j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 1 ; 1 5 : 6 3 6 7 e6 3 8 6

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jmrt

Review Article

Methods for improving the durability of recycled

aggregate concrete: A review

Yuanxun Zheng, Yahui Zhang, Peng Zhang*

School of Water Conservancy Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China

article info abstract

Article history: With increasing global research on the recycling of construction waste, the recycling of
Received 1 August 2021 waste concrete aggregates has gradually attracted attention. Researches have shown that
Accepted 17 November 2021 recycled aggregate (RA) has a certain degree of influence on the mechanical properties and
Available online 22 November 2021 durability of recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) owing to its high water absorption, high
porosity, and large number of microcracks. Therefore, how to improve the mechanical
Keywords: properties and durability of RAC is a key issue of concern for scholars. Based on the review
Recycled aggregate of related literature and comprehensive analysis, the reinforcement theories and methods
Modified coarse aggregate such as self-reinforcement of recycled coarse aggregate (RCA), optimization of preparing
Recycled concrete technology of RAC, and external spiral constraint of RAC were systematically summarized
Durability in this paper. The results indicate that the adherent mortar of RCA can be enhanced by
Microstructure carbonation, and weak acid treatment can effectively remove the old adhesion of RCA,
which is economical and environmentally friendly. The denseness of RAC can be improved
by adding cementitious materials with volcanic ash effect, and the reduction of micro-
cracks in mortar can be improved by adding fibers. The load-bearing capacity and me-
chanical properties of RAC are significantly improved by the spiral constraint of materials
such as fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) and so on. The optimization of the production
process not only improves the quality of RAC, but also enhances the production efficiency.
The microstructure analysis of RAC was also summarized in this paper. Moreover, the
results of this study can provide a technical reference for research on the mechanical
strength and durability of RAC, develop the further research ideas, and promote the
application of RAC. Finally, some potential opportunities and development directions have
been suggested for future research on the improvement methods of RAC.
© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC
BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

waste is produced. If construction waste is not treated, it will

1. Introduction cause serious environmental pollution; moreover, its storage
will occupy an ever increasing amount of farmland. Therefore,
With increasing urban-rural integration and infrastructure the effective recycling of construction waste is an urgent
construction, a significant amount of abandoned construction

