Journal of Cleaner Production 182 (2018) 553e566

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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Development of high-performance self-compacting concrete using

waste recycled concrete aggregates and rubber granules
Farhad Aslani*, Guowei Ma, Dominic Law Yim Wan, Gojko Muselin
School of Civil, Environmental, and Mining Engineering, University of Western Australia, WA 6009, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In recent decades, self-compacting concrete has slowly gained popularity since its inception due to its
Received 2 December 2017 unique ability to fill formworks with congested steel reinforcement and with little to no use of me-
Received in revised form chanical compaction required. Due to the environmental impacts associated with the natural aggregates
13 January 2018
in concrete production, a more sustainable approach in producing self-compacting concrete is to replace
Accepted 7 February 2018
natural aggregates with that of recycled concrete aggregates from common construction waste and
Available online 13 February 2018
demolitions. This form of concrete provides a sustainable alternative in minimising the environmental
damages associated with the extraction and depletion of natural resources. This experimental research
Keywords:
Self-compacting concrete
aims to develop information about the fresh and hardened properties of different forms of self-
Recycled concrete aggregates compacting concrete by utilising recycled concrete aggregates in combination with recycled crumb
Crumb rubber aggregates rubber or lightweight scoria aggregates. The fresh properties were investigated in accordance with the
Scoria aggregates guideline provided by the European federation national representing of concrete using the slump flow,
T500, and J-ring tests. Hardened properties include 7 and 28 day compressive and tensile strengths,
hardened density testing, and compressive stress-strain behaviour at 28 days. Optimal mix design of
recycled concrete and crumb rubber aggregates self-compacting concrete are assessed to optimise fresh
and hardened properties. The proposed SCC mixes are able to reduce amount of used cement to 40%.
Aslo, as the percentage of recycled aggregate replacement increased, developed SCC mixes flowability
and passing ability decreased.
© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Concrete is the most commonly used construction material in
the world. As the population around the world continues to grow,
so does the demand for new infrastructure. Concrete consists of
natural resources in the form of aggregates, and the increasing
demand for concrete structures thus places a burden on the envi-
ronment and the limited resources that are available. As a result,
there has been a focus on developing sustainable resources within
the construction industry with emphasis on new innovative and
non-conventional utilisation of recycled materials. Variations in
infrastructure development and requirements result in the gener-
ation of construction and demolition waste: about 1300 million
tonnes of waste are generated in Europe each year, of which about
40%, or 510 million tonnes, is construction and demolition waste
(C&DW). The US produces about 325 million tonnes of C&DW, and
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: farhad.aslani@uwa.edu.au (F. Aslani).
Japan about 77 million tonnes. Given that China and India are now
producing and using over 50% of the world's concrete, their waste
generation will also be significant as development continues (CSI,
2015).
Recycled concrete aggregate (RA) accounts for ~6%e8% of
aggregate use in Europe, with substantial differences between
countries. The greatest users are the United Kingdom, the
Netherlands, Belgium, Switzerland and Germany. In 2000 an esti-
mated ~5% of aggregate in the US was recycled (CSI, 2015). In
Australia, RA has been the most common construction and demo-
lition waste used in concrete production both as coarse and fine
aggregate. About five million tonnes of recycled concrete and ma-
sonry are available in Australian markets principally in Melbourne
and Sydney, of which 500,000 tonnes is RA. The lower costs of RA in
comparison to natural aggregates (NA) could possibly offset the
cost of the increase in cement content (Cement Concrete and
Aggregates Australia, 2008). Furthermore, RA provides a sustain-
able alternative in minimising the environmental damages associ-
ated with the extraction and depletion of natural resources. RA

