Construction and Building Materials 145 (2017) 218–225

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Cement kiln dust and fly ash blends as an alternative binder for the
stabilization of demolition aggregates
Arul Arulrajah a,⇑, Alireza Mohammadinia b, Angelo D’Amico c, Suksun Horpibulsuk d,a,⇑
a
Department of Civil and Construction Engineering, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria 3122, Australia
b
Department of Infrastructure Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
c
Montdami Constructions Pty Ltd & Retic Pipelines Pty Ltd, Dandenong South, Victoria 3175, Australia
d
School of Civil Engineering and Center of Innovation in Sustainable Infrastructure Development, Suranaree University of Technology, Nakhon Ratchasima 30000, Thailand

h i g h l i g h t s

 Cement kiln dust and fly ash blends evaluated as an alternative binder.
 Cement kiln dust in combination with fly ash to stabilize demolition wastes.
 Strength and stiffness testing.
 20% cement kiln dust with 10% fly ash found to be optimum content for stabilizing demolition wastes.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Cement kiln dust (CKD) is an industrial by-product formed during the manufacture of cement. Fly Ash
Received 27 February 2017 (FA) is the by-product of coal-fired electricity generation. Construction and Demolition (C&D) materials
Accepted 3 April 2017 are alternative aggregates used in construction applications. CKD is calcium-rich whereas FA is silica-
Available online 8 April 2017
rich, hence the unique combination of these two pozzolanic materials (CKD + FA) were investigated as
an alternative binder to stabilize C&D materials. The usage of CKD + FA to stabilize C&D aggregates com-
Keywords: prised of Recycled Concrete Aggregate (RCA), Crushed Brick (CB) and Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP)
Cement
will have environmental and economic benefits. The strength characterization of CKD + FA stabilized C&D
Kiln dust
Demolition
materials was evaluated by undertaking Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) tests. The durability of
Stabilization the CKD + FA stabilized C&D materials under simulated loadings was evaluated by Repeated Load Triaxial
Construction (RLT) tests to determine the resilient modulus (MR). The optimum performance for stabilizing C&D mate-
rials was obtained at the mix design with 20%CKD + 10%FA.
Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction ated by the cement manufacturing industries, there is an abun-

Cement kiln dust (CKD) is an industrial by-product formed dur-
ing the manufacture of cement and is a waste material that is tra-
ditionally destined for landfills [1]. CKD is captured and collected
in particulate devices such as baghouses, electrostatic precipitator
and cyclones [2]. Approximately 14.2 million tons of CKD are gen-
erated in the United States each year of which 4.3 million are
stockpiled [3]. In addition to the massive CKD by-products gener-
⇑ Corresponding authors at: Swinburne University of Technology, PO Box 218,
Hawthorn, Victoria 3122, Australia (A. Arulrajah). School of Civil Engineering,
Suranaree University of Technology, 111 University Avenue, Muang District,
Nakhon Ratchasima 30000, Thailand (S. Horpibulsuk).
E-mail addresses: aarulrajah@swin.edu.au (A. Arulrajah), alireza.mohammadinia
@unimelb.edu.au (A. Mohammadinia), amdamico@montdami.com.au (A. D’Amico),
suksun@g.sut.ac.th (S. Horpibulsuk).
dance of CKD stockpiles worldwide [4]. Almost all CKD products
are generally nonhazardous and exhibit a moderately low leaching
potential for toxic metals [4]. However, the increasing stockpiles of
CKD generated annually and high cost of landfilling requires inno-
vative solutions to be developed to utilize CKD in construction
activities.
CKD as a rich source of calcium can be utilized to complement
the alumina and silica source of class F FA to create aluminium-
substituted C-A-S-H type gel and zeolites like gismondine which
can be created in high calcium content binders with high Al2O3
and low MgO [5,6]. Including a rich calcium source to the mixture
of a CKD/FA binder can potentially significantly enhance the
strength and texture and of the binder gel [6]. The variable charac-
teristics of CKD as an industrial by-product is a major setback for
utilization of this binder for stabilization activities [1,2]. However,