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: zhangpeng@zzu.edu.cn (P. Zhang).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2021.11.085
2238-7854/© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
6368 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 1 ; 1 5 : 6 3 6 7 e6 3 8 6
engineering problem that needs to be addressed to ensure
sustainable development. As a new material that meets the
material-saving requirements of green buildings and reflects
the concept of sustainable development, recycled aggregate
concrete (RAC) will become an important component of
building materials in the future [1,2].
According to UK data, more than 1 billion tons of waste
concrete were produced worldwide in 1991e2001. Many
developed countries in the West began to study RAC as early
as 1978, and extensive research on its durability has been
carried out since then. In the 1970s, Japan began to set up
processing plants all over the country to produce recycled
aggregate (RA). From 1995 to 2000, the usage rate of abandoned
concrete in Japan increased from 65% to 90%. In recent years,
China has paid increasingly more attention to the recycling of
waste concrete [3e5]. In 2005, the Ministry of Construction
issued the “Regulations on the Management of Urban Con-
struction Waste,” which stipulates that all units and in-
dividuals must dispose of construction waste in accordance
with certain regulations [6e10].
As the largest developing country, China has an annual
output of 10 billion tons of road solid waste, and its compre-
hensive recycling rate is only about 30%. However, most of the
methods for disposing of construction waste material involve
burying it. This not only causes huge economic losses and
resource consumption, but also leads to serious environ-
mental pollution. Faced with decreasing natural resources
and a huge amount of construction waste, we need to reduce
the continuous exploitation of natural resources. This can be
done by using renewable resources to develop production,
such as environmental stone benches made from RAC [11], to
increase the rate of sustainable development [12,13]. The
application of RAC is limited because of its inferior perfor-
mance in comparison to natural aggregate concrete (NAC),
owing to RA quality, interfacial transition zone (ITZ) strength,
and other reasons [14,15]. Therefore, increased research on
the performance of RA is an important measure that can
potentially expand the application field of recycled concrete.
RA is the aggregate obtained by crushing, cleaning, and
grading waste concrete. If the nominal particle size of RA is
greater than 5 mm, it is called recycled coarse aggregate (RCA).
RA is mainly composed of natural aggregate (NA) with mortar
remaining on the surface. Due to the production process, the
surface is relatively rough, with many edges and corners. RA
has a low apparent density, high porosity, high water ab-
sorption rate, and a low crushing index. As a result the relative
performance of RA is lower than that of NA, which affects the
performance of RAC [16e19]. There has been much research
conducted on enhancing the performance of RA. By carbon-
ating RA, the water absorption rate, and the drying shrinkage
capacity are reduced, and the apparent density and
compressive strength have been improved [20]. By composite
strengthening of RA, the carbonation resistance of RA has
been improved [21]. The addition of colloidal nano-silica im-
proves the porous structure of RAC, and improves its impact
resistance [22]. The addition of new admixtures such as rice
husk ash [23] and sugar cane molasses [24] can also improve
the performance of RAC. Due to its high porosity and more
cracks, the ITZ is usually the weakest area in concrete [25].
Through microscope-based analysis, we can see that the
enhancement of RAC can increase the strength and density of
the ITZ by adding, for example, mixed lime powder [26], and
sugar cane honey [27]. At the same time, studies have found
that carbonation treatment of RA can reduce the water ab-
sorption rate, increase its compactness, and improve its
interface properties [28,29].
In this paper, the methods used to improve RAC durability
and ITZ performance are summarized, and the effects of
different enhancement methods are described and compared
in detail, to provide a practical basis for the ongoing devel-
opment of RAC.
In recent years, scholars around the world have carried out
lots of deep researches in both theory and practice on these
problems mentioned above, and some positive progress and
results are also obtained. Based on this, this paper aimed to
summarize and discuss the strengthening methods of RAC
from the aspects of RCA self-reinforcement, adding admix-
ture, external spiral constraint and optimization of production
process, and suggestions for future research of RAC were
provided in this paper. The databases of Elsevier Science,
Springer Link, Wiley Inter Science database and so on were
used for literature collection in this paper. The Keywords
searched include recycled coarse aggregate, recycled con-
crete, recycled coarse aggregate strengthening, solution
strengthening, fiber, mechanical properties, compressive
strength, durability, frost resistance, carbonation, chloride ion
penetration resistance, preparation process, microstructure,
etc. The region of authors: Australia, Brazil, China, etc. In this
paper, more than 300 relevant papers are reviewed, and 126
articles published in the last five years were analyzed in de-
tails. On this basis, a systematic summary and in-depth
analysis are carried out to ensure that the work of this paper
is as accurate, timely, comprehensive and systematic as
possible.
2. Strengthening and improving methods of
RAC
RA obtained by simple crushing has the characteristics of
rough surfaces, multiple edges, and corners, with a significant
amount of cement mortar attached. This concrete crushing
method is mainly mechanical in which the RA and mortar in
the concrete are forcibly separated. Although this method can
realize large-scale production of RA and save in production
costs, the quality of RA produced by this method is not good.
In addition, due to the external force applied during the
preparation process, a large number of micro-cracks are
generated, resulting in high levels of water absorption. Many
studies have been conducted to improve the performance of
RA. The current strengthening methods can be divided into
self-strengthening of RA, strengthening of RAC, improvement
of the preparation process, and Spiral confinement [30].
2.1. Self-enhancement of RCA
The mortar attached to the surface of RA and internal micro-
cracks are the root causes of its low strength and high water
absorption. The durability of RAC depends to a large extent on
the performance of the RA. To improve the quality of RAC, the
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 1 ; 1 5 : 6 3 6 7 e6 3 8 6
RA needs to be improved so that it can be used in actual
projects. Therefore, the strengthening of RA itself to remove or
enhance the attached mortar and micro-cracks is an urgent
problem that needs to be addressed. The following introduces
and discusses the handling of RCA.
2.1.1. Removal of attached mortar of RCA
Most studies have shown that when RCA is used, it is simply to
clean the surface of RCA with water, or to clean the adhesion
mortar of RCA by machine washing equipment. However, only
a small amount of adhesion mortar or dust particles are
removed by this kind of cleaning method, and the improve-
ment effect for RCA performance is not significant. In order to
effectively remove adhesion mortar from the surface of RCA,
solution, carbonation, heating, and mechanical grinding are
used to improve the mechanical performance of the RCA. The
source and composition of the RCA should be considered
when removing old mortar from the RCA, which would affect
the improvement of the RCA.
Acid treatment can remove the adhesion mortar of RA but
does not change the slump [31]. During RAC production, it is
important to know the water absorption rate of RCA, because
RCA will absorb water from the cement, reducing the slump
and workability of the RAC. Therefore, to produce a more
workable RAC, additional water needs to be added. Hydro-
chloric acid is effective at removing adhesive mortar from
RCA, which improves its density and reduces its water ab-
sorption rate, but will also cause damage to the RA surface
[32e34]. The adhesive mortar of RCA is shown in Fig. 1.
However, acetic acid treatment can improve the performance
of RA, with less damage to the RA itself, and improve the frost
resistance of the RAC [35]. After the RA was soaked in dilute
hydrochloric acid, it was washed with water and dried to
remove surface impurities and improve the frost resistance of
the RAC [36]. However, this test did not indicate the best sol-
ubility and immersion time of hydrochloric acid. In addition,
hydrochloric acid also has a corrosive effect, so the waste
hydrochloric acid needs to be recovered and treated. After 1%
acetic acid treatment, the water absorption rate of RCA
Fig. 1 e (a) Surface of RAC, (b) RCA, bonding mortar and old and new ITZ (in RAC) [32].
6369
decreased by 17.6%. Adding the waste solution (acidic solution
after processing RCA) into RAC improves the compressive
strength, and reduces the amount of waste liquid [37]. This
method suggests a new idea for the treatment of waste liquid
after the treatment of the RA with chemical solutions (such as
acid solutions). If these waste liquids can be re-used, the
chemical solution infiltration RA treatment method will be
further promoted and applied. Acid strengthening can
improve RCA without changing the morphology, however this
strengthening method will damage the internal structure of
RCA, thus affecting the performance of RCA. Therefore, a good
approach is to find a suitable weak acid solution to strengthen
RCA, which removes the mortar from RCA, and retains the
form of RCA, without damaging the internal structure.
Due to the different materials in buildings, different pro-
duction processes need to be used in the preparation of RCA.
The broken construction waste contains a combination of
bricks, wood blocks, etc. To get a pure RCA, it needs to be
sorted and then physically strengthened.
Microwave weakening pretreatment can improve the per-
formance of RA [38]. Conventional heating uses two different
temperatures (300
C and 500
C) to heat RCA before putting in
water at 25
C water for cooling [39]. Mechanical friction is
used to place RCA in the machine after grinding. RCA with a
relatively clean surface was obtained, and the hydration effect
between RCA and the new mortar was improved. The influ-
ence of grinding time, machine rotation frequency, and other
factors on the performance of RCA need to be studied, to
remove the edges and corners of RCA and the mortar, and also
to avoid causing damage to RCA again. However, the micro-
wave assisted method uses the performance difference be-
tween the aggregate and mortar to produce heat stress in the
old ITZ. The performance of RCA obtained by this method is
good, with low energy consumption and high efficiency [40].
For physically strengthened RCA, the physical properties such
as gradation should be tested, and the shape of the RCA
should be observed. The physical strengthening method re-
duces the mortar and ensures a good shape to obtain a clean
RCA that is similar in shape to NAC. In addition, the