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.02.074
0959-6526/© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
554 F. Aslani et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 182 (2018) 553e566
sourced from demolition and construction waste are composed of
the original concrete, which consists of its original aggregates and a
surrounding hydrated cement paste. For this reason, generally the
quality of RA are lower than those of NA as indicated by its higher
porosity, higher absorption, lower density, and lower mechanical
strength (Moriconi, 2007; Gesoglu et al., 2015). In addition to the
environmental benefits, using RA can also be economical,
depending on the situation and local conditions. The cost of
sending waste to landfill can often be greater than the cost of
sorting and selling concrete waste from a construction site to a
recycler (or even paying a fee for collection), particularly when
landfill fees exist. The cost of using demolition materials in a new
construction on the same site can also be less than that of new
materials. Depending on the recycling methods used, particularly
the extent to which materials need to be sorted and other materials
removed, the costs of recycling machinery and processing may
increase. Some US states have estimated savings of up to 50%e60%
from using recycled aggregate compared to new aggregate. Recy-
cling is less costly than disposal in Germany, Holland and Denmark.
In countries without recycling infrastructure and abundant natural
resources recycling can be more expensive (CSI, 2015).
In recent decades, the development of a highly workable form of
concrete referred to as self-compacting concrete (SCC) has been
slowly gaining popularity since inception (Aslani, 2013, 2014;
Aslani and Nejadi, 2012a,b,c,d,e). In comparison to conventional
concrete, SCC has higher binder contents in addition to various
chemical admixtures and supplementary cementitious materials
(SCM) (Su et al., 2001). SCC is renowned for its ability to flow with
ease through congested reinforcement and self-compact under its
own weight with little to no mechanical vibration required (Aslani
and Nejadi, 2013a, b; Aslani and Maia, 2013; Aslani and Natoori,
2013; Aslani and Samali, 2014; Aslani and Bastami, 2014; Aslani
et al., 2014a, b). Although the benefits of SCC are favourable to
that of conventional concrete, the application of SCC within
Australia remains limited due to the high costs of materials asso-
ciated with its production. By producing SCC with partial RA
replacement, there is an increased incentive for its use as it pro-
vides an innovative and sustainable solution, in addition to off-
setting some of its high production costs. Many researchers
worldwide have investigated such mixtures to determine whether
the desired fresh and hardened properties of SCC can still be
produced.
Grdic et al. (2010), studied the properties of SCC prepared with
recycled coarse aggregates (RCA). The RCA was obtained from
crushed concrete and was substituted in to the mix design by 0%,
50% and 100% of natural coarse aggregates (NCA), without any prior
saturation. RCA is once again shown to have higher water absorp-
tion due to residual cement powder, hence more water had to be
added into the mix. The quality of the crushed concrete in the RCA
is noted to have a big influence on the SCC. As the RCA used in the
experiment had similar quality to the SCC being produced, minor
losses in strength were observed. The experiment concluded that
using RCA in SCC is justified, and as long as the quality of the RCA is
high enough, high performance concretes can be obtained.
Corinaldesi and Moriconi (2011) researched the use of both RCA
and recycled fine aggregates (RFA) in SCC. The RA was obtained
from rubble from building demolition, with the maximum RCA size
being 15 mm and the maximum RFA size being 6 mm. The study
found that rubble powder produced better concrete flowability and
flow-segregation resistance when compared to fly ash and lime-
stone powder as a mineral additive. Compressive strength was
negatively affected when RFA was used to replace sand, but
remained unchanged when RCA was used as a substitute for NCA.
Fakitsas et al. (2011), studied the effectiveness of internal curing
using saturated RA in SCC. Before being used in the concrete
mixture, all aggregates were submerged in water for 3 days and
then surface dried for 12 h, as it is reported to result in an 80e90%
degree of saturation in no artificial aggregates. RA in SCC had
shown to experience a higher 28-day compressive strength than
NA in SCC, and an even greater increase in 90-day strength. This is
attributed to internal curing due to the water absorption and
retention of RA.
Gesoglu et al. (2015), explored the failure characteristics due to
the use of RCA and RFA in SCC. The RAs were saturated in water for
30 min to ensure a saturated surface dry condition prior to mixing.
The RASCC showed to have a reduction in compressive strength,
tensile strength, flexural strength and modulus of elasticity. How-
ever, from the different RA mix designs, SCC with RCA recorded the
highest strengths followed by RFA and then the design incorpo-
rating both RCA þ RFA yielding the worst results.
Rajhans et al. (2015), applied a two-stage mixing approach to RA
in SCC and observed the results. The study compared the normal
mixing approach to a two-stage mixing approach, while
substituting NCA with 0%, 50% and 100% RCA. Workability and
mechanical strength is seen to reduce with the increase of RA.
However, the study showed that a two-stage mixing approach can
be used to marginally improve the compressive strength, tensile
strength, flexural strength and MOE when compared to the normal
mixing approach.
Furthermore, with a need to create innovative and sustainable
products, researchers worldwide have aimed to combine the ben-
efits of SCC with various other forms of concrete. In the 2013-14
financial year, 51 million equivalent passenger units of tyres have
entered the Australian waste stream which has led to a growing
concern over the potential environmental, health, and safety im-
pacts that are associated (Hyder Consulting, 2015; Aslani 2016). By
combining the benefits of SCC with that of rubberised concrete,
there is a further incentive in promoting the use of waste recycled
rubber tyres. This new product has developed into a new mixture
called self-compacting rubberised concrete (SCRC). SCRC is a type of
SCC with partial replacement of aggregate with waste crumb rub-
ber aggregates (CR) manufactured from recycled waste tyres.
Despite a considerable amount of research into SCRC, its use in the
construction industry remains limited. There is a wide range of
applications for SCRC which has found to be beneficial for roadway
central reservations that offer combined protection and traffic
noise reduction, improved thermal and acoustic insulation for
small machinery housing structures as well as improved thermal
insulation for flooring buildings (Bignozzi and Sandrolini, 2006).
Another newly developed form of SCC is one that has the benefit
of a reduced concrete density provided by lightweight concrete.
This new product had developed into a new mixture referred to as
lightweight self-compacting concrete (LWSCC). LWSCC is a type of
SCC with partial replacement of NA with a lightweight (LW)
aggregate. By reducing the weight of the concrete members, the
load on the structure is reduced which can possibly reduce the size
of concrete members and steel reinforcements that are required.
Although SCC, SCRC, and LWSCC all have distinctive benefits that
are superior to that of conventional concrete, their applications
within Australia remain strictly limited. By utilising RA in
replacement of NA, this research aims to further promote the
application of the three fore mentioned mixtures and provide in-
formation on their fresh and hardened properties.
2. Research significance
Although there are many benefits in using self-compacting
concrete, its widespread use within Australia remains limited and
requires more testing to develop an appropriate guideline for
production within Australia. The experimental study as outlined in
 F. Aslani et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 182 (2018) 553e566 555

