength are
the fundamental parameters that govern the thickness design of RCCP,
and their stipulated limits suggested by different governing agencies are
listed in Table 3.
4.2.1. Compressive strength
Compressive strength is an important parameter considered in the
field for quality control, and hence, proper care should be taken during
the selection of the raw materials during the initial mix design itself. Due
to the complex composition of alternative aggregates, the inclusions of
alternative aggregates could drastically influence the final compressive
strength of the RCCP mixes. For instance, the use of RCA has been re­
ported to lower the compressive strength of RCCP mixes in the range of
5–35%. The compressive strength has been observed to be a function of
the proportion of RCA considered: the use of 30% of RCA has been found
to reduce the compressive strength by about 29% [48], whereas 100%
utilization of RCA may lower the strength by around 35% [47]. This
M. Selvam et al. Construction and Building Materials 317 (2022) 125838

Fig. 4. Outline of literature review (Photos of electric arc furnace EAFSS and tire rubber reprinted with permission from Elsevier [32,33]).

Table 1
Composition and physical properties of recycled aggregates.
Type of Composition (%) Specific Water Los Angeles Flakiness References
aggregate gravity absorption abrasion value index
Bituminous/ Ceramic Concrete and Agglomerated Free
Asphalt content particles mortars particles CaO

RCA 1.3 2.5 71 × × 2.51 4.69 29.4 × [47]

1.7 2.5 59 × × 2.22 6.1 36.6 5.7 [35]
× × × × × 2.19 7.63 32 × [48]
Mixed RCA 1.5–1.1 11.4–23.4 51–55 × × 2.08–2.16 7.4–9.2 35–37 9.4–14.3 [35]
Fine RAP × × × × × 1.82 0.91 × × [49]
× × × × × 2.27 1.4 × × [28]
4.5 × × × × 2.35 2.35 × × [50]
Coarse RAP × × × × × 2.14–2.3 0.7–1 28 × [49]
1.9 × × 15 × 2.41 0.40 × × [50]
Tire Rubber × × × × × 1.21 × × × [29,30]
× × × × × 1.253 × × × [51]
× × × × × 1.273 0.5 × × [52]
EAFSS × × × × < 0.1 3.4 2.93 19.37 × [53,54]
× × × × 0.67 3.4–2.91 1.7–3.2 10.8 × [31]

Note - × indicates data is not available

5
M. Selvam et al. Construction and Building Materials 317 (2022) 125838

Recycled Concrete Aggregate Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement EAF Slag Aggregate Rubber Aggregate
Specific gravity: 2.1–2.5 Specific gravity: 1.81-2.49 Specific gravity: 2.9-3.4 Specific Gravity: 0.6-1.5
Water absorption: 3-12% Water absorption: 0.4-2.03% Water absorption: 1.9-2.7% Water Absorption: ~0.5%
Shape and texture: Angular Shape and texture: Angular with Shape and texture: Angular with Shape and texture: Angular with
with rough surface smooth surface rough surface rough surface

Fig. 5. Visual representation of the coarser fraction of alternative aggregates. (Images reprinted with permission from Elsevier [32,44-46]).

Table 2
Summary of literature presenting the influence of alternative aggregates on fresh RCCP properties.
Aggregate Replacement Difference in Difference in Difference in Trend in Trend in Trend in Remarks References
type level (%) OMC relative MDD relative Vebe time OMC MDD Vebe time
to control mix to control mix relative to relative to relative to relative to
(%) (%) control mix (%) control mix control mix control mix

RCA 5, 15, and 30 1.6, 3.2, and 0.8, 4.5, and – Increase Decrease – – [48]
5.1 4.6
50 and 100 8.3 to 30 2.2 to 4.7 – Increase Decrease – – [47]
100 17 to 35 1.8 to 3.1 – Increase Decrease – – [35]
Mixed RCA 100 7 to 8 3 to 4 – Increase Decrease – – [35]
EAFSS 50 and 100 15 to 21 0.7 to 3.9 – Increase Increase – Higher water absorption [53]
and bulk density of
EAFSS aggregate
compared to crushed
stone aggregate
RAP 0 and 100 8.4 to 11.8 3.2 to 5.4 – Decrease Decrease – Both fractions of RAP [68]
utilized
16 10 0.2 – Increase Decrease – Coarse fraction of RAP [65]
utilized
20, 30, 40, 60 1.8, 3.6, 4.5, 1.7, 2.6, 3.3, – Increase Decrease – Both fractions of RAP [64]
and 100 5.9, and 7.1 5.8, and 7.7 utilized
100 coarse 3.3 to 11.1 2.6 to 4.3 – Increase Decrease – OMC increases due to the [49,67]
RAP presence of dust
contaminants and higher
concentration of
agglomerated particles
100 coarse 2.1 2.5 – Decrease Decrease – Reduction in OMC due to [50]
RAP higher concentration of
asphalt in RAP
50 and 100 3.3 and 9.8 0.9 and 2.1 – Increase Decrease – Use of dust contaminated [67]
fine RAP increases the
water absorption
capability
50 total RAP 4.1 3.8 – Decrease Decrease – OMC decreased due to [50]
maximum compactness
achieved
100 total RAP 4.1 to 10 5 to 8 × Increase Decrease – Negative effect of higher [49,50]
concentration of
agglomerated particles
Crumb 10, 20, and 30 × 0.9, 6.6, and 9, 24.2, and × Decrease Decrease – [66]
rubber 6.5 27.2

Note - × indicates data is not available.

reduction in the compressive strength is due to the presence of old
adhered mortar around the periphery of the RCA that usually results in a
poor ITZ with the new cement-mortar paste [35,73,74]. A higher
reduction of 24–31% has been reported for mixed RCA compared to
12–18% when RCA from an unmixed source was utilized [35].
Similar to RCA, the use of tire rubber and RAP could also reduce the
compressive strength of RCCP mixes. For instance, the inclusion of CR
reduces the compressive strength by about 10–32%, when chipped
rubber (CiR) is utilized in proportions of 5–30% [52]. The weaker
adhesion between the cement mortar and rubber particles is mainly
attributed to the strength reductions in the CiR inclusive RCCP mixes.
However, the addition of 5% of CR could exhibit a beneficial effect
probably due to the low rubber content, which creates enough friction
between particles and better alignments of rubber particles inside the
mixture [29].
Meanwhile, in the case of RAP-RCCP mixes, the use of RAP could