6370 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 1 ; 1 5 : 6 3 6 7 e6 3 8 6
microstructure of RCA, such as surface cracks, should be
observed by SEM to check whether regenerative damage to
RCA has been caused and to determine if the quality of RAC is
affected.
2.1.2. Strengthening of attached mortar of RCA
In order to be able to improve the utilization of RCA, many
scholars consider strengthening the old mortar attached to
RCA, and the most basic idea of strengthening is to fill the
micro-pores of mortar attached to the surface of RCA.
Compared with the improvement method of removing the old
mortar of RCA, the method of strengthening the old mortar of
RCA is simpler, environmentally friendly and economical.
However, due to the different properties of improvement
materials, their improvement effect on RCA varies. Common
reinforcement methods: volcanic ash slurry; cement slurry;
phosphate solution; carbonation; homemade solution; mixing
method, etc.
Although the air quality has been greatly improved, the
amount of carbon dioxide in the air is still rising, which will
accelerate the natural carbonation and damage to the struc-
ture of RAC. Dry conditions can inhibit the carbonation pro-
cess. Although carbonation can reduce the durability of RAC,
carbonation can improve the performance of RCA. In practice,
the carbonation of RA is extremely common and occurs
constantly. Compared with uncarbonated aggregate, the
compressive strength of carbonated RAC has been improved
[41], while the spontaneous shrinkage rate of RA has
increased, and the drying shrinkage capacity has also been
reduced [35]. The water absorption rate is reduced by 15%e
20%, the apparent density is slightly increased [42], and the
mechanical properties of the concrete prepared with carbon-
ated RA have also been significantly improved [43]. Carbon-
ation can improve the performance of RCA [44,45]. The
carbonation method is low-cost, and the use of RCA for carbon
dioxide storage is more environmentally friendly than other
methods.
Fig. 2 e Experimental setup of CO2 curing [42].
The smaller the size of the RA, the more the physical
properties are improved [20]. The reason for this is that there
are a lot of mortars for small RA. The RCA used in this study is
obtained from a broken concrete test block made in the lab-
oratory. Because the test block has a short service time, the
broken RCA contains insufficient carbonated mortar. During
the preparation of RAC, the uncarbonated part may react with
the water gel material and affect the performance of the RAC.
Therefore, additional tests are needed to study whether the
carbonated RCA is completely carbonated and determine the
best carbonation time and method. Whether this conclusion
is applicable to the actual engineering demolition of RCA
needs further study. Under good carbonation conditions,
carbonation changes the compactness of recycled concrete
particles by gradually depositing carbonates on the outside of
them [46]. In a dry environment, carbonation significantly
reduces water absorption, porosity, and frost resistance of the
RA. In humid environments, carbonation does not lead to a
significant reduction in water absorption or porosity of RA
[47]. The effect of carbonation time on the performance of RCA
also needs to be studied. Baojian Zhan et al. proposed a new
RA pretreatment method, which can improve the quality of
old mortar. The treatment device is shown in Fig. 2. Pure
carbon dioxide is injected into a cylinder after vacuuming to
50
C, and anhydrous silica gel is put into it to remove
moisture and keep room temperature at 23
C [42].
Li et al. [48] used RA crushed from waste concrete with a
strength grade of 50 MPa. It was found that after carbonation,
the water absorption rate decreased, which is consistent with
the results observed by Li [41], and the smaller the particle
size, the more obvious the effect of reduced water absorption.
The reason is that when the particle size of the RA is smaller,
more mortar and hydrate needed for carbonation will be
attached, so that carbon dioxide can be captured more effec-
tively. When producing RA, RCA with smaller particle sizes
will cause less damage, with complete surface particles and
fewer internal cracks. In the production of RAC, a uniform
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 1 ; 1 5 : 6 3 6 7 e6 3 8 6
structure is formed to reduce permeability; however, it con-
sumes a lot of cement and increases the shrinkage deforma-
tion of the RAC. According to the traditional “carbonation” and
“acidification” methods, the aggregate can be alkalized before
carbonation to increase its alkali content; additives with
micro-swelling characteristics are added to the solution to
cover the aggregates. Compared with “acidification”,
“carbonation” is more effective at improving the compressive
strength and impermeability of RAC [49]. The fundamental
reason for this is that the carbonation reaction increases the
internal density of the old mortar, increases its compressive
strength, and extends the seepage path. The surface pores of
the old mortar become filled with mud. As the penetration
radius increases, the path of chloride ions becomes more
tortuous. There have been many studies on carbonation
treatment of RCA, but the above study is mentioned only to
understand its improvement effect on RCA at a macro level.
We can also use scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and
other equipment to observe the microstructure of RCA,
explore the changes in the morphology of RCA before and
after carbonation, and study the changes in the intensity of
the ITZ in RCA after carbonation, so that we can more directly
understand the improvement of RCA by carbonation.
Many researchers improve RA by immersion in solution.
The RA is added to the solution and stirred so that the
aggregate is evenly distributed and the purpose of filling the
aggregate is achieved. Some solutions undergo chemical
changes when mixed with aggregates. Compared with
carbonation, however, the solution immersion method is
simpler to operate and requires less equipment. Moreover,
due to the wide difference in the properties of the solutions
[10], the improvement of RCA is also different [35].
The method of solution immersion [50] is adopted to
improve the RA. This method is simple to operate and can also
improve the quality of RA [51]. Although the benefits are not as
good as with carbonation the solution can also strengthen the
RCA mortar. In addition, the solution immersion method has
been known to increase the compactness of the RA [52]. After
the RA is immersed in the phosphate solution, the solution
reacts with calcium ions to form a new precipitate-
hydroxyapatite, which not only binds the loose particles but
also makes the RA denser. Treatment of RCA with a water-
soluble polycarboxylate dispersing agent can improve the
properties of the RAC, which can achieve the same improve-
ment effect as phosphate solution [53]. To comprehensively
evaluate the improvement effect of different improvement
methods on RA, different improvement methods were
implemented on the same aggregate. The same effect was also
obtained after RA was soaked in carbon dioxide, silica powder
solution, and fly ash solution [54]. However, in this study we
did not conduct a detailed analysis of the factors involved in
the different strengthening methods. In addition, we did not
investigate the relative influence of each variable factor,
adjust the relevant parameters of each factor, and then make
a comparative analysis to find the best strengthening method.
Although solutions can fill the gap in RA, carbonation is more
effective in reducing its water absorption rate and improving
its compactness. Bio-deposition treatment carried out on RCA
can reduce the water absorption rate, and the performance of
RAC produced using treated RCA is similar to that of NAC [55].
6371
Under a load and corrosion freeze-thaw environment, the
best durability of RAC is achieved by soaking RA in 10% nano-
silica solution and polyvinyl alcohol solution. RCA impreg-
nated with polyvinyl alcohol (air-dried) can increase the
compressive strength of RAC by 5% [56]. Researchers have
proposed that the preparation of RAC needs to consider the
moisture level and water absorption rate of the RA used [57].
To improve the strength of RAC, when the quantity of RA is
increased, the quality and quantity of cement should also be
increased. Compared with conventional concrete, the 28-day
compressive strength of medium-compressive concrete made
of 50% or 100% RCA requires a 4%e10% reduction in the water-
cement ratio and a 5%e10% increase in cement. When high-
strength cement is used, it can improve the early cracking
and aging performance of RAC, but compared with ordinary
cement, it is less economical and not suitable for large-scale
application in most basic engineering constructions [58].
RAC produced using RA reinforced with paint slurry has better
frost resistance and its strength loss rate is improved by 9.6%.
The study found that the cement slurry penetrated into the RA
cracks through physical adsorption to form a CeSeH gel,
which reduced the water absorption rate. Analyses of the
strengthening effect of the above solutions showed that
polymer solution is the best [59]. The polymer solution can
form a dense film on the surface of RCA in a relatively short
time. During the production of RAC, the polymer solution on
the surface of RCA dissolves and binds to the cement more
stably. Some researchers have also soaked RA with self-made
improved solutions to explore their improvement effect on
RA. The improvement of the physical properties of RA by
different treatment methods is shown in Table 1. The
compressive strength of concrete prepared by aggregate
treated with the different solutions is shown in Table 2.
Solution immersion is the use of specific chemical solu-
tions to treat RCA micro-cracks, old mortar, etc. However,
after soaking RCA, the effect of its treatment should be
observed. During manual stirring, observe whether the sur-
face slurry of RCA falls off, analyze the reasons, and improve
the soaking method to achieve an effective treatment, to
ensure the quality of RCA in the production of RAC. For
coagulant solutions such as cement slurries, the initial setting
time of the solution needs to be studied, and the RCA should
be removed before the initial setting time to avoid clumping.
The concentration of the solution should not be too high,
otherwise it will affect the absorption of RCA and can not fill
the cracks of RCA effectively; for solutions such as hydro-
chloric acid, the RCA needs to be cleaned several times and
dried to avoid damaging the RAC by acid solution inside or on
the surface of the RCA. The proper solution immersion can
realize the mass production of treated RCA, and it can be used
in practical engineering.
2.1.3. Comprehensive strengthening of RCA
Although the strengthening method mentioned above also
improves the performance of RCA, it is only in the experimental
stage, and rarely applied in practical engineering, which also
limits the application of RAC. Some researchers have also tried
to improve the performance of RA by using composite pro-
cessing to produce RAC suitable for engineering applications.
The compressive strength of RAC prepared using RCA soaked in
Table 1 e Performance enhancement of different treatment methods for RA.