this paper aims to promote the use of sustainable forms of self-
compacting concrete incorporating recycled concrete aggregates
and develop information on its fresh and hardened mechanical
properties.
Self-compacting rubberised concrete is a new form of concrete
that has gained significant attention over the past decades as it
incorporates recycled waste crumb rubber in replacement of nat-
ural aggregates. Recycled concrete aggregates and crumb rubber
aggregates both provide environmentally and economically
friendly aggregates that can be used in concrete. There has been no
research in Australia on how the combination of recycled concrete
aggregates and crumb rubber can be used in self-compacting
concrete and how its properties are affected.
Furthermore, this experimental study also aims to analyse the
effects of fine recycled concrete aggregates with the combination of
scoria in the production of lightweight self-compacting concrete.
Research is lacking in Australia for the use of lightweight aggregates
such as scoria and its effects in SCC. This study aims to obtain a
greater understanding of the effects on the fresh and mechanical
properties of SCC with the use of RA and scoria simultaneously.
Ultimately, the production of a sustainable, environmentally and
economically friendly SCC is the aim of this research. The aim is to
reduce waste, reduce natural aggregate consumption in the con-
crete industry and promote the widespread use of self-compacting
concrete.
3. Experimental study
3.1. Materials
3.1.1. Cement
In this experimental study, general purpose cement (GPC) in
accordance with AS 3972 (2010) Type GP was used. The GPC was
obtained from Cement Australia and contains up to 7.5% limestone
mineral addition. The chemical, physical and mechanical properties
of the cement used in the experiment are shown in Table 1. The
chemical, physical and mechanical properties adhere to the limiting
values or permissible limits specified in AS 2450.2,3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11,
13, and 14 (1994).
3.1.2. Fly ash
Fly ash particles are of similar size to cement particles, however
due to its spherical glassy shape it has shown to improve the
workability of concrete (Taylor, 2013). Grade 1 fly ash complying
with the requirements of AS 3582.1 (2001) is used as a natural
pozzolan in this experimental study from Cement Australia. The
chemical and physical properties of fly ash are given in Table 1. The
chemical and physical properties adhere to the limiting values or
permissible limits specified in AS 2350.2 (2006) and AS 3583.1, 2, 3,
5, 6, and 13 (2016).

Table 1
Properties of cement, fly ash, silica fumes and ground granulated blast furnace slag.

General Purpose Cement Fly Ash

Chemical Properties Chemical Properties

CaO 63.40% CaO 3.30%
SiO2 20.10% SiO2 50.40%
Al2O3 4.60% Al2O3 31.50%
Fe2O3 2.80% Fe2O3 10.40%
SO3 2.70% SO3 0.10%
MgO 1.30% MgO 1.10%
Na2O 0.60% Na2O 0.30%
Total Chloride 0.02% K2O 0.50%
Physical Properties SrO <0.1%
Specific Gravity 3.0e3.2 t/m3 TiO2 1.90%
Fineness index 390 m2/kg P2O5 0.50%
Normal consistency 27.00% Mn2O3 0.20%
Setting time initial 120 min Total Alkali 0.60%
Setting time final 210 min Physical Properties
Soundness 2 mm Relative Density 2.29
loss on ignition 3.80% Moisture <0.1%
Residue 45 mm sieve 4.70% Loss on Ignition 1.10%
Mechanical Properties Sulphuric Anhydride 0.10%
Mortar Comp Str. Chloride Ion 0.00%
f'c 3 Days 38.6 MPa Chemical Composition 92.30%
f'c 7 Days 48.4 MPa Relative Water Requirement 93.00%
f'c 28 Days 58.5 MPa Strength index 102.00%
Shrinkage 28 days 640 m strain

Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag Silica Fume

Chemical Properties Chemical Properties

S 0.40% Silicon as SiO2 98.00%
SO3 2.40% Sodium as Na2O 0.33%
MgO 5.70% Potassium as K2O 0.17%
Al2O3 12.60% Available Alkali 0.40%
FeO 0.80% Chloride as Cle 0.15%
MnO 0.10% Sulphuric Anhydride 0.83%
Cl 0.01% Sulphate as SO3 0.90%
Insoluble residue content 0.20% Physical Properties
Physical Properties Bulk Density 625 kg/m3
Specific Gravity 3.0e3.2 Relative Density 2.21
Relative Water requirement 103.00% Pozzolanic Activity at 7days 111.00%
Relative Strength 100.00% Control Mix Strength 31.3 MPa
Temperature rise 18.8OC Moisture Content 1.10%
Fineness (passing 45 mm) 98.00% Loss of Ignition 2.40%
556 F. Aslani et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 182 (2018) 553e566