6
M. Selvam et al. Construction and Building Materials 317 (2022) 125838

Table 3 strength by about 24–31% when coarse CiR is utilized in the proportion
Recommended strength requirements for RCCP at 28 days of curing age. of 5–30% [52]. Contrarily, Fakhri et al. [28] demonstrated that flexural
Standards Recommended strength Country of strength could be increased by 3–4% when combined fractions of 5% of
origin CR are utilized. This behavior is firstly affected by diminishing water-
Compressive strength Flexural cement ratio due to less water absorption of rubber particles, which
(MPa) strength (MPa)
causes more stability and homogeneity of the mixture, and then by
ACI 327 and Portland 28 to 41 3.5 to 7 USA dispersion of rubber particles between aggregates and making a better
Cement Association interlock.
American Concrete 28 (If no freeze and USA
The use of RAP as a partial replacement to natural aggregates could
×
Pavement thaw)
Association 31 (If exposed to reduce the flexural strength of RCCP mixes by about 5–31%, irrespective
freeze and thaw) of the RAP fraction or replacement level [29,50,67,68]. However, the
IRC: SP-68 Typically designed for M30 grade India use of coarse RAP exhibits a lesser flexural strength reduction in com­
concrete
parison to the fine and/or combined RAP fractions [67,68]. This is due
British Airport × 4 British
Authority to the lesser concentration of asphalt in the coarse RAP fractions
France 20 × France (~1.9%) as compared to the fine and/or combined RAP fractions (4.5%)
[67]. Nevertheless, the prevalence of the asphalt layer engulfing the RAP
Note - × indicates data is not available.
will definitely cause the flexural strength to reduce due to the formation
of a weak interfacial bond between the cement mortar and RAP.
lead to compressive strength reductions in the range of 9–67%, irre­
Contrarily, the presence of an asphalt layer could contribute to
spective of the RAP fractions utilized [29,49,50,67,68,76]. This reduc­
improving the toughness of the RCCP mixes due to the viscoelastic na­
tion is attributed to the presence of an asphalt layer engulfing the RAP,
ture of the asphalt [29]. As a result, the use of RAP could increase the
which hinders a good interfacial bonding between the cement mortar
load-carrying capacity of RCCP if the reduction in the flexural strength is
and RAP aggregates. Nevertheless, the use of a coarser fraction of RAP
negated by providing a thicker slab [63]. In the case of EAFSS inclusive
could contribute to a lesser strength reduction of about 25% only [68].
RCCP mixes, the use of finer fraction could lower the flexural strength by
Meanwhile, reductions of about 40–60% could be expected when uti­
about 27% owing to the poor bonding between the cement matrix and
lizing finer and/or combined fractions of RAP aggregates [50,68].
the finer fraction of EAFSS [31]. Contrary, the complete replacement of
Mixed behavior has been observed in the case of EAFSS inclusive
natural aggregates by the coarser fraction of EAFSS could rather
RCCP mixes, which is mainly attributed to the aggregate’s morphology,
enhance the flexural strength by about 9% [31]. This is attributed to the
porosity, water absorption, and ITZ [31,53,77,78]. Some researchers
improved morphological characteristics of the EAFSS aggregates, such
reported that the incorporation of EAFSS would reduce the compressive
as the rough texture and angularity, which improved the interfacial
strength of RCCP mixes, while some reported an enhancement in the
transition zone, facilitating an enhancement in the load-bearing capac­
strength. For instance, compressive strength reductions in the range of
ity of the mix. From this analysis, it could be observed that the general
5–39% could be expected, irrespective of the EAFSS replacement level or
trend in RCCP mixes containing alternative aggregates is the reduction
EAFSS fractions utilized [53,79]. It is worth mentioning that the pres­
in the flexural strength, except for EAFSS aggregates. Hence, more
ence of free lime and magnesium oxide in EAFSS leads to expansion and
studies relating the morphological characteristics of EAFSS to the
can increase the volume up to 10% in a moist environment. This prop­
strength parameters need to be conducted to understand the true
erty makes EAFSS unsuitable for applications in portland cement. In
behavior of the composite RCCP.
order to utilize EAFSS as a potential building material, EAFSS should be
The relationships between the compressive and flexural strength of
exposed to outdoor moisture and rainfall for a period of 3–12 months
RCCP mixes made with alternative aggregates are established by the
[53,79]. Despite the pre-treatment of EAFSS aggregates, the possible
present authors. The data points were obtained from existing studies and
reason for the reduction in the compressive strength is the morpholog­
plotted, as shown in Fig. 6. From Fig. 6, it is evident that the variation in
ical characteristics and weak interfacial bonding between cement
the material properties has a significant effect on the strength of RCCP
mortar and EAFSS aggregates. In contrast, Rooholamini et al. [31]
demonstrated that the use of coarse EAFSS could lead to a 6% and 14%
improvement in the compressive strength at 50% and 100% EAFSS
replacement levels. This behavior was mainly attributed to the rough
RCA Slag Crumb Rubber RAP
texture and angularity of the coarse EAFSS, which facilitated a better
aggregate interlocking, improved the ITZ, and resulted in higher load- 9
carrying capacity. It can be observed that the inclusion of RCA or RAP 8
would reduce the compressive strength of RCCP, whereas the use of
EAFSS and tire rubber aggregate showed mixed behavior. Hence, 7
Flexural Strength (MPa)

studying the behavior of these aggregates at the micro-level may provide

6 y = 0.0597X1.279
a better understanding of its effect on RCCP properties. R² = 0.5361
5
4.2.2. Flexural strength y = 0.7036X0.612
R² = 0.631 y = 0.1281X1.015
Flexural strength is an important parameter in the mix design as well 4
R² = 0.9837
as in the pavement design of cement concrete pavements. There are
3
several parameters affecting the flexural behavior of concrete pave­
ments: the most important being the water-cement ratio and the com­ 2
y = 0.395 X0.6284
bined gradation of aggregates. Similar to compressive strength, the
1 R² = 0.9592
incorporation of RCA also reduces the flexural strength of RCCP mixes
by about 12–27%, irrespective of the RCA fraction and/or replacement 0 10 20 30 40 50
levels [47,48]. As mentioned earlier, the poor interfacial zone between Compressive strength (MPa)
the cement mortar and RCA leads to higher porosity in the ITZ, and
Fig. 6. Relationship between the compressive strength and flexural strength
hence, leading to a reduction in the flexural strength. Moreover, the use
The data used for this model are taken from the literature
of a coarser fraction of CiR also causes a reduction in the flexural
[29,31,47,50,64,67,68]