6372
Treatment methods Water absorption (WA) The reduction rate of Apparent density (kg/ Mortar removal/ Improvement effect
(%) WA (%) m3) increase (%)
Phosphate solution [52] 5.78 15.12 e 1.3 The formation of new
precipitates -
hydroxyapatite (HAP)
material, combined with
loose particles, making RA
denser

j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 1 ; 1 5 : 6 3 6 7 e6 3 8 6
CO2 [54] 3.9 26.4 2562 The water absorption rate of
RCA is reduced and the
surface is more dense
Silicon powder solution [54] 4.0 25 2513 Water absorption decreased
and apparent density
increased slightly
Fly ash solution [54] 4.2 20.8 2501 Water absorption decreased
and apparent density
increased slightly
CO2 [42] 5.25 2619 6.92 Water absorption was
reduced by 15e20% and
apparent density increased
slightly
HCL solution [33] 3.1 40 The attached mortar on the
RCA surface is removed
Acetic acid (concentration 5.05 15.1 2620 The water absorption and
5%) [37] cement adhesion of RCA
decreased.
Heated at 250
C [35] 4.85 12.5 2674 Water absorption decreased
and apparent density
increased slightly
Soaking in HCl [35] 4.94 12.7 2670 Water absorption decreased
and apparent density
increased slightly
Sodium silicate solution [50] 2.3 49 e Water absorption decreased
Polyvinyl alcohol 2.39 61 2466 Water absorption decreased
impregnated [56] and apparent density
increased slightly
HCL solution [31] 3.49 21.3 2.36 Water absorption decreased
H2SO4 solution [34] 2.37 9.9 Water absorption decreased
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 1 ; 1 5 : 6 3 6 7 e6 3 8 6
Table 2 e Compressive strength of concrete prepared by aggregate treated with different solutions.
Treatment methods Water-cement ratio
Phosphate solution [52] 0.5
CO2 [54] 0.5
Silicon powder solution [54] 0.5
Fly ash solution [54] 0.5
HCL Solution [33] 0.68
Water soluble polycarboxylate 0.5
dispersant [53]
cement and nano-silica solution was increased by 14% and the
chloride ion penetration resistance was increased by 14.7%.
Although the nano-silica solution can be absorbed by RCA, the
old ITZ was not affected [60], compared with untreated cement
mortar (bonded by RCA). After three rounds of limewater-
carbon dioxide treatment, the water absorption rate is
reduced by 50%, and the strength is increased by 23% [61]. The
performance of RCA after multiple processing has been
improved, so RCA needs to be reinforced multiple times.
Considering that there are many internal cracks in RA and a
large crushing index, RA was treated by particle shaping and an
organosilane composite strengthening method [21], which
increased the anti-carbonation performance of RAC. Particle
shaping improved the shape of the aggregate. After organo-
silane treatment, a dense protective layer was formed on the
RA surface, preventing carbon dioxide from entering the RA.
Sallehan et al. [62] adopted a dual treatment method to treat
RA, first soaking with acidic solvent to remove cement mortar
and loose substances. Calcium metasilicate was then impreg-
nated to fill the gap between the RA, thus reducing the porosity
of the RA. The performance of the RA can be improved by
compound strengthening methods such as acid solution pre-
soaking, heat treatment, and short-term mechanical treat-
ment [35]. The process in these methods is more complex.
Although they have the advantages of low energy consumption
and low requirements on equipment, there are also many areas
that need to be improved. The cost of nano-solutions is high, so
soaking RCA with nano-solution should exacerbate the cost
problem. How to find the best concentration of nano-solution
to soak RA or find a kind of admixture and nano-solution to
use together, to achieve the purpose of saving cost and
improving economy, is a problem that needs to be solved.
When RA is soaked in two kinds of solutions together or
separately, the optimal concentration and reaction mechanism
of the two kinds of solutions need to be studied. The solution
with compound strengthening needs to have complementary
or mutually enhancing effects, so as to achieve the purpose of
economy and optimal effect. For the combination of various
processes, we need to improve our experimental method ac-
cording to the experimental conditions to get the RA we need,
but also to improve the economics of the method. As an
effective reinforcement method, compound reinforcement will
have a great development space in the future.
2.2. The strengthening method of RAC
RAC strengthening is about addressing internal defects such as
cracks, pores, and high mortar content [63]. The use of ad-
mixtures can strengthen internal cracks, the ITZ, and other
6373
RCA (%) Average Compressive strength Increase rate（%）
（MPa）
100 35.89 3.82
100 47 23.6
100 62 60
100 46 17.3
20 22.5 5.6
100 25.5 21.6
weak parts of RAC. Some industrial wastes such as fly ash, blast
furnace slag, and mineral waste materials with volcanic ash
properties, can be added into RAC, which not only consumes
waste, but also improves the performance of RAC [25,64,65].
Due to the different experimental conditions, methods, and
climatic factors, as well as the lack of understanding of RAC
durability, research results on RAC durability differ.
2.2.1. Strengthening by addition of gel material
Lithium slag has a certain amount of volcanic ash activity, and
the reaction products of secondary hydration with calcium
hydroxide generated by cement hydration can increase the
density of RAC, thus improving its antifreeze performance
[65]. The study also found that the antifreeze performance is
optimal when the replacement rate of RA is 30% and the
dosage of lithium slag is 20%. However, due to the porous
structure of lithium slag itself, its water demand will increase
significantly, and a large amount of lithium slag may make the
hydration reaction incomplete. A low concentration of alka-
line stimulants can slow down the early contraction rate of
RAC [25]. However, although alkali activated slag concrete has
obvious corrosion resistance, permeability resistance, long-
term strength, and other advantages, we also need to
consider the existence of shrinkage and instability. The in-
fluences of alkali activators on the basic materials in RCA have
not been studied, and specifically, the effect of the type and
concentration of alkali activator on the performance of RAC
still needs to be studied. The durability of this material in RAC
is not mature yet. Savas‚ et al. [22] found that by adding 1.5%
colloidal nano-silica to the RAC the impact resistance of RAC
can be improved. The addition of minerals (such as fly ash, or
blast furnace slag) to RAC can improve the density, and the
smaller the additive size, the smaller the RAC pore size and
porosity [64]. Ground granulated blast slag can significantly
reduce the water absorption rate and compressive strength of
RAC [66]. Under the effect of acid rain, the elastic modulus and
compressive strength of RAC increases at first and then de-
creases. The reason is that in the early stages a small amount
of reaction products can fill the pores and increase the
strength. The subsequent accumulation of reaction products
causes internal stress in the RAC to increase and cause cracks;
The appropriate addition of fly ash or silicon powder can
lessen the effect of this phenomenon and improve the me-
chanical strength and acid resistance of RAC [67]. From this
study, it can be concluded that adding appropriate acidic so-
lutions to RAC can enhance the strength. The effect of these
materials on the durability of RAC also needs to be studied.
The addition of supplementary cementitious material into
RAC can improve the internal structure, increase the
6374 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 1 ; 1 5 : 6 3 6 7 e6 3 8 6
compactness, and improve the durability of RAC [68]. Yang Li
et al. [69] mixed fly ash with different contents into RAC to
study the influence of sulfate erosion. Sulfate reacts with
hydration products inside RAC to generate crystals, and the
crystals can then enter the aggregate cracks and cause
swelling stress damage to the RAC. They found that under the
coupling action of a freeze-thaw cycle and sulfate erosion,
RAC resistance was significantly higher with a low fly ash
content than with a high fly ash content. The influence of fly
ash content on the performance of self-compacting concrete
is similar, and the addition of high territory metakaolin can
also enhance the performance [70]. When the fly ash content
is 10%, the inner pore structure and impermeability of RAC
can be improved [71]. In a freeze-thaw environment, the
quality of RAC increases first and then decreases with the
number of freeze-thaw cycles [72]. From the perspective of
economy and quality, a 40% RA substitution rate has a more
beneficial effect [73]. However, this conclusion is not sup-
ported by any corresponding research, because the type of
aggregate and the quality are different. RA from different
sources and quality can be used in combination with different
production processes. To conduct research to find out the
appropriate dosage of RA, many different variables need to be
considered. Only in this way can reliable data be obtained. The
bending and splitting strength of RAC, made from RA with
different substitution rates, are both reduced when well water
is used [74]. Xie et al. [75] found that, based on carbon emission
and compression performance, rubberized steel fiber RAC
containing 10% silicon powder and 5% rubber has good
compressive performance, and can become an environment-
friendly product to replace ordinary concretes for structural
compression members. Chen [76] found that rubber particles
can increase the toughness of RAC. When the replacement
rate of RA is 30% and with 5% silica powder, the compressive
strength can also be improved [77]. Previous studies mostly
focused on the improvement of RAC by adding cementitious
materials. The experimental results differ due to the influence
of variables such as test materials, test methods, and test
sites. We can unify the study factors and investigate RAC
made from the same material. In addition, a variety of
microstructure analyses need to be conducted on RAC mixed
with cementitious materials, to comprehensively understand
both the performance of RAC, and the relationship between
macro and microstructures, and to find appropriate methods
of improving RAC performance.
2.2.2. Strengthening by addition of fiber
The addition of mineral admixtures to RAC has improved its
strength, but the toughness and shrinkage deformation of
RAC have not been improved. Due to the high toughness,
tensile strength, and corrosion resistance of fiber materials,
some researchers try to add fibers to RAC [78]. Steel fiber could
bond with concrete, thus inhibiting the phenomenon of dry-
ing shrinkage cracks and segregation cracks in early RAC [59].
The study also found that when rubber particles were added
to RAC and air was introduced at the same time, the air will
adhere to the rubber surface, which significantly reduces the
strength and wear resistance of the concrete. However, steel
fibers are susceptible to corrosion by chloride salts, and their
density is relatively high, which increased the weight of the
RAC. Steel fiber also significantly improves the shear strength
of RAC beams [79]. There have been many studies on the
mechanical properties of steel fiber reinforced RAC. However,
due to the electrical conductivity of steel fiber, there are few
studies on the improvement of RAC durability by steel fiber.
Therefore, appropriate methods need to be found to improve
the deficiencies of steel fiber. These might include surface
treatment of steel fiber, or surface water treatment of steel
fiber RAC, to reduce or prevent the infiltration of chloride ions
and other substances. Hasan [33] also found that basalt fiber
(BF) can improve the compressive strength of RAC. It found
that adding polypropylene fiber to RAC at a volume of 0.1% can
significantly enhance its fracture toughness and reduce
impermeability [80]. In addition, they found that adding 0.5%
volume of steel fiber to RAC, with different water-to-binder
ratios produced different effects. A low water-to-binder ratio
can increase the fracture energy and fracture toughness,
whereas a high water-to-binder ratio significantly reduces the
compressive strength.
RAC blended with hybrid fiber is a new issue requiring
investigation of the optimal proportions of different kinds of
fiber, mutual effects, and their influence on the durability.
Considering BF and polypropylene fiber, the fiber density itself
is low, it is easy to process the mixing of the nodules together,
however during the process of preparing the RAC, the diffi-
culty of mixing increases [81]. There are many studies on the
use of steel and polypropylene fiber in RAC. However, due to
the properties of the fiber itself, RAC durability cannot be
improved comprehensively, which also limits the value of
fiber RAC. Therefore, the level of improvement needed for a
specific project needs to define whether or not fiber RAC is
appropriate. For example, for fiber with the same character-
istics, the common improvement effect of the two can be
investigated, and the optimal mixing amount determined to
optimize the economy. Studies on the blending of fibers and
other materials also need to be conducted.
2.2.3. Strengthening by comprehensive method
Extensive research has been conducted on improving the
performance of RAC by adding composite materials. The
compound doping of nano-silica and fly ash can produce a
superposition effect, thus improving the chloride resistance of
RAC. To simplify the test process and produce RAC with good
performance, nano-silica and RA are stirred together in water
to let the nano-silica be absorbed by the RA, and cement and
sand are then added and stirred together. The improvement
effect of materials with superposition effect on RAC is obvi-
ously higher than that of single materials, but we still need to
study the reaction mechanism between the two [82].
It is considered that the single blending of fly ash and glass
fiber (GF) has complementary effects on the difference in RAC
durability and mechanical strength. Babar [83] found that GF
not only improves the strength of RAC, but also significantly
increases its permeability resistance. Fly ash improves the
adhesion of GF, reduces the durability loss caused by the GF to
RAC and improves the performance between the GF and the
binder matrix. Nano-silica plays a positive role in the combi-
nation of cement matrix and BF, and nano particles can play a
positive role in filling the cracks of RAC [84]. However, if
immersed RCA is mixed with BF, the performance
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 1 ; 1 5 : 6 3 6 7 e6 3 8 6
improvement of the immersed RCA can be studied. There are
few studies of the reinforcement of RAC with composite ma-
terials. For materials with complementary effects, we need to
study the interaction between the two because RAC is a
structure composed of a variety of materials. When comple-
mentary materials are added to RAC, each material and its
reaction products react differently, for example, when mixed
with fibrous materials and cementitious materials. Studies are
needed to investigate whether the cementitious material will
damage the fibrous material and decrease the performance of
the fiber, and whether the cementitious materials or their
reaction products will affect the improvement the fiber has on
RAC. Therefore, we need to study each specific reaction after
adding each material in the RAC, understand the material
composition, analyze the actual improvement effect when the
two materials are mixed again, and adjust the experimental
scheme according to the improvement situation, so as to get
the optimal improvement method and proportions.
2.2.4. Strengthening by addition of new admixture
Although the additives can improve the performance of RAC,
the improvement effect is not ideal, which limits the appli-
cation of RAC in practical engineering, as it is only suited to a
few limited applications. Some researchers try to add new
admixtures to RAC to study its improvement effect on related
properties of RAC. The addition of nylon fiber (NF) to RAC re-
duces its permeability and its strength is improved. The
reason is that NF plays an important role in crack bridging [24].
Ali et al. [27] pointed out that when RAC is mixed with
molasses at a concentration of 0.1%e0.5%, its water absorp-
tion and adsorption rates are significantly reduced. A high
molasses ratio (up to 0.5%) could increase the density of RAC,
reduce the length of interconnected pores, and prevent the
penetration of sulfate solution. When the proportion of
molasses is low, the cement solidification rate can be
improved to form a dense microstructure. Due to the low-cost
and water-reducing properties of sugar cane molasses, the
economics of RAC can be improved by adding molasses. Rice
husk ash can also improve the compressive strength, tensile
strength, elastic modulus, water absorption, density, and
voidage of concrete. The high degree of fineness of rice husk
ash can improve the performance of RAC [23]. When rice husk
ash and steel fiber are combined in RAC, its strength is
improved. For instance, 20% rice husk ash can significantly
improve the compressive strength of RAC (236 days age) by 9%
[85]. The active silica in the ceramic powder and the hydration
product calcium hydroxide undergo a secondary hydration
reaction to form a calcium silicate hydrate gel that increases
the density of RAC. If a lot of ceramic powder is added, the
internal alkalinity of RAC decreases, and the carbonation
speed increases. However, most of these studies focus on the
mechanical properties of RAC and the improvement of RAC
structure due to the added materials. Few studies have been
conducted on the durability of RAC [86]. For new admixture
materials, a long-term durability test is needed to determine
the improvement in RAC, study the existing state of the ma-
terial in RAC, and study the stable state of RAC after an
extended period of time. At present, the research on RAC ad-
mixtures is mainly based on improving its mechanics and
durability. Based on this research idea, we can find more new
6375
materials to strengthen RAC. Table 3 shows the effects of
admixtures and RCA substitution on the durability of RAC.
2.3. Improvement of preparation process
While direct enhancement of RA or the addition of admixtures
to RAC can improve the performance of RAC, the improved
production process can also promote the aggregate, cement,
and water reactions during the production of RAC. Some re-
searchers have found that improvements in the preparation
process and methods of RAC can improve the performance of
RAC. Etxeberria et al. [57] used different mixing ratios, with
manual and automatic material addition methods to prepare
RAC and improved the compressive strength by adjusting the
amount of RA, the water-cement ratio, and the amount of
cement. When the materials are added manually, cement is
mixed with water first; when the materials are added auto-
matically, more water-reducing agents are needed to ensure
its workability because the RA and cement mixture are
directly mixed with free water. When RA increases, increasing
the amount of cement can produce high-quality RAC, which is
consistent with the research results of Medina [88]. In this
study, when automatic mixing was used to produce RAC, the
surface of the RCA was coated with cement slurry, which
prevented free water from entering the RCA, resulting in a lot
of free water and a more adequate hydration reaction of the
cement. However, when the water content of RCA is low, the
problem of water shortage in RAC needs to be addressed, as
the water content will be reduced due to the internal cement
reaction. Therefore, the shrinkage of RAC needs to be
observed in the later curing. Emmanuel [89] used the “equiv-
alent mortar volume (EMV)" design method of combining fine-
grained and coarse-grained RA to produce RAC and two con-
ventional test methods to test the basic mechanical properties
of RAC. It was found that when adopting the EMV design
method, the particle accumulation condition is improved, and
the hardening density of RAC is significantly increased.
However, further study is needed to test the durability of RAC
with this method. Gao et al. [90] investigated the effect of RA
replacement rate and steel fiber characteristic coefficient.
They considered the mixture ratio and the four parameters of
steel fiber content, water-cement ratio, water content, and
sand ratio. With the “absolute volume method” they produced
concrete with machinability and target strength. Dipak [91]
found that RAC prepared by the EMV method had the same
quality as NAC in terms of shear cracking resistance. Hosein
[92] used computer software, and his studies found that when
the dose of RA reaches a maximum of 1000 kg/m3, the
compressive strength of RAC will improve. Other studies have
found that the surface silane water-repellent treatment of
RAC can more effectively improve its durability [93].
Each process can improve the performance of RAC. It needs
to be determined whether a more improved RAC can be pro-
duced if these processes are combined, or if the process is
combined with other improvements. Some researchers also
use compound reinforcement to Nyoman [94] proposed a
thermo-mechanical-chemical process to produce high-
performance concrete. The process flow is to first heat the
concrete block to 100
C-200
C for 24 h, then make it into the
size of RA, and soak it in an acid solution to remove the
6376 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 1 ; 1 5 : 6 3 6 7 e6 3 8 6