Table 2 Table 3
Properties of natural aggregates and sand. Properties of recycled concrete aggregates, crumb rubber aggregates, and scoria
aggregates.
Natural Crushed Aggregate 10 mm Natural Crushed Aggregate minus
4 mm 4 mm Fine Recycled Concrete Aggregate 14 mm Coarse Recycled
Concrete Aggregate
Sieve Size % passing Sieve Size % passing
13.2 mm 100% 4.75 mm 100% Sieve Size % passing Sieve Size % passing
9.5 mm 87% 2.36 mm 80% 6.70 mm 100 16.0 mm 100
6.7 mm 20% 1.18 mm 55% 4.75 mm 99 13.2 mm 60
4.75 mm 7% 600 mm 39% 2.36 mm 73 9.50 mm 32
2.35 mm 4% 300 mm 27% 1.18 mm 57 6.70 mm 8
1.18 mm 3% 150 mm 18% 600 mm 42 4.75 mm 3
600 mm 2% 75 mm 13% 300 mm 36 2.36 mm 2
300 mm 2% 150 mm 19 1.18 mm 1
150 mm 2% Apparent Particle Density 2.76 t/m3 600 mm 1
75 mm 2% Particle Density Dry 2.65 t/m3
10 mm Crumb Rubber Aggregates 10 mm Scoria Aggregates
Particle Density SSD 2.69 t/m3
Moisture Content 0.5% Water Absorption 1.40% Chemical Constituents % Value Sieve Size % Retained
Flakiness Index 24.0% Moisture Content 2.50% SiO2 22.00 850 mm 0%
Al2O3 9.09 600 mm 0.30%
AFS 45e50 Silica Sand AFS 45e50 Silica Sand
Fe2O3 1.45 425 mm 11.90%
Chemical Constituents Sieve Size % Retained TiO2 2.57 300 mm 40.80%
SiO2 99.86% 850 mm 0% CaO 10.64 212 mm 31.60%
Fe2O3 0.01% 600 mm 0.30% MgO 1.35 150 mm 12.60%
Al2O3 0.02% 425 mm 11.90% Na2O 1.10 106 mm 2.30%
Cao 0.00% 300 mm 40.80% K2O 0.92 75 mm 0.20%
MgO 0.00% 212 mm 31.60% SO3 15.38
Na2O 0.00% 150 mm 12.60% P2O5 1.03
K2o 0.00% 106 mm 2.30% ZnO 34.50
TiO2 0.03% 75 mm 0.20%
MnO <0.001%

Loss on Ignition 0.01% shaped particles much finer than cement particles. The increase in
Water Content (@105  C) <0.001% surface area makes it highly reactive and can provide a high early
AFS Number 47.50% strength gain, low concrete permeability, and reduce the proba-
bility of bleeding to occur (Taylor, 2013). The chemical and physical
properties of Silica Fume are given in Table 1.
3.1.3. Ground granulated blast furnace slag
Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) is another natural
pozzolan that is used as a supplementary cementitious material
from Cement Australia. GGBFS can delay setting time and strength
3.1.5. Natural aggregates
gain is generally slower at early age however develop a higher
In this study, 10 mm and minus 4 mm natural crushed aggre-
overall strength (Ries et al., 2003). GGBFS was obtained through
gates (less than 4 mm) were used as coarse and fine natural ag-
BCG and complies with AS 3582.2 (2001). The properties of GGBFS
gregates respectively. Fine AFS 45e50 silica sand obtained from
are shown in Table 1.
Rocla Quarry Products, Western Australia is used in this experi-
ment. The sampling methods and testing of these aggregates were
3.1.4. Silica fume done according to AS 1141 (1974). and AS 2758.1 (1998). Results are
Silica Fume used in this experiment has been tested under ASTM shown in Table 2 and the particle grading distribution can be found
C1240 and AS 3582.3 (1994). Silica Fume consist of spherical glass in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Grading curve of natural aggregates and sand.