7
M. Selvam et al.
inclusive alternative aggregative. Hence, further comprehensive studies
are required to determine the effect of alternative materials on the
modulus of ruptures of RCCP mixtures.
4.2.3. Split tensile strength
The incorporation of RCA has also been found to reduce the split
tensile strength of RCCP mixes by about 18% when a coarser fraction of
RCA was utilized in a proportion of 100% [35]. This reduction was
mainly attributed to the poor interfacial bonding between the cement
mortar and the RCA particles, which showed lesser resistance to defor­
mation prior to the limit split tensile strength is reached. Besides, the
presence of ceramic wastes in RCA-RCCP mixes further reduces the split
tensile strength by about 23% [47]. As expected, the inclusions of CiR
also reduces the split tensile strength of RCCP mixes by about 23%,
when 30% of coarse CiR is utilized [52]. However, similar to the
compressive and flexural strength, the use of 20–30% of coarse CR was
also found to increase the split tensile strength by about 15–30% [66].
This disparity is attributed to the fact that the addition of CR at a lower
dosage increases the tensile strength owing to its ductility behavior and
the ability to bridge the microcracks in the concrete matrix. Meanwhile,
the reduction in split tensile strength at higher rubber dosages is due to
the formation of a poor bond between the rubber particles and cement
matrix [80,81].
Likewise, the inclusion of RAP also reduces the split tensile strength
of RCCP mixes, irrespective of any curing ages [49,50,65,67]. For
instance, Ferrebee et al. [65] observed that the use of 16% of coarse RAP
could reduce the split tensile strength by about 16%. Similarly, Settari
et al. [49] noticed a reduction of about 26% when 100% of coarse RAP
was utilized. Obviously, the presence of the asphalt layer engulfing the
RAP hinders the formation of a good interfacial bond between the
cement mortar and RAP aggregates, thus leading to a reduction in the
concrete strength. Meanwhile, the use of coarse EAFSS has been found to
reduce the split tensile strength by 13–32%, at varying replacement
levels (30–100%) [53,79]. Contrary, Rooholamini et al. [31] found that
the split tensile strength could increase by 25% and 32%, when coarse
EAFSS was utilized in the proportion of 50% and 100%, respectively.
Likewise, the authors also demonstrated that the use of 50% of fine
EAFSS could also increase the split tensile strength by about 25% [31].
However, the reduction was observed at 100% of the fine EAFSS
replacement level. The possible reason for this reduction is mainly
attributed to the increased surface area of the fine EAFSS, which causes
lesser cohesiveness. It is evident that the incorporation of RCA and RAP
may lead to split tensile strength reduction, whereas mixed behavior was
observed when tire rubber and EAFSS aggregates were utilized. Hence,
more laboratory studies could help in understanding the effect of these
waste materials on the split tensile strength of RCCP mixes.
4.2.4. Modulus of elasticity
The modulus of elasticity (MOE) is a measure of a material’s ten­
dency to endure the reversible elastic deformation on axial stress [2].
The use of alternative aggregates has been observed to cause a drastic
influence on the MOE of RCCP mixes. For instance, the inclusion of RCA
could reduce the MOE by about 13–37%, irrespective of the RCA
replacement levels [47]. Debieb et al. [82] reported that the reduction in
the MOE is mainly due to the presence of residual mortar in the RCA,
which leads to higher porosity, and hence, leading to a reduction in the
strength and concrete modulus. Similarly, the use of 100% of coarse
EAFSS was also observed to reduce the MOE by about 20%. Likewise, a
linear reduction of 6% and 52% was observed when coarse CiR was
utilized in proportions of 5% and 30% [52]. The use of RAP has also
been reported to reduce the MOE of RCCP mixes by about 80%
[29,49,64]. Although lower MOE decreases the stress level in the slab
and may reduce the crack width, but it also causes higher slab deflection,
thus leading to higher base damage [83-85]. It is evident that the uti­
lization of alternative aggregates can greatly affect the MOE of RCCP
mixes due to their difference in material properties from conventional
8
Construction and Building Materials 317 (2022) 125838
aggregates. Hence, relationship models were established between the
MOE and the compressive strength and are being depicted in Fig. 7.
Fig. 7 illustrates that as the variation in the material properties of
alternative aggregate increases, the difference in the MOE of RCCP also
increases significantly. Hence, more studies need to be carried out to
map the influence of inherent material properties on the MOE of RCCP
mixes containing alternative aggregates.
4.2.5. Abrasion resistance
Due to the rough texture of RCC pavements, it is important to assess
the abrasion resistance so that the pavement will be able to provide a
smooth riding quality. The abrasion resistance of RCCP mixes is pri­
marily governed by the quality of aggregates used and the compressive
strength. Hence, the use of alternative aggregates with varying density,
water absorption capacities, shape, and texture, could greatly affect the
abrasion resistance of RCCP mixes. However, limited studies have been
carried out in this regard. For instance, Debbarma et al. [50,67] reported
that the incorporation of RAP could increase the loss in mass due to
abrasive forces, irrespective of the RAP fraction or replacement type.
The surface texture of RAP plays a vital role in providing resistance
against abrasive action. For instance, the use of rough-textured RAP with
lesser asphalt content may show a lesser degradation against abrasive
forces, as compared to the smooth-textured RAP with higher asphalt
content, which exhibits higher degradation [50,67]. Similar to RAP-
RCCP mixes, the inclusion of 20–30% of CR could reduce the abrasion
resistance due to the poor bonding between the cement mortar and CR
particles [66]. However, the abrasion resistance could be comparative to
conventional mixes when the CR dosage is lesser (<10%). At lower CR
dosages, the CR particles act like a brush on the surface of the hardened
concrete, providing more resistance to grinding and improving the
abrasion resistance of RCCP mixes [86]. It is evident from the literature
that limited studies are available in the context of abrasion resistance of
RCCP mixes containing alternative aggregates. Hence, it is imperative
for researchers to ponder upon this grey area in order to better under­
stand the behavior of various alternative aggregates under abrasive
action.
4.3. Durability properties
4.3.1. Porosity
Porosity is an important property affecting almost all the durability
properties of cement concrete mixes. Higher porosity generally indicates
a higher amount of voids in the concrete system, and higher voids will
RCA Slag crumb rubber RAP
35000
30000 y = 990.88X1.06 y = 747424X-0.854
R² = 0.5027
R² = 0.99
Modulus of elasticity (MPa)
25000
20000
y = 4030X0.49
15000 R² = 0.77
y = 1250X0.55
R² = 0.40
10000
5000
0 10 20 30 40 50
Compressive Strength (MPa)
Fig. 7. Relationships between the modulus of elasticity and compressive
strength. The data used for this model are taken from the literature
[29,35,47,48,52,53]
M. Selvam et al.
allow the entry of foreign contaminants, which could cause severe
durability-related issues. The porosity of RCCP mixes could be as low as
4% or as high as 19% [63]. However, the inclusion of alternative ag­
gregates can cause a significant variation in the porosity of RCCP mixes.
For instance, the use of RCA has been reported to increase the porosity as
the RCA replacement level increases. Approximately 28% and 46% in­
crease in the porosity has been reported when coarse RCA was utilized in
the proportion of 50% and 100%, respectively [47]. The primary reason
for this increase is due to the presence of adhered old mortar around the
periphery of RCA, which causes a poor interfacial bonding between the
cement mortar and RCA, leading to higher porosity in the interfacial
region. Several studies on conventional concrete have shown that in­
clusions of RAP could increase the porosity of the concrete matrix due to
the presence of agglomerated particles in RAP and porous ITZ
[23,39,87]. Contrarily, the use of RAP was found to lower the RCCP
porosity by about 20–48%, irrespective of RAP fraction or replacement
level [35,50]. This reduction was mainly due to the softening of asphalt
and pore-clogging during the oven-drying and boiling period of the
ASTM C642 procedure [88]. The melting of asphalt during the oven
drying period and subsequent clogging of pores could be avoided by
extending the drying duration and reducing the drying temperature to 8
days and 48 ± 2 ◦ C, respectively [88]. Based on the literature surveyed,
it could be understood that the influence of alternative aggregates on the
porosity of RCCP mixes has not been explicitly investigated. Therefore,
more studies need to be carried out to understand the behavior of
alternative aggregates on the durability aspect of RCCP mixes.
4.3.2. Water absorption
Similarly, only a handful of research is available pertaining to the
influence of alternative aggregates on the water absorption of RCCP
mixes. Due to lower water absorption of RAP, Debbarma et al. [50]
found that the water absorption of RCCP could be reduced by about
20–42%, irrespective of the RAP fraction or replacement level. However,
the presence of higher agglomerated particles could rather increase the
water absorption by about 19%, as positively identified by Debbarma
et al. [50]. Agglomerated RAP particles may create tiny voids that entrap
water, thus, leading to higher water absorption capacities in the con­
crete system. Moreover, the presence of external dust contaminants in
the finer fraction of RAP could also lead to higher water absorption
capacities than that shown by the coarse RAP fractions, although lower
than the mix containing natural aggregates only [67]. Contradictory
findings were observed in the case of CiR inclusive RCCP mixes. For