Table 3 e Effect of admixture and RCA substitution on the durability of RAC.

Types of Content RCA (%) Performance Admixture Remarks
admixtures increase characteristics
Lithium slag [65] 20% (by weight) 30 Good frost resistance Lithium slag has The reaction
pozzolanic activity products can
compensate for the
fracture of the
aggregate and the
micro-fracture of the
ITZ
Alkali excited slag The concentration of 50 Acid resistance close Gelation activity Slower the early
[25] 3% to NAC shrinkage rate of
RAC
Colloidal 0.5, 1, 2% (by weight) 100 Enhanced impact highly dispersed and It fills the gap
nanoparticles of resistance agglomerated free
silica [22] nature of colloidal
nano-silica
grounded blast 30% (by weight) 100 Chloride corrosion Filling effect Smaller particles of
furnace slag (GBFS) resistance increased GBFS can reduce
[64] by 34% porosity
Fly ash [69] 60% (by weight) 0, 20, 50, 100 Sulfate erosion Filling effect A large amount of fly
capacity decreased ash reduces the
by 5.5% content of Ca(OH)2 in
cement
Fly ash [71] 10% (by weight) 0, 30, 60, 100 Impervious property Filling effect fly ash improve the
increased by 15.5% inner hole structure
of recycled concrete
and increase its
compactness.
SF, Rubber [75] 10% (by weight), 5% 100 With 10% silicon Filling and bonding Good adhesion
(by volume) powder and 5% between silicon
rubber, the powder, steel fiber
compressive and rubber particles
strength of RAC is
increased by 18.7%
Silicon powder [77] 5% (by weight) 30 Compressive Pozzolanic action Increase the bond
strength increased and filler action strength (aggregate
by 3.5% and hydrated
cement base)
BF [36] 0.3% (by volume) 20 The replacement High tensile Improve the
rate of fly ash is 20%, strength, corrosion mechanical
and the corrosion and wear resistance properties
resistance is
increased by 4.39%
Polypropylene fiber 0.6% (by volume) 50 Compressive Low thermal Improve the
[87] strength increased conductivity and mechanical
by 15.2% tolerance to acids properties
and bases
Steel fiber and 117 kg/m3, 0.9 kg/m3 100 The splitting tensile Strain rate sensitive, After adding hybrid
polypropylene strength was good toughness, low fiber, the failure of
fiber blend [81] increased by 53.8% modulus of elasticity RAC changes from
brittleness to
ductility
GF [83] 0.5% (by volume) 50 Acid erosion Good heat resistance GF inhibits the
resistance increased and corrosion expansion of RAC
by 6.6% resistance
NF [24] 1.2 kg/m3 100 The permeability Resistance to fatigue NF plays an role in
resistance increased crack bridging
by 28.6%
Molasses [27] 0.5% (by weight) 100 Resistance to Reduce water High molasses
chloride ion consumption increased RAC
penetration density and reduced
increased by 20.7% interconnection hole
length
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 1 ; 1 5 : 6 3 6 7 e6 3 8 6
cement paste residue attached to it. The density, water ab-
sorption rate, and sieving analysis of RA prepared by this
process are essentially the same as NA, and the mechanical
properties of the RAC prepared are improved over those pre-
pared by traditional methods and are approximately 3%e8%
lower than that of NAC. Compared with the traditional recy-
cling technology, this production process can produce RAC
that meets most requirements.
Due to the different sources and production processes of
RCA, the performance of RCA varies greatly. For RCA with
different quality and strength, different research methods
should be adopted. In the production of RCA, the production
purposes and processes are different. Some only consider the
strength, add the corresponding additives, add the cement,
and use different mixing methods to produce RAC; others only
consider the economics and adopt an optimized preparation
process to reduce the production cost; a third group use the
method of multiple strengthening for production. However,
these manufacturing processes cannot be used to produce
RAC in large quantities and are only suitable for buildings with
low requirements in terms of quantity. To produce RCA that
meets the engineering needs and can be produced in large
quantities, much additional research is still needed.
2.4. Spiral confinement of RAC
As it can be seen from the above studies, some reinforcement
methods are based on the self-reinforcement of RCA and the
reinforcement of RAC. Due to the modest improvement effect,
most RAC is still applied to non-structural buildings such as
substrate for the reason that cannot meet standard require-
ment, and which limits the application of RAC. Therefore, how
to significantly improve the performance of RAC is a crucial
research subject. Among the different reinforcement tech-
niques, external spiral constraint is a feasible method to
improve RAC performance. In general, when the design shear
capacity of concrete is lower than the actual shear capacity,
the high shear zone of reinforced concrete beams requires
additional hoops reinforcement outside the structure [95e97].
The restraint of concrete structures is provided by ties or
spiral restraints that provide lateral pressure to restrain the
lateral expansion deformation of the concrete, and to increase
the strength and ductility of old, dilapidated buildings after
fires or earthquakes. To improve the mechanical properties of
concrete structures, steel plates, hoops, cement paste and
fiber reinforced polymers (FRP) are commonly used to
strengthen structures [98,99]. At the same compressive
strength, the peak strain of RAC is higher than that of NAC.
However, the peak stress was reduced by about 32% and the
elastic modulus by about 40% [100e102], and the downward
branching of the stress-strain curve was slower to NAC [103].
External steel tube constraint is a kind of direct and
effective reinforcement method, which has been applied to
NAC building structures. The principle of combined confine-
ment of steel tube and concrete: the steel tube can improve
the strength of the core concrete, and the core concrete can
also abate the internal buckling of the steel tube. This kind of
composite concrete-filled steel tubular column has high
ductility, high stiffness, and high strength [104,105]. But it also
has some disadvantages, for example, external buckling may
6377
occur, which will reduce the constraint effect, and the load-
bearing capacity of the structure will be reduced due to the
corrosion of the steel pipe in the course of use [106e108].
The ductility of concrete columns can be effectively
improved by stirrup restraint, and the smaller the stirrup
spacing is, the better the improvement effect is. The reason is
that the relatively small hoop spacing helps to absorb more
energy and can provide good restraint. The main factors
affecting the strength of concrete structure are the strength of
RAC, the strength of reinforcement, the spacing of reinforce-
ment and the ratio of reinforcement [109e111]. With the
research on reinforcement materials, FRP have gradually
replaced the traditional reinforcement methods in the field of
building structure reinforcement and has achieved a lot of
applications by virtue of its characteristics of light weight,
high strength, good corrosion resistance and simple con-
struction. When reinforcing NAC structures, FRP pipes
improve the strength and ductility of concrete by providing
lateral envelope pressure [112,113]. Currently, more FRP ma-
terials are used: carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP), glass
fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP), etc. Due to the excellent
reinforcement and improvement effect of FRP, FRP is also
gradually applied to strengthen RAC structures. Compared
with other improvement methods, the shortcomings of RAC
can be effectively improved by FRP reinforcement, which can
greatly improve the performance of RAC [114e116]. However,
GFRP and CFRP are more expensive to synthesize and cannot
be recycled and degraded. For the reasons of economic and
environmental benefits, new restraining materials are devel-
oped, such as aramid fiber reinforced polymers (AFRP), basalt
fiber reinforced polymers (BFRP), etc. New materials would
overcome the shortcomings of low yield, high price, non-
degradation and recycling of CFRP, GFRP materials [117,118].
In conclusion, spiral constraint strengthening for NAC
structure has been studied in recently year, and there are some
main influencing factors including NAC strength, section shape,
slenderness ratio, aspect ratio, and so on. Besides, the screw
constraint material types, layers, reinforcement methods,
reinforcement shape are the key factors. For reinforcing RAC
structures, the source of RCA, moisture content, crushing value
Fig. 3 e SEM image of untreated RCA [52].
6378 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 1 ; 1 5 : 6 3 6 7 e6 3 8 6
and so on are need taken into consideration. In addition, it is
necessary to study the durability of RAC structures reinforced
with spiral constraints under the action of self-load, earthquake,
environmental corrosion, explosion, impact and other acci-
dental loads, as well as the coupling action of high temperature,
freeze-thaw, sulfate erosion, and other coupling actions.
3. Microstructure of RAC
The microstructure characteristics of RAC determine its
macroscopic properties to a certain extent, which in turn
affect the mechanical properties and durability. Fig. 3 shows
the surface microstructure of RA. The main components of
the microstructure are CH crystals, pores, and CeSeH gel. The
research method of RAC microstructure determination is
simple, however the external influencing factors are relatively
complicated, and the research results are not uniform. Many
researchers have studied RAC microstructure, especially the
composition, porosity, hydration products, and the strength
and density of the weak structures like the ITZ. The micro-
structure characteristics are related to the chemical and
physical changes between cement slurry and the aggregate
and are closely related to the water-cement ratio, admixtures,
and external influencing factors [25,86].
When subjected to chloride ion erosion and freeze-thaw
cycles, freeze-thaw caused more micro-cracks in the con-
crete, which further reduced the chloride ion permeability
[119]. The connectivity of the internal pores of RAC mortar is
proportional to the temperature. The total pore area of the old
mortar is 3e6 times that of the new mortar; with the entry of
chloride ions, the old pores are gradually filled by the products
and new pores formed with small pores [120]. Some scholars
have found that: compared with NAC, RAC has a rougher
appearance, more microcracks, more internal microstructure
holes, poor integrity, and low strength [25]. There is old mortar
attached to the surface of RA, which has complex
morphology, poor strength and adhesion. Moreover, it will
bond with new mortar and hydration products to form a
double ITZ, which contains the old and new slurry.
Fig. 4 e The limestone powder becomes the crystal nucleus of the new hydration product [26].
However, some researchers have found that adding
ceramic powder, limestone powder, and sugar cane honey can
improve the microstructure of RAC. It found that The addition
of ceramic powder to RAC can improve the impermeability
[86]. The reason for this is that the pozzolanic substance
contained in the ceramic powder undergoes secondary hy-
dration with calcium hydroxide to form an indeterminate
hydrated calcium silicate gel. However, increasing the
ceramic powder is not the answer, because when there is too
much ceramic powder, the porosity of the microscopic
morphology inside RAC is not changed. Yang et al. [26] used X-
ray diffraction tests and SEM to observe the limestone powder
mixed with artificial sand in RAC, and found that it only
changed the morphology of the hydration product, without
changing its composition. A certain amount of limestone
powder will fill the pores of the cement matrix. Limestone
becomes a crystal nucleus that can promote the reaction of
cement, as shown in Fig. 4. Babar Ali et al. [27] found that sugar
cane honey with a retarding effect can form a uniform and
compact microstructure by improving the cement solidifica-
tion rate when its proportion (the ratio of honey content to
cement weight) is low. A higher proportion of molasses (up to
0.5%) can increase the density of concrete, reduce the length
of interconnect holes, and improve the impermeability of the
concrete.
RAC is a multi-phase, multi-interface, composite material.
It comprises aggregate, cement slurry matrix, and an ITZ. To
improve the weakest part of concrete, research on the ITZ has
also been conducted. Wang [49] found that the improvement
effect of the new ITZ is better than the old ITZ in the way RA is
treated with the slurries. The coating slurry contains additives
with micro-expansion characteristics, which only fill and seal
holes for the old ITZ, however the new ITZ is filled with hy-
dration products, the micro-cracks are reduced, and the
interface strength is significantly improved. Sallehan et al. [62]
used acid treatment and mineral mixed solution impregna-
tion to strengthen the aggregate (Fig. 5). The study found that
the density of RAC increased, and the surface contact and
bonding strength of the ITZ microstructure were improved.
Under the influence of external factors, RAC will undergo
volume deformation. With the increase of the degree of
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 1 ; 1 5 : 6 3 6 7 e6 3 8 6 6379

Fig. 5 e SEM images of the surfaces of (a) untreated RCA and (b) RCA after subjected to 0.5 M HCl [62].

Fig. 6 e SEM observation of new and old ITZs in mortar before and after carbonation [54].
6380 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 1 ; 1 5 : 6 3 6 7 e6 3 8 6
Fig. 7 e Schematic diagram of the MRAC [29].
deformation, some cracks will appear on the surface of RAC,
which will affect the durability. Studies have found that
carbonation can improve the ITZ of RAC (Fig. 6), and the
stress-strain relationship of RAC [121]. Wang et al. [29]
designed the modeled RAC, as shown in Fig. 7, and used push-
out experiments to study the effect of aggregate carbonation
on interface properties. The study found that the depth of
carbonation has a significant impact on the interface charac-
teristics. BF significantly improves the ITZ performance of
RAC, and also prevents or delays the development of rein-
forced concrete cracks [122]. Lu et al. [20] found that the re-
action of carbonation products and cement hydration
products increases the strength and stiffness of the new and
old ITZ. However, none of the above studies has introduced
the impact mechanism of carbonation in detail. Carbonation
includes chemical and physical changes, and we need to
conduct in-depth research on the reaction mechanism.
Wu et al. [28] used carbonation treatment and a two-stage
mixing method to explore its effects on RAC and the ITZ, and
found that both methods could improve the strength of the
old ITZ. Carbonation treatment could reduce the water ab-
sorption rate. During the carbonation process, carbon dioxide
enters the mortar pores and reacts with calcium hydroxide
and hydrated calcium silicate to form solid calcium carbonate.
The quality and compactness of RAC have been significantly
improved. The pores and interfacial gaps of RAC have been
filled. Carbonation and two-stage mixing can individually
Fig. 8 e The ITZ in RAC [10].
enhance the RAC splitting tensile strength, but there may not
be a synergistic effect. The specific effect still needs further
research. Zhang et al. [123] analyzed the performance evolu-
tion of new and old mortars in the ITZ and RAC in a complex
environment. The study found that the old ITZ contained less
gypsum crystals. The reason was that it contained less cal-
cium hydroxide. Since gypsum generally exists in large pores,
it can be concluded that the old ITZ may have a smaller pore
diameter than the new one. The old ITZ has the best resis-
tance to complex environments. The reason for this is that the
old ITZ contained few swelling corrosion products, and the
filling action in the early stage caused it to be well compacted,
resulting in less sulfate ion infiltration. After carbonation, the
width of the old ITZ microcracks becomes smaller, forming a
dense structure, the chloride ion seepage path is significantly
extended, and the permeability is improved [49].
Assia [10] used a two-stage mixing method to study the
microstructure of the new ITZ (Fig. 8). The new ITZ was a weak
area due to the presence of high porosity and microcracks,
and its performance depended to a certain extent on the
water-cement ratio of the new mortar, which could damage
its microstructure. At the same time, the test gave a critical
value of 0.41 for the water-cement ratio, below which the
microstructure of the new ITZ can be improved. Thomas et al.
[124] observed and studied RAC several times using a com-
puter microscopic recorder and found that the number of re-
generations significantly increases the density loss rate and
porosity of RAC. The amount of mortar in the third generation
RAC was almost twice that of the second generation, indi-
cating that the number of recycling cycles of concrete is
limited.
The study of RAC microstructure can help us to understand
the relationship between microstructure and macroscopic
performance. Because the existing methods for studying the
microstructure are relatively simple, we can use more in-
struments to study the internal structure of RAC, and we
should use intelligent equipment to observe the micro
changes of RAC, establish a long-term detection system, un-
derstand the evolution law of RAC, and determine the corre-
sponding improvement measures.
4. Additional cost analysis
There are three types of reinforcement methods for RCA: (1)
Self-enhancement of RCA: removal or reinforcement of old
mortar, such as acid solution treatment, carbonation, etc.; (2)
self-reinforcement of RAC: the addition of gel materials, fibers,
etc.; (3) Spiral confinement of RAC structure: steel pipe, hoop,
FRP material, etc. But some improvement methods are not
widely promoted and applied for the reasons of perspective of
production cost. In order to evaluate the universality of rein-
forcement methods from an economic point of view, the
additional cost of some methods with excellent reinforcement
effects was analyzed in this paper. The main analysis of the
material: carbon dioxide, acid solution, fly ash solution, nano
solution, fiber, steel pipe, stirrups, FRP materials. The primary
analysis method is as followings: additional cost analysis of
the improvement method for C30 concrete with 100%
replacement of RCA, and water-cement ratio of 0.5. The cost of
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 1 ; 1 5 : 6 3 6 7 e6 3 8 6 6381

Table 4 e The additional costs of several materials with better improvements.