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.04.007
0950-0618/Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 A. Arulrajah et al. / Construction and Building Materials 145 (2017) 218–225 219

the free lime content can be used as a controlling parameter to
measure the competence of CKD products [1]. In addition, the sul-
fate content, alkali content and pH of the solution and the fineness
of the CKD dust powder can potentially significantly influence the
stabilization process. It should be noted that calcium based binders
perform best when mixed with highly plastic soils. The high con-
tent of free lime (CaO) in CKD increases the alkalinity of the solu-
tion. Fly Ash (FA) is the by-product of coal-fired electricity
generation in many developed and developing countries, and is
traditionally stockpiled as a waste material at power plants.
The demand for natural aggregates in construction projects is
consistently rising with the rapid increase in infrastructure pro-
jects in developed and developing countries. Natural quarry mate-
rials are increasingly scarce and furthermore, the environmental
concerns and economic costs of using these limited resources is
increasing rapidly. In recent years, there has been increased utiliza-
tion of Construction and Demolition (C&D) materials in civil engi-
neering projects as replacement for conventional construction
aggregates [7]. Utilization of C&D materials has been pursued
increasingly, as this approach enables the preservation of natural
aggregates [8] as well as significant environmental and economic
savings for the community [9]. In addition to lower cost and envi-
ronmental burden of using recycled C&D materials such as crushed
brick (CB) and recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) [10], the in situ
recycling of Reclaimed asphalt Pavement (RAP) has been reported
to yield savings of up to $1 million per kilometer length of each
highway lane [11].
The hitherto unknown properties of C&D materials requires fur-
ther fundamental understanding in order to utilize these waste
materials in geotechnical applications [9,12]. Partial inclusion of
C&D aggregates as conventional construction materials has been
adopted in recent years [13,14]. Improving the strength and stiff-
F type FA. CKD + FA stabilized C&D aggregates with up to 30% bin-
der contents were evaluated to ascertain the optimum CKD con-
tent. The C&D materials used in this research were collected
from a local recycling site near Melbourne with a nominal size of
20 mm.
An extensive laboratory characterization was performed on the
CKD + FA stabilized C&D materials to characterize these waste
materials. Tests undertaken included particle size distribution,
pH, modified compaction, permanent deformation, Repeated Load
Triaxial (RLT) and Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS). The
size distribution of the aggregates were determined according to
Australian standards [27]. Due to relatively high water absorption
of CKD, the optimum moisture content and maximum dry density
of the CKD + FA stabilized C&D materials were determined with
use of modified compactive energy to simulate the high density
of the stabilized materials [28].
The pH value of the unbound as well as the stabilized materials
after mixing were measured according to Australian standards [29]
to investigate the alkalinity of the environment. The stabilized
samples were compacted in a split mold, to avoid possible damage
to samples during the removal of the specimen, with diameter of
100 ± 1 mm and 200 ± 1 mm in height. Samples were compacted
in 8 layers with modified compactive energy obtained from com-
paction test. the surface of each layer was deeply scarified to
achieve interlocking between the layers and avoid anisotropy in
the sample. The samples were cured in a humidity box for 7 days
at room temperature and at a relative humidity of 97% to 99%.
100 20
CKD
80 16
Cumulative Passing Percentage, %

ness of the C&D aggregates has been achieved and implemented

Normalized Relative Frequency, %

by stabilization techniques by using cement [10]. However, the
economic and environmental cost of stabilization activities due
60 12
to excessive usage of high carbon emitting Portland cement has
been recognized as a major setback [12]. Lime and cement have
been successfully used for stabilization of C&D aggregates 40 8
[15–18], as have other conventional binders [19–21].
Developments of low-calcium alkali-activated binders were ini-
tially implemented as a fire-resistant replacement for organic poly- 20 4
meric materials with a potential strength development in
structural applications [22]. The development of crystallization of
alumina-silicate gel created in low-calcium systems of alkali acti- 0 0
0.04 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3
vated materials has shown comparable strength [23]. However,
the lack of confidence in traditional binder synthesis [24], in addi- Particle Size (µm)
tion to cost of activators resulted in the development of calcium-
rich binders in stabilization and concrete production works [25]. 100 20
Bassani, Riviera [26] reported on significant improvement in FA
mechanical properties of long-term CKD stabilized wastes.
CKD is calcium-rich whereas FA is silica-rich, hence the unique 80 16
Cumulative Passing Percentage, %

Normalized Relative Frequency, %

combination of these two pozzolanic materials (CKD/FA) were

investigated as an alternative binder to stabilize C&D materials.
The strength and resilient moduli properties of CKD/FA stabilized 60 12
C&D materials were evaluated in this research to develop an
understanding of the properties and efficiency of CKD in construc-
tion stabilization activities. The successful performance of CKD as 40 8
an alternative binder in combination with FA to stabilize C&D
aggregates, would enable CKD to be utilized in low-carbon civil
20 4
construction activities.