instance, Meddah et al. [52] reported that any increase in the dosage of
CiR would reduce the water absorption of the concrete due to the lower
water absorbency of CiR particles. In contrast, Mohammed and Adamu
[66] noticed an increase in water absorption mainly due to the entrap­
ment of air on the surface of CR during mixing. Although the addition of
1.13% of nano-silica (by weight of cementitious materials) can refine the
pores and improve the water absorption of CR-RCCP mixes [66], its
utilization may increase the cost of the project. It can be understood that
very limited studies are available which discuss the effect of alternative
aggregates on the water absorption of RCCP mixes. Moreover, no study
(as per the author’s knowledge) is available in regard to the water ab­
sorption behavior of RCA and EAFSS inclusive RCCP mixes.
4.3.3. Freeze-thaw
The construction of RCCP in the cold region might cause damages
like surface scaling and internal cracking produced by the freeze–thaw
cycles [2]. The deterioration of concrete due to F-T cycles is dependent
on the critical degree of saturation (the ratio of the volume of voids filled
with water to the total void volume). Since the degree of saturation
largely depends on the total volume of pores in the concrete, the open
and porous texture of RCCP may lead to significant F-T damage. Hence,
the selection of well-graded aggregate along with fundamental param­
eters (adequate cement & water content, selection of chemical and
mineral admixtures, and curing) is important to make RCCP durable
9
Construction and Building Materials 317 (2022) 125838
against F-T damage [2]. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, only two
research studies are available which assessed the F-T durability of RCCP
mixes containing RAP [45,89]. The results showed that the inclusion of
RAP could cause a mass loss of 0.03–1%, but debonding on the periphery
of RAP was observed [39,85]. Also, a minor variation in the resonance
frequency of about 2326–2341 Hz was reported in their study. It was
observed that the mass loss in conventional concrete mixes mostly
occurred near the compaction voids, whereas, in the case of RAP-
inclusive mixes, higher mass loss was seen at the transition between
asphalt & mortar [89]. Similarly, replacement of fine aggregate by CiR
has a similar performance to control RCCP mixes at lower cycles; how­
ever, a minor/slight increase in mass loss is observed at higher F-T cycles
(300 cycles). Also, CiR inclusive RCCP mixtures showed a little
improvement in the reduction of relative dynamic modulus. This could
be attributed to the improvement in elastic property of concrete mixture
caused by rubber particles [90]. In short, the incorporation of RAP
exhibited good resistance to freeze and thaw cycles, and the inclusion of
rubber particles showed little influence on F-T damage; however, more
research studies are required to understand the behavior of other
alternative aggregates like RCA, EAFSS, and tire rubber aggregates in
the F-T conditions.
4.3.4. Alkali-Silica reaction (ASR)
The Alkali-silica reaction has been considered a major durability
problem over the past decades in concrete structures and pavements
[91,92]. ASR is a chemical reaction formed between the alkaline pore
solution of concrete and silica in the metastable form of natural and
synthetic aggregate [93,94]. The expansion of ASR gel could result in
stress development and subsequent cracking, which causes a consider­
able cost for the repair and rehabilitation of concrete [92,93,95,96].
Typically, the expansion potential of aggregate has been determined
according to the ASTM C1260 standard by measuring the expansion of
mortar bars. Among alternative aggregate, untreated EAFSS posed the
volume stability problem due to the alkali-silica reaction. However,
treating the EAFSS by keeping the aggregates in an open environment
for around 90 days and regular spraying of water could lower the risk of
ASR [53]. In fact, the study conducted by Lam et al. [53,79] demon­
strated that the treated EAFSS aggregates could have lower volume
instability than the natural crushed stones. Also, it was observed that the
inclusion of fly ash in proportions of 20–40% could lower the risk of ASR
[79]. The above findings are in agreement with the results from the XRD
analysis, which depicts the absence of portlandite [79]. These results
elucidated that treated EAFSS could be used at 100% replacement level
for RCCP applications without causing the deleterious behavior and
volume stability problem.
5. Factors affecting the strength and durability of RCCP
containing alternative aggregates
5.1. Recycled concrete aggregates
The primary factors affecting the strength properties of RCA are the
mixing water content, water to binder ratio, the strength of the old paste,
water absorption and saturation state of RCA, and ITZ between the RCA
and the mortar [22,97-99]. ITZ is considered as the weakest region in
concrete microstructure primarily due to higher water-cement ratio
owing to internal bleeding, higher concentration of Portlandite, the
existence of micro-cracks, and wall effect, i.e., reduction in the bulk
packing density of cement particles [100-102]. It acts as a passage for
the intrusion of aggressive species and eases the crack growth
[99,103,104]. Typically, the nanoindentation methods could determine
the elastic modulus and width of ITZ [105-107]. The width of ITZ in
recycled concrete aggregate is usually in the range of 30–60 µm [108-
110]. Generally, RCA concrete consists of three different types of ITZ: (1)
old ITZ, (2) new ITZ between old and new mortar, and (3) ITZ between
uncoated RCA and new mortar [111,112](Fig. 8a). The adhered mortar
M. Selvam et al.
Fig. 8. Schematic representation showing the factors affecting the strength and durability of recycled aggregates (Images are made by authors).
in RCA creates a new ITZ, which significantly influences the strength of
RCA concrete due to its highly porous nature and numerous microcracks
developed during the manufacturing process of RCA [113]. However,
the performance of recycled aggregate concrete could be improved by
enhancing the RCA properties or densifying the ITZ [111,112,114]. On
the other hand, the new ITZ governs the strength performance of RCA
concrete; however, improvement in the strength was not reported in the
case of RCA-RCCP. This may be due to the fact that the load-carrying
capacity of RCCP is largely dependent on the aggregate-to-aggregate
interlocking and the densification of the porous old ITZ is too large to
be compensated by the hydration products. Although the new ITZ
governs strength performance, the failure in the old ITZ restricts any
strength improvement and leads to the strength reduction of RCA-RCCP
mixes.
The RCA replacement level and w/c ratio also significantly influence
the strength of RCA-RCCP mixes. For instance, Lopez-Uceda et al. [47]
demonstrated that as the RCA content increases, the w/c ratio also in­
creases due to the high water absorption of RCA. Due to the higher pore
volume of RCA, the porosity, strength, and transport properties (water
absorption and permeability) were subsequently affected as the RCA
content increased. Another factor affecting the strength is the curing
time used to produce the hardened RCA concrete. Lopez-Uceda et al.
[47] found that the increase in compressive strength between 28 days
and 90 days in mixes fully or partially replaced by RCA was higher than
the mixes containing virgin aggregates only. This behavior could be
attributed to an improvement of the bond strength in the ITZ between
the old and new mortar over time. The cement content used to produce
the RCA-RCCP mix also greatly influences the hardened concrete
strength. A low cement content of 110 kg/m3 has been reported to
produce an RCA-RCCP mix with a very low compressive strength of
about 4.5–5.7 MPa, irrespective of the RCA content and curing ages
[47]. But increasing the cement content to 175, 250, and 350 kg/m3
10
Construction and Building Materials 317 (2022) 125838
produces an RCA concrete with a higher compressive strength in the
range of 18.2–22.2, 21.5–28.9, and 27.6–40.6 MPa, respectively [47].
The effect of cement content, w/c ratio, curing time, and RCA replace­
ment levels on the compressive strength of RCA-RCCP mixes is shown in
Fig. 9.
5.2. Recycled asphalt pavement aggregates
The primary reason influencing the strength properties of RAP con­
crete mixes is the weak and porous ITZ between the RAP and cement-
mortar paste [115-117]. The presence of an asphalt layer around the
RAP hinders the formation of a good interfacial bonding, and as a result,
contributes to a weak and porous ITZ (Fig. 8b). Due to the viscoelastic
nature of asphalt, the crack propagates through the asphalt film rather
than through the aggregates [25]. Hence, the prevalence of asphalt-
cohesion failure becomes more dominant than the cement-asphalt
adhesion failure in RAP concrete mixes [24].
Several factors affecting the strength of RAP-RCCP mixes are the age
of RAP, the concentration of asphalt and agglomerated particles, the
fraction of RAP utilized, and the size of the aggregates. Debbarma et al.
[50] observed that the use of less-oxidized RAP could result in a
considerable strength reduction of about 26–67%, irrespective of the
RAP fractions utilized. In comparison, the use of highly-oxidized RAP
shows a less detrimental effect with a compressive strength reduction in
the range of 9–37% only [67]. Meanwhile, higher the asphalt concen­
tration, the more will be the mechanical strength reduction and vice-
versa. Moreover, the use of a finer fraction of RAP can lead to signifi­
cant strength reduction due to its higher asphalt concentration [50].
Whereas coarse RAP has a relatively lesser asphalt concentration, due to
which a lesser detrimental effect was observed as compared to the finer
and combined RAP fractions [67,68]. The presence of agglomerated
particles in higher concentrations is typically not desired since the
M. Selvam et al. Construction and Building Materials 317 (2022) 125838