Material type The amount of RCA (kg/m3) Optimum Unit price Quantity Total price Remarks
RAC processed content ($) ($)
(m3)
CO2 [54] 1 About 1150 y 3.3 10 L 33 Strengthening the
old mortar of RCA
Acetic acid [37] 1 About 1150 Concentration 5% 7 5L 35 Removing RCA
surface mortar
Fly ash [50] 1 y 30% (By weight) 0.8 126 kg 100.8 As admixture
Silicon powder [77] 1 y 5% (By weight) 24.6 4.2 kg 103 As admixture
BF [36] 1 y 0.3% (By volume) 2 7.93 kg 15.9 As admixture
steel fiber [90] 1 y 1.5% (By volume) 1 15 kg 15 As admixture
Polypropylene fiber 1 y 0.6% (By volume) 1.5 15.9 kg 23.9 As admixture
[87]
Molasses [25] 1 y 0.5% (By weight) 4.15 2.1 kg 8.72 As admixture
BFRP [125] 1 y Around 4 layer 1 106 m 106 As external winding

the improvement methods was determined based on the
recommended values and the market price of the material (in
China). The additional costs of several materials with better
improvement effects are shown in Table 4.
Specific calculation process: For example, most studies
show that the optimal content of BF is 0.3% (by volume). The
market price of BF (in China) is $2/kg, and the BF content in 1 m3
RAC is 7.93 kg, and the additional cost is $15.9. According to the
data analysis, it can be seen that the additional cost of the
reinforcement method with fiber addition is relatively low, and
the additional cost of the improvement method with silica
powder addition and BFRP reinforcement is relatively high. The
additional cost analysis presented in this paper has a reference
value and the actual additional cost should be determined
based on the actual market price in the region. To improve the
performance of RAC and increase the practical engineering
application of RAC, it is necessary to consider the additional
cost of the improvement method in the study for RAC.
and RCA. The mixture of fiber and silica powder in RAC can
play a complementary role and has a significant improvement
effect on the performance of RAC. The performance of RAC
structures strengthened with BFRP can be greatly improved.
The comprehensive summary of RAC performance enhance-
ment methods could provide technical reference for the
future research and development of RAC. It also would widen
the research ideas and inspires the application and promotion
of RAC.
6. Conclusions and future perspectives
The principle, improvement effect, cost, and microstructure
of different existing strengthening methods of RAC are sum-
marized and analyzed systematically, and the future research
directions for RAC are also suggested.
6.1. Conclusions

5. The novelty of this review
In recent years, many review articles have been published on
the research of RAC performance improvement, but most ar-
ticles just focus on one perspective of RAC performance
improvement method, and the readers can't obtain compre-
hensive understanding about RAC performance improvement
methods from one of those papers. In this paper, the
strengthening methods of RCA and RAC from different angles
are summarized, and improvement principle, improvement
effect, economic effect, microstructure, and other aspects are
analyzed. The strengthening methods of RAC in four di-
rections: the self-strengthening of RCA, the internal
strengthening of RAC, improvement of preparation process
and the external strengthening of RAC are compared and
summarized in this paper. The optimal schemes of each
strengthening method are given respectively: the carbonation
treatment of RCA is an effective and feasible way to improve
the performance of RAC, which has the characteristics of
economy, environmental protection, and sustainability. The
old mortar attached to RCA can be removed by a weak acid
such as acetic acid, which is less harmful to the environment
(1) Reinforcement by accelerated carbonation of RCA. The
old mortar on the surface of RCA reacts with CO2 to form
calcium carbonate bio-precipitate, which can effec-
tively improve the microstructure and compactness of
RCA. Taking the technical, environmental and eco-
nomic into considerations, accelerated carbonation of
RCA is a beneficial improvement method.
(2) Acetic acid solution treatment. Acetic acid solution is a
kind of comprehensive treatment method among the
mortar removal reinforcement methods. The old
mortar on the surface of RCA can be effectively
removed, and the water absorption rate is also reduced.
The method has the advantages of environmental pro-
tection, economy, and safety.
(3) Compounding of fiber and gel materials. The addition of
cementing materials can fill the micro-cracks and pores
in RCA and RAC. The addition of fiber can enhance the
toughness and shrinkage resistance of RAC. The com-
posite mixing of the two materials can play a comple-
mentary role and achieve high returns.
(4) FRP spiral confinement. The external reinforcement of
RAC structure with FRP material can greatly improve
6382 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 1 ; 1 5 : 6 3 6 7 e6 3 8 6
the mechanical properties of the structure. FRP has
been widely used in the field of building structure
reinforcement owing to its light weight, high strength,
good corrosion resistance, and simple construction.
(5) Microstructure study. Based on the microstructure
analysis, it was found that the old mortar reinforcement
of RCA, the addition of gel material, and the incorpo-
ration of fibers can effectively improve the microstruc-
ture of RAC and the performance of ITZ, which in turn
can improve the mechanical properties and durability
of concrete from the macroscopic aspect.
6.2. Future perspectives
(1) Research on environmentally friendly RCA treatment
methods. It is necessary to develop environmentally
friendly treatment methods such as weak acid solution
strengthening. The solution intensification needs to be
carried out under the condition that RCA is not damaged
and no harmful substances are introduced or produced.
(2) Research and development of economic admixtures. At
present, admixtures mainly include fiber, mineral ma-
terials, etc., which are expensive, limited in resources,
and not environmentally friendly. The development of
economic admixtures is one of the essential measures
for the practical engineering application of RAC, and it is
also the main research direction in the future.
(3) Study on long-term durability mechanism of RAC. The
present studies on the improvement of RCA and RAC is
mostly aimed at short-term mechanical properties. To
more systematically evaluate the improvement effect of
different reinforcement method, it is necessary to study
the long-term durability of RAC, and a kind of system-
atic mechanical properties and durability evaluation
system is an urgent need to establish.
(4) The relation between macro and micro structure of
RAC. At present, most studies aimed on the macro-
scopic perspective, the research indicated that the
macro performance of RAC is closely related to the in-
ternal microstructure of the material and external
environmental factors. Therefore, artificial intelligence
should be used to observe and study the microstructure
of RAC under natural conditions, single factor and
multiple factors, and then establish the theoretical
relationship model between the performance index of
RCA and the mechanical properties and durability of
RAC. Finally, a theoretical basis for the further promo-
tion and application of RAC will be provided.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support
received from National Natural Science Foundation of China
(Grant No. 51878623, U2040224), Key Research and Develop-
ment and Promotion Special Project of Henan Province in 2020
(Key Science and Technology Tack) (Grant No.202102310241),
Young Key Teachers of Colleges and Universities in Henan
Province (Grant No.2018GGJS005), Natural Science Foundation
of Henan (Grant No. 212300410018), and Program for Innova-
tive Research Team (in Science and Technology) in University
of Henan Province of China (Grant No. 20IRTSTHN009).
references
[1] Guo H, Shi C, Guan X, Zhu J, Ding Y, Ling T, et al. Durability
of recycled aggregate concrete e a review. Cem Concr
Compos 2018;89:251e9.
[2] Azevedo ARG, Cecchin D, Carmo DF, Silva FC, Campos CMO,
Shtrucka TG, et al. Analysis of the compactness and
properties of the hardened state of mortars with recycling
of construction and demolition waste (CDW). J Mater Res
Technol 2020;9:5942e52.
[3] Gao C, Huang L, Yan L, Kasal B, Li W, Jin R, et al.
Compressive performance of fiber reinforced polymer
encased recycled concrete with nanoparticles. J Mater Res
Technol 2021;14:2727e38.
[4] Vengadesh Marshall Raman J, Ramasamy V. Augmentation
of dissimilar techniques for enhancing the concrete
properties with recycled coarse aggregate and
manufactured sand. J Mater Res Technol 2021;14:1180e90.
[5] Wang X, Yang X, Ren J, Han N, Xing F. A novel treatment
method for recycled aggregate and the mechanical
properties of recycled aggregate concrete. J Mater Res
Technol 2021;10:1389e401.
[6] Eguchi K, Teranishi K, Nakagome A, Kishimoto H,
Shinozaki K, Narikawa M. Application of recycled coarse
aggregate by mixture to concrete construction. Construct
Build Mater 2007;21:1542e51.
[7] Pu Y, Li L, Wang Q, Shi X, Luan C, Zhang G, et al. Accelerated
carbonation technology for enhanced treatment of recycled
concrete aggregates: a state-of-the-art review. Construct
Build Mater 2021;282:122671.
[8] Wang L, Guo FX, Lin YQ. Comparison between the effects of
phosphorous slag and fly ash on the C-S-H structure, long-
term hydration heat and volume deformation of cement-
based materials. Construct Build Mater 2020;250:118807.
[9] Zhang Y, Luo W, Wang J, Wang Y, Xu Y, Xiao J. A review of
life cycle assessment of recycled aggregate concrete.
Construct Build Mater 2019;209:115e25.
[10] Zheng Y, Zhuo J, Zhang P. A review on durability of nano-
SiO2 and basalt fiber modified recycled aggregate concrete.
Construct Build Mater 2021;304:124659.
[11] Zoraida S, Marı́a M, Ignacio V, Montserrat Z. Technical
feasibility of using recycled aggregates to produce eco-
friendly urban furniture. Construct Build Mater 2020:250.
[12] S Md, Ubagaram JA, Mr Md, As Md, Mohd ZJ. Use of recycled
concrete aggregate in concrete: a review. Taylor & Francis;
2013. p. 19.
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 1 ; 1 5 : 6 3 6 7 e6 3 8 6
[13] Mao Y, Liu J, Shi C. Autogenous shrinkage and drying
shrinkage of recycled aggregate concrete: a review. J Clean
Prod 2021;295:126435.
[14] Shi C, Li Y, Zhang J, Li W, Chong L, Xie Z. Performance
enhancement of recycled concrete aggregate e a review. J
Clean Prod 2016;112:466e72.
[15] Liang C, Cai Z, Wu H, Xiao J, Zhang Y, Ma Z. Chloride
transport and induced steel corrosion in recycled aggregate
concrete: a review. Construct Build Mater 2021;282:122547.
[16] Wang R, Yu N, Li Y. Methods for improving the
microstructure of recycled concrete aggregate: a review.
Construct Build Mater 2020:242.
[17] Abhijit M, Sriman KB, Navdeep D, Abhijit M,
Sudhirkumar VB. A review on different treatment methods
for enhancing the properties of recycled aggregates for
sustainable construction materials. Construct Build Mater
2020:233.
[18] Wang L, Jin M, Zhou S, Tang SW, Lu X. Investigation of
microstructure of C-S-H and micro-mechanics of cement
pastes under NH4NO3 dissolution by 29Si MAS NMR and
microhardness. Measurement 2021;185:110019.
[19] Tam VWY, Butera A, Le KN, Li W. Utilising CO2 technologies
for recycled aggregate concrete: a critical review. Construct
Build Mater 2020;250:118903.
[20] Lu B, Shi C, Cao Z. Effect of carbonated coarse recycled
concrete aggregate on the properties and microstructure of
recycled concrete. J Clean Prod 2019;233.
[21] Zhu P, Hao Y, Liu H, Wei D, Liu S, Gu L. Durability evaluation
of three generations of 100% repeatedly recycled coarse
aggregate concrete. Construct Build Mater 2019;210:442e50.
[22] Sava E, Serap H, Zeynel G. Micromechanical damage
analysis and engineering performance of concrete with
colloidal nano-silica and demolished concrete aggregates.
Construct Build Mater 2018:171.
[23] Rupali SP, Rakesh KP, Bibhuti BM, Tanish D. Influence of
incorporation of rice husk ash and coarse recycled concrete
aggregates on properties of concrete. Construct Build Mater
2018:173.
[24] Lee S. Science - applied sciences; findings from Kunsan
National University provides new data about applied
sciences (effect of nylon fiber addition on the performance
of recycled aggregate concrete). Sci Lett 2019;9:767.
[25] Nanayakkara O, Gunasekara C, Sandanayake M, Law DW,
Nguyen K, Xia J, et al. Alkali activated slag concrete
incorporating recycled aggregate concrete: long term
performance and sustainability aspect. Construct Build
Mater 2021;271:121512.
[26] Yang H, Liang D, Deng Z. Effect of limestone powder in
manufactured sand on the hydration products and
microstructure of recycled aggregate concrete. Construct
Build Mater 2018:188.
[27] Babar A, Liaqat AQ. Durability of recycled aggregate
concrete modified with sugarcane molasses. Construct
Build Mater 2019;229.
[28] Wang J, Zhang Y, Zhu P, Jincai F. Mechanical properties and
ITZ microstructure of recycled aggregate concrete using
carbonated recycled coarse aggregate. J Wuhan Univ
Technol -Materials Sci Ed 2018;33.
[29] Wang C-H, Xiao J-Z, Zhang G-Z. Interfacial properties of
modeled recycled aggregate concrete modified by
carbonation. Construct Build Mater 2016;105.
[30] Lei B, Li W, Tang Z, Li Z, Tam VWY. Effects of environmental
actions, recycled aggregate quality and modification
treatments on durability performance of recycled concrete.
J Mater Res Technol 2020;9:13375e89.
[31] Ismail S, Ramli M. Engineering properties of treated
recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) for structural
applications. Construct Build Mater 2013;44:464e76.
6383
[32] Kim Y, Hanif A, Kazmi SMS, Munir MJ, Park C. Properties
enhancement of recycled aggregate concrete through
pretreatment of coarse aggregates e comparative
assessment of assorted techniques. J Clean Prod
2018;191:339e49.
[33] Katkhuda H, Shatarat N. Improving the mechanical
properties of recycled concrete aggregate using chopped
basalt fibers and acid treatment. Construct Build Mater
2017;140:328e35.
[34] Tam VWY, Tam CM, Le KN. Removal of cement mortar
remains from recycled aggregate using pre-soaking
approaches. Resour Conserv Recycl 2007;50:82e101.
[35] Al-Bayati HKA, Das PK, Tighe SL, Baaj H. Evaluation of
various treatment methods for enhancing the physical and
morphological properties of coarse recycled concrete
aggregate. Construct Build Mater 2016;112:284e98.
[36] Ahmed W, Lim CW. Coupling effect assessment of vacuum
based pozzolana slurry encrusted recycled aggregate and
basalt fiber on mechanical performance of fiber reinforced
concrete. Construct Build Mater 2021;300:124032.
[37] Wang L, Wang J, Qian X, Chen P, Xu Y, Guo J. An
environmentally friendly method to improve the quality of
recycled concrete aggregates. Construct Build Mater
2017;144:432e41.
[38] Bru K, Touze
S, Bourgeois F, Lippiatt N, Me