 F. Aslani et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 182 (2018) 553e566
Fig. 2. Aggregates a) 10 mm RA, b) minus 4 mm RA, c) 10 mm Scoria and d) 10 mm CR.
3.1.6. Recycled aggregates
Recycled concrete aggregates are obtained locally within
Australia and are composed of recycled aggregates from the de-
molition of concrete buildings and infrastructure. The recycled
aggregates come in two variants, fine dust with a nominal size of
minus 4 mm, and coarse with a nominal size of 14 mm. The prop-
erties for both sizes of recycled concrete aggregate are presented in
Table 3 and photographs of the aggregates can be found in Fig. 2.
3.1.7. Rubber aggregates
The rubber aggregates used in this study was obtained from the
mechanical grinding of end-of-life tyres. The composition of the
rubber aggregates consisted of 45% polymer, 40% carbon black, and
15% organic materials by weight. Crumb rubber aggregates with a
nominal size of 10 mm (5e10 mm) were used and photographs of
the aggregates can be found in Fig. 2. The properties of crumb
rubber aggregates are presented in Table 3.
3.1.8. Scoria aggregates
In this experimental study, scoria is a black volcanic rock used as
a lightweight aggregate and is light weight and porous. In this
experiment, scoria is considered as a natural coarse aggregate
replacement with a nominal size 10 mm. The properties of scoria
used are listed below in Table 3 and photographs of the aggregates
can be found in Fig. 2.
3.1.9. Chemical admixtures
In this experimental study, the superplasticiser (SP) used was
MasterEase3000 which is manufactured by BASF and complies
with AS 1478.1 (2000) Type SN chemical admixtures. It is designed
to lower the viscosity and yield stress of fresh concrete, thereby
improving flow properties of concrete. High-range water reducer
(HRWRA) used was MasterGlennium Sky 8345 and satisfies Type
HWR according to AS1478.1. MasterMatrix 362 was the viscosity
modifying admixture (VMA) used throughout this study and is
required to control the stability and segregation resistance of SCC.
MasterMatrix 362 adheres to AS1478 (2000) for Type SN
admixtures.
557
3.2. Mixture proportions
A control mixture at a 450 kg/m3 binder content, and a 0.45
water to binder ratio were constant throughout this experimental
study. The binder composition of the control mixes consisted of 40%
cement, 32.5% Fly ash, 22.5% GGBFS, and 7.5% Silica Fumes. The
binder composition is based on the authors’ pervious study, Aslani
et al. (2018).
In this experimental study, three different series of self-
compacting concrete mixtures incorporating recycled aggregates
were designed. Series I involved the replacement of fine natural
aggregates (NFA) and coarse natural aggregate (NCA) with 4 mm
and 14 mm sized recycled concrete aggregates (RA) respectively. RA
were replaced at incremental percentage volume proportions of
10%, 20%, 30% and 40% of fine and coarse aggregate volume. Using
such percentages are based on the authors’ pervious study, Aslani
et al. (2018). The mixture proportions of Series I are presented in
Table 4. The mix ID RA10 denotes the mixture for the first series
with recycled aggregate replacement of 10%.
For Series II, crumb rubber (CR) replacement is kept constant at
20% of volume of coarse aggregates. NFA are then replaced by RFA at
0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40% of fine aggregate volume respectively.
The mixture proportions of Series II are presented in Table 5. The
mix ID CR20RFA10 denotes the mixture from the second series with
20% of crumb rubber (CR) coarse aggregate and 10% fine recycled
concrete aggregate (RFA) replacement.
Series III kept a constant coarse aggregate replacement con-
sisting of 50% scoria lightweight aggregates (LW). NFA are then
replaced by RFA at 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40% of fine aggregate
volume respectively. The mixture proportions of Series III are pre-
sented in Table 6. The mix ID LW50RA10 denotes the mixture from
the third series with 50% scoria coarse lightweight aggregate (LW)
and 10% fine recycled concrete aggregate (RFA) replacement.
3.3. Sampling and curing conditions
For hardened property tests, each mix required twelve
Ø100  200 mm cylindrical moulds for compressive and tensile
558 F. Aslani et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 182 (2018) 553e566

Table 4
Series I: Recycled concrete aggregates mix proportions.

SCC: Recycled Aggregates Mix Proportion Control SCC RA10 RA20 RA30 RA40

Binder (kg/m3)
GP Cement 180 180 180 180 180
Fly Ash 135 135 135 135 135
GGBFS 101.25 101.25 101.25 101.25 101.25
Silica Fumes 33.75 33.75 33.75 33.75 33.75
Total Cementitious Content 450 450 450 450 450
Water (l/m3) 202.5 202.5 202.5 202.5 202.5
Aggregates (kg/m3)
Fine Silica Sand AS 45-50 362.64 326.38 290.11 253.85 217.58
Natural Aggregates minus 4 mm 554.42 498.98 443.54 388.09 332.65
Natural Aggregates 10 mm 758.88 682.99 607.11 531.22 455.33
Fine recycled aggregate 4 mm e 83.69 167.37 251.06 334.74
Coarse recycled aggregate 14 mm e 68.47 136.94 205.41 273.88
Admixtures (l/m3)
Superplasticiser 3 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8
High-range water reducer 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75
Viscosity modifying agent e e 0.4 0.4 0.4

Table 5
Series II: Recycled fine concrete aggregate (RFA) and crumb rubber aggregate (CR) mix proportions.

SCC: Recycled Aggregates & Crumb Rubber Mix Proportion ControlSCRC CR20RFA10 CR20RFA20 CR20RFA30 CR20RFA40

Binder (kg/m3)
GP Cement 180 180 180 180 180
Fly Ash 135 135 135 135 135
GGBFS 101.25 101.25 101.25 101.25 101.25
Silica Fumes 33.75 33.75 33.75 33.75 33.75
Total Cementitious Content 450 450 450 450 450
Water (l/m3) 202.5 202.5 202.5 202.5 202.5
Aggregates (kg/m3)
Fine Silica Sand AS 45-50 362.64 326.38 290.11 253.85 217.58
Natural Aggregates minus 4 mm 554.42 498.98 443.54 388.09 332.65
Natural Aggregates 10 mm 607.11 607.11 607.11 607.11 607.11
Fine recycled aggregate 4 mm e 83.69 167.37 251.06 334.74
Coarse recycled aggregate 14 mm e e e e e
Crumb Rubber 10 mm 65.62 65.62 65.62 65.62
Admixtures (l/m3)
Superplasticiser 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.2
High-range water reducer 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75
Viscosity modifying agent 0.2 1 1.2 1.2 1.4

Table 6
Series III: Recycled fine concrete aggregate (RFA) and Scoria lightweight aggregate (LW) mix proportions.