Fig. 9. Effect of cement content, w/c ration, and RCA replacement levels on the compressive strength. (Data points obtained with permission from Taylor &
Francis [47]).

agglomeration of smaller RAP fractions can create water voids. These
water voids can negatively affect the transport properties and are also
considered to be weak zones that easily break due to mechanical
stresses. Besides, the particle size distribution of RAP also plays a sig­
nificant role in the performance of RCCP mixes. For instance, RAP milled
in a controlled way may produce gap-graded fine RAP aggregates and
cause workability-related issues. Whereas, RAP procured using a full-
depth reclamation technique can produce relatively well-graded RAP
aggregates and result in concrete with better performance [67]. How­
ever, this may not be environmentally friendly as it may produce a
significant amount of dust contaminants, which may subsequently affect
the concrete properties. Increasing the cementitious content was also
reported to increase the compressive strength of RAP incorporated RCCP
mixes [29].
along the boundary of the rubber particles also contributes to the me­
chanical strength reduction of the tire rubber incorporated RCCP mixes
[120].
The mechanical strength of RCCP containingtire rubber aggregates
can also be significantly affected due to the low w/c ratio and the
method of compacting the fresh RCCP mix. Firstly, RCCP is a no-slump
concrete with a very low w/c ratio as compared to conventional con­
crete. Due to the high w/c ratio in conventional concrete, there is less
friction between the rubber aggregates and the cement paste; thus, the
rubber aggregates easily move towards the top of the cast during
compaction [121]. As a result, the concentration of rubber aggregates on
the top of the concrete results in a serious defect in the conventional
concrete. Secondly, the use of a vibrating hammer instead of a vibrating
table provides better compaction to the fresh RCCP mix. When com­
pacting using a vibrating hammer, the rubber aggregates cannot move

5.3. Tire rubber aggregates

The primary factor affecting the strength properties of RCCP mixes

containing tire rubber aggregates is the poor bonding between the
rubber particles and cement paste. The poor adhesion is mainly due to
the smooth surface and lower hydraulic conductivity [66]. The
dislodgement of rubber particles from the cement matrix accelerates the
amplication of stress to neighboring areas and causes failure to the
rubberized concrete [51,118]. Besides, the entrapment of air on the
surface of the rubber particles also increases the size of ITZ; as a result,
poor adhesion and a weak bond exist between the rubber and cement
paste [119], as shown in Fig. 8c. The lower stiffness of the rubber par­
ticles is also largely accounted for the significant strength reduction of Fig. 10. Schematic illustration of (a) compaction using vibrating table (b)
the RCCP mixes containing rubber aggregates [51]. The reduction in vibratory hammer and the distribution of rubber aggregates (Reprinted with
solid material required to carry the load and concentration of stresses permission from Elsevier [121]).