nard Y.
Assessment of a microwave-assisted recycling process for
the recovery of high-quality aggregates from concrete
waste. Int J Miner Process 2014;126:90e8.
[39] Shima H, Tateyashiki H, Matsuhashi R, Yoshida Y. An
advanced concrete recycling technology and its
applicability assessment through input-output analysis. J
Adv Concr Technol 2005;3:53e67.
[40] Akbarnezhad A, Ong KCG, Zhang MH, Tam CT, Foo TWJ.
Microwave-assisted beneficiation of recycled concrete
aggregates. Construct Build Mater 2011;25:3469e79.
[41] Li L, Poon CS, Xiao J, Xuan D. Effect of carbonated recycled
coarse aggregate on the dynamic compressive behavior of
recycled aggregate concrete. Construct Build Mater
2017;151:52e62.
[42] Zhan B, Poon CS, Liu Q, Kou S, Shi C. Experimental study on
CO2 curing for enhancement of recycled aggregate
properties. Construct Build Mater 2014;67:3e7.
[43] Xuan D, Zhan B, Poon CS. Assessment of mechanical
properties of concrete incorporating carbonated recycled
concrete aggregates. Cement Concr Compos 2016;65:67e74.
[44] Kou S, Zhan B, Poon C. Use of a CO2 curing step to improve
the properties of concrete prepared with recycled
aggregates. Cement Concr Compos 2014;45:22e8.
[45] Zhang K, Xiao J. Time-dependent reliability analysis on
carbonation behavior of recycled aggregate concrete based
on gamma process. Construct Build Mater 2018;158:378e88.
[46] Tam VWY, Butera A, Le KN. Microstructure and chemical
properties for CO2 concrete. Construct Build Mater
2020;262:120584.
[47] Asghar G, Annelie B, Ruben S, Bram V, Mieke Q. The effects
of carbonation conditions on the physical and
microstructural properties of recycled concrete coarse
aggregates. Construct Build Mater 2020:257.
[48] Li Y, Zhang S, Wang R. Effects of carbonation treatment on
the crushing characteristics of recycled coarse aggregates.
Construct Build Mater 2019;201.
[49] Wang J, Zhang J, Cao D. Comparison of recycled aggregate
treatment methods on the performance for recycled
concrete. Construct Build Mater 2020:234.
[50] Zhao Z, Wang S, Lu L, Gong C. Evaluation of pre-coated
recycled aggregate for concrete and mortar. Construct Build
Mater 2013;43:191e6.
6384 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 1 ; 1 5 : 6 3 6 7 e6 3 8 6
[51] Spaeth V, Djerbi Tegguer A. Improvement of recycled
concrete aggregate properties by polymer treatments. Int J
Islam Architect 2013;2:143e52.
[52] Wang L, Wang J, Xu Y, Cui L, Qian X, Chen P, et al.
Consolidating recycled concrete aggregates using
phosphate solution. Construct Build Mater 2019;200:703e12.
[53] SR J, Sl Y. Characterization of recycled coarse aggregate
(RCA) via a surface coating method. Int J Concr Struct M
2014;8.
[54] Shi C, Wu Z, Cao Z, Ling TC, Zheng J. Performance of
mortar prepared with recycled concrete aggregate
enhanced by CO2 and pozzolan slurry. Cement Concr
Compos 2018;86:130e8.
[55] Wang JVBVS. Microbial carbonate precipitation improves
the quality of recycled aggregates for sustainable concrete
production. J Clean Prod 2017;156:355e66.
[56] Kou S, Poon C. Properties of concrete prepared with PVA-
impregnated recycled concrete aggregates. Cement Concr
Compos 2010;32:649e54.
[57] Etxeberria M, Va
zquez E, Marı́ A, Barra M. Influence of
amount of recycled coarse aggregates and production
process on properties of recycled aggregate concrete.
Cement Concr Res 2007;37:735e42.
[58] Hanif A, Kim Y, Lu Z, Park C. Early-age behavior of recycled
aggregate concrete under steam curing regime. J Clean Prod
2017;152:103e14.
[59] Zhang W, Gong S, Zhang J. Effect of rubber particles and
steel fibers on frost resistance of roller compacted concrete
in potassium acetate solution. Construct Build Mater
2018;187:752e9.
[60] Zhang H, Zhao Y, Meng T, Shah SP. Surface treatment on
recycled coarse aggregates with nanomaterials. J Mater Civ
Eng 2016;28.
[61] Zhan BJ, Xuan DX, Poon CS. Enhancement of recycled
aggregate properties by accelerated CO2 curing coupled
with limewater soaking process. Cement Concr Compos
2018;89:230e7.
[62] Sallehan I, Mahyuddin R. Mechanical strength and drying
shrinkage properties of concrete containing treated coarse
recycled concrete aggregates. Construct Build Mater 2014;68.
[63] Lavado J, Bogas J, Brito J, Hawreen A. Fresh properties of
recycled aggregate concrete. Construct Build Mater 2020:233.
[64] Qi B, Gao JM, Shen DM. Chloride resistance of recycled
aggregate concrete under wetting-drying cycles. Key Eng
Mater 2016;724:3e7.
[65] He Z, Li L, Du S. Mechanical properties, drying shrinkage,
and creep of concrete containing lithium slag. Construct
Build Mater 2017;147:296e304.
[66] Afroughsabet V, Biolzi L, Ozbakkaloglu T. Influence of
double hooked-end steel fibers and slag on mechanical and
durability properties of high performance recycled
aggregate concrete. Compos Struct 2017;181:273e84.
[67] Lu C, Wang W, Zhou Q. Mechanical behavior degradation of
recycled aggregate concrete after simulated acid rain
spraying. J Clean Prod 2020:262.
[68] Qureshi LA, Ali B, Ali A. Combined effects of supplementary
cementitious materials (silica fume, GGBS, fly ash and rice
husk ash) and steel fiber on the hardened properties of
recycled aggregate concrete. Construct Build Mater
2020;263:120636.
[69] Li Y, Wang R, Li S. Resistance of recycled aggregate concrete
containing low- and high-volume fly ash against the
combined action of freezeethaw cycles and sulfate attack.
Construct Build Mater 2018;166.
[70] Singh N, Singh SP. Carbonation resistance and
microstructural analysis of low and high volume fly ash self
compacting concrete containing recycled concrete
aggregates. Construct Build Mater 2016;127:828e42.
[71] Qiao J, Zhang L, Zhao J. Test study on impermeability of
recycled concrete. IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng 2018;423.
[72] Wu J, Jing X, Wang Z. Uni-axial compressive stress-strain
relation of recycled coarse aggregate concrete after freezing
and thawing cycles. Construct Build Mater 2017;134:210e9.
[73] Xiao Q, Liu X, Qiu J. Capillary water absorption
characteristics of recycled concrete in freeze-thaw
environment. Ann Mater Sci Eng 2020;2020.
[74] Ahmed AMA, Roua SZ, Tuqa WA. Evaluation of high-
strength concrete made with recycled aggregate under
effect of well water. Case Stud Constr Mater 2020;12.
[75] Xie J, Fang C, Lu Z. Effects of the addition of silica fume and
rubber particles on the compressive behaviour of recycled
aggregate concrete with steel fibres. J Clean Prod 2018;197.
[76] Chen A, Han X, Chen M. Mechanical and stress-strain
behavior of basalt fiber reinforced rubberized recycled
coarse aggregate concrete. Construct Build Mater 2020:260.
[77] Dilbas H, S‚ims‚ek M, Çakır O.€ An investigation on
mechanical and physical properties of recycled aggregate
concrete (RAC) with and without silica fume. Construct
Build Mater 2014;61:50e9.
[78] Ahmed W, Lim CW. Production of sustainable and
structural fiber reinforced recycled aggregate concrete with
improved fracture properties: a review. J Clean Prod
2021;279:123832.
[79] Chaboki HR, Ghalehnovi M, Karimipour A, de Brito J,
Khatibinia M. Shear behaviour of concrete beams with
recycled aggregate and steel fibres. Construct Build Mater
2019;204:809e27.
[80] Xu F, Wang S, Li T, Liu B, Li B, Zhou Y. Mechanical properties
and pore structure of recycled aggregate concrete made
with iron ore tailings and polypropylene fibers. J Build Eng
2021;33:101572.
[81] Liu K, Wang S, Quan X, Duan W, Nan Z, Wei T, et al. Study
on the mechanical properties and microstructure of fiber
reinforced metakaolin-based recycled aggregate concrete.
Construct Build Mater 2021;294:123554.
[82] Cotto-Ramos A, Da
vila S, Torres-Garcı́a W, Ca