SCC: Recycled Aggregates & Scoria Mix Proportion Control LWSCC LW50RFA10 LW50RFA20 LW50RFA30 LW50RFA40

Binder (kg/m3)
GP Cement 180 180 180 180 180
Fly Ash 135 135 135 135 135
GGBFS 101.25 101.25 101.25 101.25 101.25
Silica Fumes 33.75 33.75 33.75 33.75 33.75
Total Cementitious Content 450 450 450 450 450
Water (l/m3) 202.5 202.5 202.5 202.5 202.5
Aggregates (kg/m3)
Fine Silica Sand AS 45-50 362.64 326.38 290.11 253.85 217.58
Asphalt minus 4 mm 554.42 498.98 443.54 388.09 332.65
Asphalt 10 mm 379.44 379.44 379.44 379.44 379.44
Fine recycled aggregate 4 mm e 83.69 167.37 251.06 334.74
Coarse recycled aggregate 14 mm e e e e e
Scoria 10 mm 215.4 215.4 215.4 215.4 215.4
Admixtures (l/m3)
Superplasticiser 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8
High-range water reducer 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75
Viscosity modifying agent 1.65 1 1 1 1
 F. Aslani et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 182 (2018) 553e566 559

Table 7
Fresh properties test results.

Mix Slump flow Diameter (mm) J-ring Diameter (mm) T500 Time (s) J-ring Height Difference (mm)

Series I Control SCC 690 650 1.97 10

RA10 690 630 2.06 18
RA20 650 560 2.37 25
RA30 620 530 2.04 32
RA40 600 500 2.95 35

Series II Control SCRC 600 550 2.1 30

CR20RA10 670 580 1.97 25
CR20RA20 620 530 2.01 30
CR20RA30 610 520 2.36 32
CR20RA40 650 540 2.4 34

Series III Control LWSCC 660 610 2.14 20

LW50RA10 610 560 2.01 24
LW50RA20 700 630 2.08 18
LW50RA30 690 600 2.06 22
LW50RA40 560 440 3.22 40

Fig. 3. Slump test flow diameter and J-ring flow diameters of a) Series I, b) Series II, and c) Series III respectively.
560 F. Aslani et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 182 (2018) 553e566
Fig. 4. Aggregate distribution of Series I; a) RA10, b) RA20, c) RA30, and d) RA40.
strength tests, and a cylindrical moulds of dimensions
Ø150  300 mm tested for stress-strain behaviour. The specimens
were prepared by pouring the concrete directly into the moulds
without compacting, demoulded after 24hrs, and allowed to cure
until the testing age. The specimens are cured in a controlled hu-
midifying room with a temperature of 20 ± 2  C.
3.4. Sample's test methods
In this experiment, the hardened properties of the concrete are
assessed by its density, compressive strength, tensile strength, and
stress-strain behaviour. For compressive strength tests, three
f100  200 mm cylindrical specimens were tested at 7 and 28 days.
The testing procedure follows AS 1012.9 (2014) and AS1012.14
(1991) and the cylinders were loaded at a rate of 0.2 kN/s until
failure. The three f100  200 mm cylinders tested for compressive
strength at 28 days were weighed and its dimensions measured to
obtain its hardened density in accordance with AS1012.12.1 (1998).
A f150  300 mm specimen was attached with a 60 mm vertical
strain gauge to obtain the stress-strain behaviour as per AS.1012.17
(1997). The specimens were loaded at a rate of 1.5 ± 0.5 MPa until
failure. The splitting tensile test was conducted on three
f100  200 mm cylindrical specimens at each testing age of 7 and
28 days in accordance with AS1012.10.
3.5. Properties of fresh concrete
The fresh properties of SCC are assessed through the tests
specified under the guidelines and SCC criteria defined by EFNARC
(EFNARC, 2002 & 2005). These experimental tests assess the
flowability and passing ability. The slump flow test, T500 and J-ring
test were conducted using an Abrams cone in accordance with
AS1012.3.5 (2015). The slump flow diameter and the time to reach
500 mm (T500) were measured. In the J-ring test, the diameter and
the J-ring height difference is measured.
4. Experimental results
4.1. Fresh properties
The fresh property test results for the slump flow test (diameter
and T500) and J-Ring (diameter and step height) are presented in
Table 7 and Fig. 3. Visual representations of the aggregate distri-
bution for all three series are presented in Fig. 4, Fig. 5, and Fig. 6
and are results from the splitting tensile test.
Slump flow test results of Series I indicate that the addition of
recycled aggregates has a negative effect on the rheological prop-
erties of fresh SCC. The control mixture achieved the highest slump
flow and J-ring flow diameter, 690 mm and 650 mm respectively.
The addition of 10% recycled aggregates showed no change in
slump flow diameter. However, increasing the recycled aggregate
 F. Aslani et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 182 (2018) 553e566 561

Fig. 5. Aggregate distribution of Series II; a) CR20RA10, b) CR20RA20, c) CR20RA30, and d) CR20RA40.