11
M. Selvam et al.
up readily in the casts; as a result, less chance of a weak point emerging
on the top of the sample [121]. A schematic illustration of the
compaction methods using a vibrating table and hammer is shown in
Fig. 10. The distribution of rubber aggregates in the concrete samples
and the critical points on the top of the samples are clearly distinctive.
Hence, the use of a vibratory hammer for compacting the fresh RCCP
mixes has a significant role as far as the mechanical strength is
concerned.
5.4. Electric arc furnace steel slag aggregates
As mentioned earlier, the performance of EAFSS is primarily gov­
erned by the aggregate shape, surface texture, and the quantity of free
magnesia and lime [31,78]. The use of EAFSS can either enhance or
reduce the mechanical strength of RCCP mixes depending upon the
inherent aggregate characteristics. The enhancement in mechanical
strength exhibited due to the use of coarse EAFSS is mainly attributed to
the rough texture and angularity of the coarse EAFSS that facilitates a
better adhesion between aggregate and the cement matrix, improved
ITZ, and higher load-carrying capacity [31,78]. In contrast, the reduc­
tion in strength due to the inclusion of EAFSS is due to the porous ITZ
between the slag aggregates and the cement paste [53], as shown in
Fig. 8d. Besides, the increased surface area of the finer fractions of
EAFSS contributes to lower cohesiveness and weaker ITZ; hence, lower
concrete strength is achieved [31]. Also, the higher water absorption of
EAFSS aggregates resulted in concrete with higher absorption charac­
teristics and increased porosity, causing the concrete to fail easily.
Moreover, the presence of free lime and magnesia in untreated EAFSS
contributes to a reaction with water which causes the volume to expand
and leads to subsequent cracking [77-79].
6. Strength improvement techniques
The literature outlined the following as the main attributions for the
poor performance of RCCP made with RCA: a) poor chemical and
physical bonding between adhered mortar and new cement-mortar
paste, b) high water absorption capacity of adhered mortar, and c)
presence of cracks in the adhered mortar [122]. This clearly defines the
adhered mortar as the main reason for the reduced performance of RCA-
RCCP mixtures and thus needs to be addressed. There are numerous
physico-chemical and physico-mechanical methods to address the
adhered mortar, however not been validated for RCCP to date. These
techniques primarily deal with the adhered mortar by removing it
partially/completely, adjusting the mix proportions, especially the
water content based on the RCA water absorption (pre-soaking), and
reducing the porosity of adhered mortar by means of mineral admixtures
and carbonation. These techniques are summarized in Table 4. It should
be noted that RCCP derives its initial strength primarily due to
aggregate-to-aggregate interlocking, and thus, validation of these tech­
niques is necessary for RCCP mixes.
As similar to RCA, the main attribution for reduced performance of
RAP-RCCP is the presence of adhered asphalt coating around the ag­
gregates. Brand and Roesler [23] observed that the chemical affinity of
organic asphalt coating towards cement-mortar paste is very low and
could not be improved by means of different SCMs. The most dominant
failure mechanism observed with RAP-concrete was the asphalt cohe­
sion failure, and thus, the only way seems to improve the concrete
performance was to completely remove the asphalt coating. Singh et al.
[123] proposed a physio-mechanical technique, Abrasion & Attrition
technique, to partially remove the asphalt coating around the RAP. Also,
the same group observed that stiffening of the asphalt coating could
improve the bonding between RAP and cement-mortar paste [123].
However, all these techniques were confined to conventional concrete,
and considering the load transfer mechanism in RCCP, their validation
for RCCP needs to be carried out. On the other hand, several researchers
[67,68,124,125] studied the effect of various SCM such as silica fume,
12
Construction and Building Materials 317 (2022) 125838
bagasse ash, rice husk ash, and fly ash in the RAP-RCCP mixtures.
Among various SCMs, the use of silica fume and rice husk ash causes a
marginal improvement in both mechanical and durable properties,
which is mainly attributed to the dominance of asphalt cohesion failure.
However, the incorporation of silica fume and rice husk ash caused a
negative impact on fresh properties (increased water demand and slight
reduction in maximum compactness). In short, the use of mineral
admixture could densify only microstructure, and it may not alter the
failure mode. Table 4 outline these techniques in detail.
The incorporation of tire rubber aggregates could reduce the me­
chanical strength of RCCP due to the following: poor adhesion between
the cement matrix and rubber particles, dislodgment of rubber particles
from the cement matrix, which could cause amplification of stress to
neighboring areas, and inability to transfer the load from cement mortar
[51,118]. Therefore, the reduction in strength due to the rubber particle
could be mitigated by improving the bond, surface roughness, by
chemical (NaOH) and mechanical (sand gluing) treatments, by the use of
pozzolanic materials, and surface pre-treatment as summarized in
Table 4. It shall be noted that the techniques summarized in Table 4 have
been employed for conventional concrete only but could be validated for
RCCP as well. In addition, the use nano-silica particles can also be used
to refine the pores and improve the ITZ characteristics of rubber-tire
RCCP mixes. For instance, the addition of 2% of nano-silica contrib­
utes to an improved ITZ between the rubber aggregate and cement paste,
and subsequently, improved compressive strength of the concrete.
The potential application of EAFSS depends on the volume stability
after the hydration reaction and alkali-aggregate reactions. The free
calcium oxide, magnesium oxide in the EAFSS aggregate gets converted
into portlandite, brucite on reaction with water. In addition, the for­
mation of portlandite, brucite, in the hardened concrete increases the
volume by twice its original volume, which attributes to the cracking
and deterioration mechanism [31,53,54]. These adverse effects can be
mitigated by either by differential mixing approach, surface treatment,
carbonation, subjecting the EAFSS to physical weathering in an open
environment, and spraying the water/exposed to rainfall for several
months and years as summarized in Table 4) [31,53,54,79]
7. Optimal RCCP mix proportions
Depending on a set of performance parameters benchmarks (such as
compressive strength, flexural strength, and qualitative assessment of
concrete durability), several researchers recommended the optimal
replacement levels of alternative aggregates to produce RCCP mixes.
Based on the present literature review survey, the optimal RCCP mixes
proportions recommended by various authors are shown in Table 5.
8. Conclusions
There seems to be a significant potential of alternative aggregates for
RCCP applications to maximize the economic and environmental ben­
efits. Significant savings can be achieved by converting these wastes
materials into useful resources through the production of new concrete.
The present study has critically reviewed the properties of RCCP mixes
made with alternative aggregates . The following conclusions are made
from this study:
• RAP aggregates are generally surrounded by a low-density smooth
textured hydrophobic asphalt coating that could lower the OMC as
well MDD of RCCP mixes. This asphalt film could reduce the bonding
potential of RAP with cement-mortar paste and thus result in lower
strength properties. Besides, the inclusion of RAP could lower the
water absorption and porosity due to the water-repelling behavior;
however, the presence of agglomerates and dust may cause the
reverse effect. Lower levels of RAP (<50%) could be utilized for
pavement application without much affecting the strength, porosity,
and water absorption. On the other hand, the inclusion of higher
M. Selvam et al. Construction and Building Materials 317 (2022) 125838

Table 4
Strength improvement techniques of concrete containing alternative aggregates.
Type of recycled Method of treatment Techniques Reasons References
aggregate