ceres-
Ferna
ndez A. Experimental design of concrete mixtures
using recycled plastic, fly ash, and silica nanoparticles.
Construct Build Mater 2020;254:119207.
[83] Babar A, Liaqat AQ, Syed HAS, Safi UR, Iqrar H, Maria I. A
step towards durable, ductile and sustainable concrete:
simultaneous incorporation of recycled aggregates, glass
fiber and fly ash. Construct Build Mater 2020:251.
[84] Wang Y, Phhn. A new method to improve the properties of
recycled aggregate concrete: composite addition of basalt
fiber and nano-silica. J Clean Prod 2019:236.
[85] Koushkbaghi M, Kazemi MJ, Mosavi H, Mohseni E. Acid
resistance and durability properties of steel fiber-reinforced
concrete incorporating rice husk ash and recycled
aggregate. Construct Build Mater 2019;202:266e75.
[86] Gautam L, Kumar Jain J, Alomayri T, Meena N, Kalla P.
Performance evaluation of self-compacting concrete
comprising ceramic waste powder as fine aggregate. Mater
Today: Proceedings 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.matpr.2021.08.063.
[87] Ahmed TW, Ali AAM, Zidan RS. Properties of high strength
polypropylene fiber concrete containing recycled aggregate.
Construct Build Mater 2020;241:118010.
[88] Medina C, Zhu W, Howind T, Sa
nchez De Rojas MI, Frı́as M.
Influence of mixed recycled aggregate on the physical e
mechanical properties of recycled concrete. J Clean Prod
2014;68:216e25.
[89] Emmanuel EA, Messaoud S, Eshmaiel G, Mark T,
Adegoke OO. Evaluation of conventional and equivalent
mortar volume mix design methods for recycled aggregate
concrete. Mater Struct 2020;53.
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 1 ; 1 5 : 6 3 6 7 e6 3 8 6
[90] Gao D, Zhang L, Nokken M, Zhao J. Mixture proportion
design method of steel fiber reinforced recycled coarse
aggregate concrete. Materials 2019;12.
[91] Dipak KS, Praveen M. Cohesion coefficient of structural
concrete made with recycled concrete coarse aggregate.
Proc Institut Civil Eng - Waste Res Manag 2020;173:1e34.
[92] Hosein N, Masoomeh M. Estimating the compressive
strength of eco-friendly concrete incorporating recycled
coarse aggregate using neuro-fuzzy approach. J Clean Prod
2020:265.
[93] Zhu Y, Kou S, Poon C, Dai J, Li Q. Influence of silane-based
water repellent on the durability properties of recycled
aggregate concrete. Cement Concr Compos 2013;35:32e8.
[94] Ni NK, Akmaluddin INM, Nonik N, Imam RH, Mitsuhiro S.
Improving of recycled aggregate quality by thermal-
mechanical-chemical process. Proc Eng 2017:171.
[95] Shatarat N, Mahmoud HM, Katkhuda H. Shear capacity
investigation of self compacting concrete beams with
rectangular spiral reinforcement. Construct Build Mater
2018;189:640e8.
[96] Gunawardena Y, Aslani F. Static flexural behaviour of
concrete-filled spiral-welded stainless-steel tubes. Thin
Wall Struct 2020;151:106731.
[97] Gao C, Huang L, Yan L, Jin R, Kasal B. Strength and ductility
improvement of recycled aggregate concrete by polyester
FRP-PVC tube confinement. Compos B Eng 2019;162:178e97.
[98] Munir MJ, Kazmi SMS, Wu Y, Patnaikuni I, Wang J, Wang Q.
Development of a unified model to predict the axial
stressestrain behavior of recycled aggregate concrete
confined through spiral reinforcement. Eng Struct
2020;218:110851.
[99] Rezaiee-Pajand M, Mohebi Najm Abad J, Karimipour A,
Rezaiee-Pajand A. Propose new implement models to
determine the compressive, tensile and flexural strengths
of recycled coarse aggregate concrete via imperialist
competitive algorithm. J Build Eng 2021;40:102337.
[100] Kazmi SMS, Munir MJ, Wu Y, Patnaikuni I, Zhou Y, Xing F.
Influence of different treatment methods on the
mechanical behavior of recycled aggregate concrete: a
comparative study. Cement Concr Compos 2019;104.
[101] Xiao J, Li W, Fan Y, Huang X. An overview of study on
recycled aggregate concrete in China (1996e2011).
Construct Build Mater 2012;31:364e83.
[102] Silva RV, de Brito J, Dhir RK. Establishing a relationship
between modulus of elasticity and compressive strength of
recycled aggregate concrete. J Clean Prod 2016;112:2171e86.
[103] Xiao J, Zhang K, Akbarnezhad A. Variability of stress-strain
relationship for recycled aggregate concrete under uniaxial
compression loading. J Clean Prod 2018;181:753e71.
[104] Zhao Y, Lin S, Lu Z, Saito T, He L. Loading paths of confined
concrete in circular concrete loaded CFT stub columns
subjected to axial compression. Eng Struct 2018;156:21e31.
[105] Lin S, Zhao Y, Lu Z. Fibre beam element models for
nonlinear analysis of concentrically loaded circular CFT
columns considering the size effect. Eng Struct 2020:210.
[106] Huang L, Liang J, Gao C, Yan L. Flax FRP tube and steel spiral
dual-confined recycled aggregate concrete: experimental and
analytical studies. Construct Build Mater 2021;300:124023.
[107] Liang J, Lin S, Li W, Liu D. Axial compressive behavior of
recycled aggregate concrete-filled square steel tube stub
columns strengthened by CFRP. Structure 2021;29:1874e81.
[108] Munir MJ, Kazmi SMS, Wu Y, Lin X. Axial stress-strain
performance of steel spiral confined acetic acid immersed
and mechanically rubbed recycled aggregate concrete. J
Build Eng 2021;34:101891.
[109] Raza A, Rafique U. Efficiency of GFRP bars and hoops in
recycled aggregate concrete columns: experimental and
numerical study. Compos Struct 2021;255:112986.
6385
[110] Gunawardena Y, Aslani F. Finite element modelling of
concrete-filled spiral-welded mild-steel tube short and long
columns. Structure 2021;30:1020e41.
[111] Gunawardena Y, Aslani F. Finite element modelling of
concrete-filled spiral-welded stainless-steel tube columns
under concentric and eccentric axial loading. Structure
2021;33:1119e43.
[112] Ma G, Li H, Yan L, Huang L. Testing and analysis of basalt
FRP-confined damaged concrete cylinders under axial
compression loading. Construct Build Mater
2018;169:762e74.
[113] Huang L, Yin P, Yan L, Kasal B. Behavior of hybrid
GFRPeperforated-steel tube-encased concrete column
under uniaxial compression. Compos Struct
2016;142:313e24.
[114] Dey T, Das CS, Mishra N. Behaviour of confined recycled
aggregate concrete under compressive loading: an
experimental investigation. J Build Eng 2020;32:101825.
[115] Godat A, Aldaweela S, Aljaberi H, Al Tamimi N, Alghafri E.
Bond strength of FRP bars in recycled-aggregate concrete.
Construct Build Mater 2021;267:120919.
[116] Raza A, Manalo AC, Rafique U, AlAjarmeh OS, Khan QUZ.
Concentrically loaded recycled aggregate geopolymer
concrete columns reinforced with GFRP bars and spirals.
Compos Struct 2021;268:113968.
[117] Munir MJ, Wu Y, Kazmi SMS, Patnaikuni I, Zhou Y, Xing F.
Stress-strain behavior of spirally confined recycled
aggregate concrete: an approach towards sustainable
design. Resour Conserv Recycl 2019;146:127e39.
[118] Munir MJ, Kazmi SMS, Wu Y, Patnaikuni I, Zhou Y, Xing F.
Stress strain performance of steel spiral confined recycled
aggregate concrete. Cement Concr Compos 2020;108:103535.
[119] Zhu P-H, Hao Y-L, Liu H. Durability evaluation of recycled
aggregate concrete in a complex environment. J Clean Prod
2020:273.
[120] Liu H, Liu C, Bai G. Study on the effect of chloride ion ingress
on the pore structure of the attached mortar of recycled
concrete coarse aggregate. Construct Build Mater 2020:263.
[121] Luo S, Ye S, Xiao J, Zheng J, Zhu Y. Carbonated recycled
coarse aggregate and uniaxial compressive stress-strain
relation of recycled aggregate concrete. Construct Build
Mater 2018;188:956e65.
[122] Zhang C, Wang Y, Zhang X. Mechanical properties and
microstructure of basalt fiber-reinforced recycled concrete.
J Clean Prod 2021:278.
[123] Zhang H, Ji T, Liu H. Performance evolution of the interfacial
transition zone (ITZ) in recycled aggregate concrete under
external sulfate attacks and dry-wet cycling. 2019.
[124] Thomas C, de Brito J, Cimentada A, Sainz-Aja JA. Macro-
and micro- properties of multi-recycled aggregate concrete.
J Clean Prod 2020:245.
[125] Ma G, Wu C, Hwang H, Li B. Crack monitoring and damage
assessment of BFRP-jacketed concrete cylinders under
compression load based on acoustic emission techniques.
Construct Build Mater 2021;272:121936.
Prof. Yuanxun Zheng is a full professor in School of Water
Conservancy Engineering of Zhengzhou University since 2018. He
received his PhD degree in Department of Construction Engi-
neering from Dalian University of Technology (2009). At the same
time, he is the head of Road, Bridge and River Crossing Engi-
neering in Zhengzhou University. His research areas: Material
recycling, high performance fiber composites material, material
durability, structure fatigue and so on. He has published 60þ
publications in various international journals and conferences;
edited four books; obtained ten patents. In addition to his aca-
demic and educational activities, he provides consulting services
6386 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 1 ; 1 5 : 6 3 6 7 e6 3 8 6
in the field of structural health monitoring, structure detection
and so on.
Yahui Zhang is a graduate student at Zhengzhou University.
Before joining ZZU, he obtained Bachelor's degree in Road bridge
and River Crossing Engineering from Henan University of Tech-
nology. His research focuses on experimental and numerical
study of RAC composites.
Prof. Peng Zhang is a professor in Zhengzhou University. He is
focusing on the Concrete technology, Geopolymer concrete, Fiber
Reinforced Concrete, Nano-particles Reinforced Concrete, Cement
based composites containing nano-particles, Mechanical proper-
ties, durability and fracture performance of concrete. As the
principal investigator, he has hosted more than 20 research
projects sponsored by the government of China and the other
institutions. During the last ten years, he has been devoting
himself in the properties of new cement based building materials.
He has obtained many honors and awards issued by the govern-
ment, such as Outstanding Youth Fund Receiver of Henan Prov-
ince of China, Academic and Technical Leader of Henan Province
of China, Outstanding Talent in Water Conservancy of Central
China, Academic and Technical Leader of Henan Provincial
Department of Education of China, Leader of Innovative Research
Team (in Science and Technology) in University of Henan Province
of China, Young Backbone Teacher of Henan Province of China,
and so on. He has published 4 scholarly books and 160þ refereed
journal articles and refereed conferences papers. He is member of
Chinese Society of Civil Engineering and Chinese Society of Hy-
droelectric Engineering.