content to 20%, 30%, and 40% resulted in 6.8%, 8.7% and 10.1% influence of recycled aggregates in SCC mixtures. These trends can
decrease in slump flow diameters respectively. All values of slump be attributed to the same reasoning as for Series I. Series II con-
flow for the first series satisfied the suggested range of values taining crumb rubber (SCRC), showed no significant difference in
(600e700 mm) as outlined by the European Guidelines (2005). An fresh property results compared to mixtures without crumb rubber
increase in dosage of superplasticiser was necessary to counter act present (Series I) and satisfied European Guidelines (EFNARC,
the decrease in workability and produce sufficient flow as the 2005). Series III containing scoria (LWSCC), most slump flow
percentage replacement of recycled aggregates is increased. Addi- values except for LW50RA40 were within the suggested values
tionally, an increase in viscosity modifying admixture dosage was (600e700 mm). However, results are still considered as SCC under
also necessary as the mixtures were highly susceptible to segre- classification of SF1 and deemed appropriate for limited
gation due to the increase in superplasticiser and the more porous applications.
nature of the recycled aggregates. Bandi et al. (2016) recently re-
ported a similar observation being made with SCC mixtures con-
4.2. Hardened properties
taining recycled concrete aggregates.
Unlike the slump flow results, recycled aggregates had a more
4.2.1. Compressive strength
significant impact on the J-ring flow diameter and height results
Compressive strength test results of all three series after 7 and
which indicates poor passing ability. Increasing the recycled
28 days of curing are presented in Table 8, and Fig. 7. Series I
aggregate content to 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40% resulted in J-ring di-
recorded the highest compressive strengths of all three series and
ameters of 630 mm, 560 mm, 530 mm, and 500 mm respectively.
at all RA replacements. Results agree with past literature that as the
The RA40 mix demonstrated an increase in J-ring height step up to
content of RA increases in SCC mixtures, the compressive strength
35 mm. This significant decrease in passing ability can be attributed
reduces (Kou et al., 2009; Carro-Lopez et al., 2015; Gesoglu et al.,
to the size of the 14 mm RA aggregates in comparison to the 10 mm
2015). However, the addition of RA did not significantly compro-
natural coarse aggregates which were replaced. Furthermore, a
mise its mechanical strength. The 28-day compressive strength
portion of fine sand was also replaced by 4 mm recycled fine ag-
results for Series I ranged from 47.74 MPa at 10% to 43.82 MPa at
gregates. Thus, the particle size grading within the mixture is
40% replacement.
increased, and larger sized aggregates causing blockages whilst
Generally, the quality of RA are less than those of NA due to the
passing through reinforcements.
crushing processes experienced (Gesoglu et al., 2015). The type of
Series II and III fresh property results also indicate the negative
original aggregate, the adhered mortar quality, and the amount of
562 F. Aslani et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 182 (2018) 553e566

Fig. 6. Aggregate distribution of Series III; a) LW50RA10, b) LW50RA20, c) LW50RA30, and d) LW50RA40.

Table 8
SCRC hardened property tests results.

Mix Hardened Density (kg/m3) Compressive Strength (MPa) Tensile Strength (MPa)

7 Day 28 Day 7 Day 28 Day

m s m s m s m s
Control SCC 2323.82 35.22 1.33 50.39 0.65 3.19 0.31 3.70 0.43
RA10 2326.42 34.18 0.36 47.74 1.91 3.22 0.22 4.38 0.12
RA20 2333.21 32.60 0.56 46.06 1.05 3.22 0.12 3.98 0.48
RA30 2331.73 30.59 2.77 45.13 0.75 3.22 0.06 3.79 0.17
RA40 2337.47 34.43 0.39 43.82 1.12 3.23 0.05 3.80 0.09

Control SCRC 2175.54 19.48 0.76 22.21 2.41 2.30 0.04 2.71 0.33
CR20RA10 2229.99 20.94 1.30 28.63 1.93 2.56 0.26 3.02 0.31
CR20RA20 2240.69 22.63 2.94 28.01 3.78 2.56 0.14 2.75 0.21
CR20RA30 2207.59 19.42 2.28 24.03 1.1 2.3 0.1 2.97 0.22
CR20RA40 2219.53 21.81 3.13 27.13 3.69 2.7 0.09 3.07 0.50

Control LWSCC 2323.82 25.44 2.05 38.93 1.27 2.89 0.08 3.54 0.15
LW50RA10 2179.71 31.67 1.31 38.36 0.94 2.89 0.97 3.89 0.17
LW50RA20 2191.88 28.98 4.91 39.85 1.89 3.02 0.2 3.43 0.33
LW50RA30 2162.80 30.92 0.27 37.68 2.71 2.78 0.56 3.27 0.36
LW50RA40 2179.44 33.76 0.33 40.68 2.41 3.08 0.38 3.34 0.48