Recycled Concrete Removal of adhered mortar Mechanical grinding Effective removal of adhered mortar [126]
aggregates To improve the bonding between the RCA and
new mortar
To reduce the water absorption
Thermal treatment To improve the bonding between the RCA and [127,128]
new mortar
To reduce the pore size of adhered mortar
To reduce the cracks in the old ITZ of adhered
mortar
Pre-Soaking in acid To reduce the pore size of adhered mortar [103,129]
(HCl, H2SO4, CH3-COOH) To reduce the cracks in the old ITZ of adhered
mortar and to improve the compactness of the
new ITZ
To reduce the water absorption

Ultrasonic cleaning To improve the bonding between the RCA and [130,131]
new mortar

Carbonation Carbonation of adhered mortar Carbonation of adhered mortar fills the pores [132,133]
and causes denser ITZ
To enhance the mechanical and durability
properties
Differential improved mixing Two-stage mixing and three-stage mixing To densify the microstructure by filling the [97,99,114,134,135]
methods pores, and cracks of RCA
To enhance the mechanical and durability
properties

Biological methods Calcium carbonate bio deposition
Strengthening of adhered mortar Pozzolana Slurry (fly ash, blast furnace
(Surface Coating) slag, silica fume, and metakaolin)
Sodium silicate solution
Polymer emulsion
(PVA and silane)
To improve the bonding between the RCA and [136-139]
new mortar
Calcium carbonates fill the pores of RCA
To reduce the porosity of RCA and to increase the [110,114]
compactness of old ITZ
To enhance the mechanical and durability
properties
To fill the pores of adhered mortar by C-S-H gel [140,141]
To enhance the mechanical properties and to
reduce the water absorption
To densify the microstructure by filling the pores [142,143]
of RCA
Impregnation of polyvinyl alcohol improved the
adhesion between the RCA and cement mortar
and mechanical properties

Combined methods Thermomechanical treatment
Chemical-Mechanical treatment
(Soaking in HCL & H2SO4 + Heating +
Rubbing)
Reclaimed asphalt Removal of the asphalt layer Mechanical grinding
pavement
aggregates Long-term aging Subjecting to open environment for a
longer duration
Chemical treatment Oxidation of asphalt by chemicals (HCL,
H2SO4, NaOH, phosphoric and chromic
acid)
Use of pozzolanic materials (silica Densification of ITZ and pores
fume, bagasse ash, fly ash, and rice
husk ash)
Use of finer material Natural Fines
Lowering the water-cement ratio Use of high range water reducer
EAFSS aggregates Physical weathering Exposed to open environment for 90 days
and water is sprayed on every day
Exposed to the open environment for
several months
Exposed to open environment for more
than a year
Differential mixing methods
To remove the hardened cement mortar [144,145]
Improved the physical and mechanical [146]
properties of RCA
Improved the compressive strength and static
modulus of elasticity as compared to the natural
aggregate concrete
To puncture the asphalt layer in order to provide [11]
more window for aggregate mortar interactions
To increase the viscosity of asphalt binder by [23,24,147,148]
forming the asphaltene on oxidation
To provide the window for aggregate mortar
interactions by making the brittle asphalt film.
To increase the viscosity of asphalt binder by [24,149]
forming the asphaltene on oxidation
To improve the strength and durability [67,68,124,125]
properties
To induce the filler effect and to densify the [50]
microstructure
To improve the strength and durability [150]
properties
To convert the free CaO content in EAF into Ca [53]
(OH) 2
To diminish the volumetric expansion of EAFSS [79]
aggregates
To reduce the cracking and expansion in the [31]
hardened state of concrete
[54]
(continued on next page)

13
M. Selvam et al. Construction and Building Materials 317 (2022) 125838

Table 4 (continued )
Type of recycled Method of treatment Techniques Reasons References
aggregate

Differential improved mixing To diminish the negative effect of water

methods absorption from the mixing water
To enhance the compactability and compressive
strength
Carbonation Calcium carbonate formation To promote the formation of calcite and denser [151]
microstructure
To enhance the mechanical and durable
properties
Surface treatment Surface coating with cement slurry, To lower the expansion ratio, and water [152]
silicone waterproof agent, and silane absorption
coupling agent To avoid the hydration of active ingredients
Tire rubber Chemical treatment NaOH solution Increase the adhesion between the rubber [52,81]
aggregates particles and cement paste.
To increase the hydrophilicity of rubber particle
To improve mechanical properties and to reduce
the porosity
Use of pozzolanic materials Nano silica To improve the bonding between the CR and the [66,153]
cement matrix.
To densify the microstructure by refining the
pore structure
Enhanced strength properties by densification of
ITZ through physiochemical effects
Surface Coating Cement paste coating + air curing for To improve the bonding between the rubber [154]
more than 28 days particle and cement paste
To lower the width of ITZ between the rubber
particles and cement matrix
Cement paste coating + gluing sand (1–2 To enhance the bonding/packing density [152]
mm) between the CR and cement matrix by changing
the surface morphology
To improve the strength, flexural toughness, and
durability properties
Gluing Sand with resin To improve the bonding by modifying the [52]
surface roughness
Two-stage approach Precoating with limestone powder + To improve the interface and densification of [121,155]
Silica fume cement-rubber matrix
Surface pre-treatment Ultraviolet treatment To improve the bonding between the CR and [118]
cement matrix by changing the surface energy
Organosulfur compounds To improve the strength by enhancing the [156]
intermolecular interaction forces between the
rubber and C-S-H
Combined methods Alkaline activation + silica fume To improve the roughness, adhesion, and [51,157]
mechanical properties,

Table 5
Partial replacement levels of alternative aggregates in RCCP mixes.
Type of recycled aggregate % Replacement level Remarks Applications References

RCA 100% coarse Dosage of cement – 175 kg/m3 As a base layer for light traffic condition [35]
RCA 100% coarse Cement content of 175 kg/m3 As a base layer in pavements with a low density of heavy [47]
vehicles such as urban areas
RCA 50% coarse Cement content of 250 kg/m3 As a base layer in pavements with a high density of heavy [47]
vehicles
3
Mixed recycled aggregate 100% coarse Cement content of 250 kg/m As a base layer for pavements with relatively high strength [35]
(RCA + Ceramic Waste) Ceramic content up to 20% requirements, such as residential streets or light-traffic
roads
EAFSS 100% coarse In conjunction with 40% of FA particles Sub-base [79]
EAFSS 100% coarse In conjunction with 20% of FA particles Surface layer [53]
EAFSS 100% coarse Finer fractions up to 25% could also be Surface layer [31]
used
RAP Combination of 50% coarse Missing gaps of fine RAP was filled using Surface layer [50]
and 50% fine RAP sand passing 600 µm sieve
RAP Combination of 50% coarse Highly oxidized RAP and well-graded Surface layer [67]
and 50% fine RAP fine RAP aggregates should be utilized
RAP 100% coarse Coarse RAP has higher mechanical Can be used as a surface layer [68]
strength than fine RAP concrete
RAP Up to 50% – Acceptable for use in the surface layer [29]
CR Up to 10% Incorporation of 5% of CR leads to a Acceptable for use in the surface layer [29]
slight increase in compressive strength
CiR 20% coarse The addition of silica fume of 5% Rural roads, low traffic condition, pedestrian footpath [51]
reduced the strength loss
CiR Up to 5% – Rural roads, low traffic roads, pedestrian footpath [52]