0 0
2. Materials and methods 3 6.5 8.5 12 16 20 32 45 63 85 106
Particle Size (µm)
CKD was obtained locally from a cement manufacturing com-
pany. The FA used in this research was black coal, low calcium class Fig. 1. Particle size distribution of (a) CKD and (b) FA.
220 A. Arulrajah et al. / Construction and Building Materials 145 (2017) 218–225

The UCS test was performed on three similar stabilized samples

Table 1 according to ASTM D5102 [30] and the average value was reported
Chemical composition of CKD and FA binders. as the UCS value. A fourth similar sample was used for measure-
Chemical CKD (wt%) FA (wt%) ment of resilient modulus based on Repeated Load Triaxial (RLT)
AL2O3 3.50 25.56 test recommendation [31].
SiO2 15.37 51.11 The resilient modulus (MR) was measured under a variety of the
CaO 58.85 4.30 stress conditions of semi-dynamic vertical haversine deviator load-
Fe2O3 3.08 12.48 ing with cycles of 1 s and loading duration of 100 ms and static
K2O 7.00 0.70
MgO 1.55 1.45
confinement air pressure. Each stress combination involved 100
Na2O 4.37 0.77 repetitions and the average of the last 5 cycles was reported as
SO3 5.66 0.24 the resilient modulus for each stage. Three of the mixtures were
*
LoI 23.79 0.57 used for measurement of permanent resilient deformation under
* confinement according to Australian code [32]. The permanent
Loss on Ignition.
deformation test illustrates the permanent vertical deformation
under a range of vertical loading stages at three different confine-
ments to cover a variety of stress conditions. Three different devi-
100 ator loading stages of 350 kPa, 450 kPa and 550 kPa were used for
CB RCA RAP
the RLT tests under 50 kPa of confining stress.
Gravel Content: 33.8 42.7 36.6
Sand Content: 58.5 51.2 58.8
80 Fine Content: 7.7 6.1 4.6 3. Results and discussion
Cu 38.3 47.7 10.1
Cc 1.6 1.3 1.2
USCS
*
GW
§
GW GW The particle size distribution of CKD with a mean diameter of
60
* Unified Soil Classification System
§
0.34 mm and FA with a mean diameter of 35 mm is presented in
% Passing

Well graded gravel

Fig. 1. Table 1 presents the chemical composition of the CKD and
FA, and indicates the high CaO content of CKD and high silica con-
tent of the FA.
40
The C&D materials are classified as well-graded gravels with
relatively low fine content as presented in Fig. 2. C&D materials
are ideal as construction materials for base and subbase layers
20 [33]. RAP with the lowest Los Angeles abrasion loss value was
CB
RCA the most robust aggregate, followed by RCA and CB (Table 2). In
RAP addition to the lower strength of CB aggregates as compared to
0 RCA and RAP, CB aggregates show a higher flakiness index which
0.01 0.1 1 10
can lead to a less structured fabric. The unbound C&D materials
Particle Size (mm) are alkaline with a relatively high pH.
Fig. 2. Particle size distribution of unbound C&D materials.
Due to high amount of additive binder, the Maximum Dry
Density (MDD) and Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) of all the

Table 2
Geotechnical properties of unbound C&D aggregates.

Geotechnical properties Test standards CB RCA RAP

Particle density – coarse (Mg/m3) AS 1141.6.1 [37] 2.67 2.70 2.65
Particle density – fine (Mg/m3) AS 1141.5.1 [38] 2.63 2.65 2.58
pH AS 1289.4.3.1 [29] 10.9 11.2 9.9
Flakiness index BS 812-105.1 [39] 25.2 15.4 10.9
Los Angeles abrasion loss ASTM C131 [40] 36.5 31.1 20.2

a) b) c)
CB RCA
2.25 2.25 RCA + 30% CKD 2.25
CB + 30% CKD
RCA + 20% CKD + 10% FA
CB + 20% CKD + 10% FA
RCA + 15% CKD + 15% FA
2.15 CB + 15% CKD + 15% FA 2.15 RCA + 10% CKD + 20% FA
2.15
Dry Density (Mg/m3)
Dry Density (Mg/m3)

Dry Density (Mg/m3)

CB + 10% CKD + 20% FA RCA + 30% FA

CB + 30% FA
2.05 2.05 2.05

1.95 1.95 1.95 RAP

RAP + 30% CKD
RAP + 20% CKD + 10% FA
1.85 1.85 1.85 RAP + 15% CKD + 15% FA
RAP + 10% CKD + 20% FA
RAP + 30% FA
1.75 1.75 1.75
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Moisture Content (%) Moisture Content (%) Moisture Content (%)

Fig. 3. Compaction curves of CKD + FA stabilized C&D materials: (a) CB, (b) RCA and (c) RAP.
 A. Arulrajah et al. / Construction and Building Materials 145 (2017) 218–225 221

CKD Content, % stabilized blend were determined separately as presented in Fig. 3.