m ¼ mean (MPa).
s ¼ standard deviation (MPa).
 F. Aslani et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 182 (2018) 553e566
Fig. 7. Compressive strength results at 7 and 28 days of a) Series I, b) Series II, and c) Series III.
mortar of the original concrete found in the RA determines the
strength of the resulting mixture (Tuyan et al., 2013). There are two
weak layers of interfacial transition zones (ITZ) in concrete con-
taining RA; one that exists from the old concrete found in the RA
aggregate itself and a new ITZ between the RA and the new sur-
rounding mixture (Poon et al., 2004). The poor quality of RA which
experienced crushing creates a weaker ITZ within the concrete and
thus resulting in a lower compressive strength than the parent
concrete (Corinaldesi and Moriconi, 2011; Gesoglu et al., 2015).
SCRC mixtures in Series II produced the lowest compressive
strengths of all three series. This is in correlation with previous
literature which indicate that CR aggregates contribute to a loss of
compressive strength (Dong et al., 2013; Eldin and Senouci, 1993).
Aslani (2013) discussed that the weak bond between the rubber
aggregates and surrounding cement matrix develops into a weak
interfacial transition zone which causes the rubber particles to act
as voids and thus reducing its compressive strength.
All Series II mixtures containing RA showed higher strength
results compared to the SCRC control mix and could possibly be
accounted by a better quality RFA as opposed to the minus 4 mm
NFA and sand. The RFA aggregates used in this experimental study
could possibly have originated from a higher strength parent con-
crete than the control mixture. This increase in strength is also
observed in Series III when only RFA are introduced as opposed to
563
the replacement of both RFA and RCA in Series I. Tuyan et al., 2014
also observed an increase in compressive strength as the percent-
age replacement of RA is increased up to 40% and concluded that
the higher surface roughness of RA creates a stronger ITZ with the
new surrounding cement matrix. Furthermore, the rougher and
angular RA in replacement of sand can lead to a better particle
grading and interlocking of aggregates for the given mixture
composition proposed in this study. Fakitsas et al. (2011) attributed
the increase of compressive strength of RA experienced at later ages
resulting from the internal curing due to the water absorption and
retention of RA.
The addition of RA in LWSCC (Series III) did not significantly
affect its compressive strength, but marginal increases in strength
were obtained as more RA is introduced similar to results from
Series II. Series III produced 28-day compressive strength test re-
sults ranging from 38.36 MPa at 10% replacement to 40.68 MPa at
40% RA replacement. The marginal increases obtained in Series III
can be attributed to the same reasoning to that of Series II.
4.2.2. Splitting tensile strength
Splitting tensile strength test results for all three series at 7 and
28 days are presented alongside the compressive strength results in
Table 8 and in Fig. 8. Results show that an increase in tensile
strength is observed when RA are added. In this study, 28 day
564 F. Aslani et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 182 (2018) 553e566
Fig. 8. Tensile strength results at 7 and 28 days of a) Series I, b) Series II, and c) Series III.
splitting tensile strength values were obtained ranging from 3.70 to
4.38 MPa, 2.71e3.07 MPa, and 3.27e3.89 MPa for Series I, II, and III
respectively. Overall splitting tensile strength results showed
similar trends to that of compressive strength results, whereby
Series I showed the highest results and the lowest being Series II.
These trends can be attributed to the same reasoning as for
compressive strength.
4.2.3. Compressive stress-strain behaviour
Fig. 9 presents the stress versus strain curve for Series I, II, and
III. For this test, a 60 mm vertical strain gauge is attached and the
cylindrical specimen is loaded under compression until failure. It
can be observed from each of the stress-strain graphs that an in-
crease in RA saw a decrease in peak compressive stress. The overall
peak strain decreases as the percentage of RA is increased for each
of the three series. Series I and III produced peak strains in the
range of 1500e2000 mε. Series II mixtures produced the lowest
values of peak strain with values generally less than 1000 mε. Also,
these results show increasing the coarse recycled aggregate de-
creases the modulus of elasticity. The modulus of elasticity reduced
by 20% for the worst case RA40 mix with 40% replacement.
5. Conclusions
The demand for new infrastructure to accommodate the ever-
growing population places a burden on the environment to pro-
vide natural resources. As such there is an incentive to promote
new innovative and sustainable ways that utilises recycled concrete
aggregates. Previous research into the use of recycled concrete
aggregates incorporated into the mix design of SCC. However, its
widespread use in Australia remains strictly limited. This experi-
mental study aims to promote and develop information on the
fresh and hardened properties of SCC, SCRC, and LWSCC utilising
local recycled aggregates. The following conclusions can be drawn
based on the experimental results documented as follows:
1. Self-compacting concretes using recycled concrete, crumb rub-
ber and scoria aggregates have been developed. Also, the pro-
posed mixes are able to reduce amount of used cement to 40%
which mean all mixes just have 180 kg/m3 cement.
2. As the percentage of recycled aggregate replacement increases,
the density of the concrete decreases. This is due to the density
of the recycled aggregates being less dense than the natural
aggregates.
 F. Aslani et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 182 (2018) 553e566
Fig. 9. Compressive stress-strain curves for a) Series I, b) Series II, and c) Series III.
3. As the percentage of recycled aggregate replacement increases,
the flowability and passing ability decreases. This is evident
when measuring the slump test diameter and the J-Ring test
diameter and height difference. To improve flowability with the
increase of recycled aggregates in SCC, more admixtures need to
be used.
4. An increase in the percentage of coarse recycled aggregate
shows a decrease in compressive strength. The worst sample
being the RA40 mix with 40% replacement yielding a 13%
decrease in compressive strength when compared to the control
mix.
5. RFA substitution in SCRC and LWSCC mixtures showed im-
provements in mechanical strength. This is due to the NFA being
of a poorer quality to the RFA which originated from a stronger
quality concrete.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by School of Civil, Environmental &
Mining Engineering, University of Western Australia, Australia. The
authors would like to express their sincere gratitude and appreci-
ation to BASF Australia.
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