14
M. Selvam et al.
levels of RAP may not be suitable in terms of mechanical perfor­
mance but may enhance the toughness and energy absorbency of
pavements.
• The properties of RCA mainly depend on the quality of the source.
Mixed-RCA may have inferior properties than RCA received from
pure concrete chunks. RCA is mostly covered with low-density
adhered mortar, which is highly porous and could negatively affect
the fresh state as well as the hardened properties of RCCP. However,
replacing the conventional coarse aggregates with 50% of RCA could
impart enough strength to be used for pavement bases. The propor­
tion of RCA could be increased for RCCP by adopting the physico-
chemical/physico-mechanical treatments.
• The higher density of EAFSS could enhance the MDD of RCCP mixes,
however, it would require more mixing water to achieve maximum
compactness than conventional aggregates. The effect of EAFSS on
the mechanical properties showed a mixed behavior, which is pri­
marily governed by several parameters such as the morphology
(angularity), bond strength, surface area, and width of ITZ. Besides,
the presence of free CaO in EAFSS aggregates should be <1% to
maintain volume stability. Nevertheless, coarser fractions of EAFSS
could be utilized in a proportion of 100% for sustainable RCCPs.
• The addition of CR may reduce the maximum compactness due to its
lower specific gravity but may improve the workability of concrete
due to its lower water absorption compared to natural aggregates.
The performance of crumb rubber in the RCCP is primarily
depending on the degree of replacement level. Higher replacement
levels of crumb rubber could significantly lower the compressive
strength, flexural strength, split tensile strength, and modulus of
elasticity of RCCP. Contrarily, the utilization of minimum crumb
rubber up to 5% was found to provide beneficial results due to better
orientation, homogenous dispersion, better friction, and aggregate
interlocking. Similarly, at a lower fraction, the CR could enhance the
ductility behavior, crack resistance and improve the split tensile
strength by bridging the micro cracks.
In summary, the present review depicts that its certain that the use of
alternative materials would result in inferior quality RCCP. However, if
utilized in optimum proportions could result in the productions of RCCP
having properties within the permissible limits for pavement applica­
tions; the optimum proportions could be 50%, <50%, 100%, and 5% for
RCA, RAP, EAFSS, and CR, respectively. There could be many parame­
ters of these alternative aggregates affecting the performance of RCCP,
and the primary key factors identified are a) porous adhered mortar
around RCA, b) asphalt coating and agglomerated particles in RAP, c)
chemical composition (free lime and magnesia), and shape parameters
of EAFSS, and d) smooth surface, poor bond, and entrapment of air
bubbles in CR. The contaminants/impurities/deficiencies associated
with these materials could be addressed by employing various benefi­
ciation techniques as summarized in Table 4, and enhanced performance
could be expected. However, the suitability of these techniques shall be
thoroughly judged based on the behavior of produced RCCP mixtures.
Also, many possible research areas are associated with these sustainable
mixes that need to be explored through laboratory and field studies; the
gaps and future scopes are discussed separately in the subsequent
section.
9. Future scope of research
The available literature shows that alternative aggregate could be
effectively used for RCCP; however, the fraction of replacement level,
source, physical and morphological properties of aggregate dictate their
application in various layers of pavements (surface/base course layers).
Based on the current literature review, some of the gaps are identified
and outlined below. If these gaps could be bridged based on the labo­
ratory and field understandings, this may lead to the effective utilization
of construction and demolition wastes, industrial by-products, and other
15
Construction and Building Materials 317 (2022) 125838
waste in the RCCP construction with greater economic savings.
1. Vebe Time: The quantification of compactability of RCCP mixtures in
the field as well as in the laboratory conditions is generally evaluated
based on the vebe consistency time. Indeed, most of the published
literature has not determined the consistency time of alternative
aggregate. Therefore, to understand the true picture of workability
and compactability of alternative aggregate inclusive RCCP mix­
tures, more research studies are required to be conducted.
2. Characterization of Aggregate and its Morphology: The morphological
characteristics of alternative aggregate (angularity, surface texture)
has been found to have a profound effect on the aggregate-aggregate
interlocking, bonding potential, and mechanical performance of
RCCP. Therefore, further investigations are required to be conducted
incorporating the aggregate’s morphology in the mix design and
relating them with the concrete properties.
3. Particle Packing Approach: The load-carrying capacity of RCCP at
early ages is primarily governed by the aggregate-to-aggregate
interlocking. Hence, the use of particle packing models could in­
crease the compactness of the aggregate skeleton and thus, reduce
the binder volume of RCCP. However, the applicability of conven­
tional theoretical models for alternative aggregate inclusive RCCP
has not been studied extensively,
4. Validation of surface treatments: Improvement in the quality of alter­
native aggregates could facilitate improved concrete performance.
Treatment methods (mechanical, chemical, and thermal) have
shown improved properties of the alternative aggregates, and sub­
sequently, improved concrete performance. Validation of such sur­
face treatment methods could provide insight into the most viable
and economical treatment method that could facilitate optimized
RCCP performance. Similarly, efforts could be made to study the
moisture conditioning of aggregates (pre-soaking of RCA) for
enhanced RCCP properties.
5. Freeze and thaw: The performance of RCCP in the high altitude and
cold regions significantly depends on the freeze and thaw behavior.
However, the implication of alternative aggregate on the freeze and
thaw cycle is still unknown, owing to the paucity of literature.
6. Theoretical Model: Most of the theoretical models to predict concrete
properties are established based on laboratory test results that ac­
count for concrete mix design, aggregates, and cement properties,
degree of hydration, and packing density. However, these models are
applicable only for a set of conditions that they were tested for and
may not be universally accepted. Hence, theoretical models that can
be universally accepted should be developed in order to predict the
RCCP properties.
7. Field evaluation and life cycle assessment: The analysis presented in this
review is mainly based on laboratory tests conducted for a different
set of conditions. Hence, field studies should be carried out to vali­
date the laboratory findings, and a life cycle assessment needs to be
performed to highlight the benefits of using these alternative ag­
gregates in roller compacted concrete pavements.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
M. Selvam: Data curation, Formal analysis, Writing – original draft,
Writing – review & editing. Solomon Debbarma: Methodology, Writing
– original draft, Writing – review & editing. Surender Singh: Concep­
tualization, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review &
editing, Supervision. Xijun Shi: Methodology, Writing – review &
editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
M. Selvam et al.
Acknowledgement
The first author would like to thank the MHRD (Government of
India) for providing the PMRF scholarship. The third author would like
to acknowledge and thank the financial support received from the In­
dian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India, under project nos.
CE1920900RFER008952 and SB20210809CEMHRD008100.
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