30 25 20 15 10 5 0 The dry density of all CKD + FA stabilized RAP and CB aggregates
14 3.2 experienced a noticeable drop compared to that of the unbound
RCA
aggregates. This drop was however not observed in the stabilized
12 CB 3.0 RCA aggregates. The variation of the OMC and MDD for various
CKD + FA binder contents is presented in Fig. 4. The OMC of the

Maximum Dry Density (Mg/m3)

10 2.8 blends noticeably decreases with increasing FA content. Consider-
Optimum Moisture Content, %

RAP ing that the total binder content is limited to 30% by weight.
Increasing the content of spherical FA particles not only facilitates
8 2.6
the compaction process, but also reduces the amount of CKD pow-
der particles in the mixture.
6 2.4
Fig. 5 presents the scanning electron microscope images of the
clumps of the CKD powder which is about 100 times finer than
4 RAP 2.2 average FA particles compared to the spherical particles of FA.
The significantly higher specific area of the CKD powder leads to
2 RCA 2.0 a higher water absorption during the process of hydration, which
causes the reduction of optimum water content. It also should be
CB
0 1.8 noted that despite lower specific gravity of FA compared to that
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 of CKD, the dry density of the CKD + FA blends increases with
FA Content, % higher percentages of FA which is due to increasing the compatibil-
ity of blends caused by the increase of spherical FA particles.
Fig. 4. Variation of dry density by moisture content of CKD + FA stabilized C&D
The development of average UCS for different binder content is
materials.
presented in Fig. 6. The UCS of the CKD + FA stabilized C&D

Fig. 5. SEM figures of (a) CKD and (b) FA.

Uniaxial Strength
Young Modulus Stiffness
4 8

7
Average UCS values (MPa)

3 Min 7-day Strength 6

(TxDOT, 2010)
E50 (MPa)

5
Class L
2 4

3
Class M

1 2

0 0
CB - Unbound

CB + 30% CKD

CB + 20% CKD + 10% FA

CB + 15% CKD + 15% FA

CB + 10% CKD + 20% FA

CB + 30% FA

RCA - Unbound

RCA + 30% CKD

RCA + 20% CKD + 10% FA

RCA + 15% CKD + 15% FA

RCA + 10% CKD + 20% FA

RCA + 30% FA

RAP - Unbound

RAP + 30% CKD

RAP + 20% CKD + 10% FA

RAP + 15% CKD + 15% FA

RAP + 10% CKD + 20% FA

RAP + 30% FA

Fig. 6. Variation of UCS and stiffness of CKD + FA stabilized C&D materials.

222 A. Arulrajah et al. / Construction and Building Materials 145 (2017) 218–225

materials compared to unbound C&D materials increases by almost
12, 4 and 2-fold respectively for CB, RCA and RAP relatively at the
best combination of the CKD + FA binder. It is evident that the CKD
+ FA binders performed better than individual binders with just
CKD or just FA. The low calcium content of the FA hinders the
hydration process and bonding of the aggregates and barely
impacts strength development. On the other end, scarcity of fine
fraction along with lack of plasticity in the limited fine content of
C&D material limits the creation of bonds with the stabilized mate-
rials. However, the combination of CKD + FA increases the pH of
the blends significantly and the abundance of calcium in the blend
provides an ideal environment for creation of C-A-S-H gel. This
product is similar to calcium silicate hydrate gel (C-S-H) that is
produced in activation process of cement [34].
FA content (%)
30 25 20 15
14
13
12
pH Value
The pH of the mixture is found to almost reach the saturation
point after addition of 10% CKD as shown in Fig. 7. The pH value
stays almost constant after this point. The optimum performance
for stabilizing C&D materials is obtained at the mix design of 20%
CKD + 10%FA. RCA and CB mixed with any of the suggested combi-
nations of CKD and FA can be used as a road base material [35].
Although RAP exhibits a higher unbound strength compared to
CB, the stabilized CB materials show a higher strength. The visual
observation reveals that the thin layer of bitumen coating the
RAP aggregates prevents sufficient surface adhesion between the
RAP aggregates and the mortar, causing premature failure in the
specimen. However, the stabilized RAP aggregates can be consid-
ered as an alternative in construction of road subbases [35].
The secant stiffness modulus at 50% of failure strength (E50) was
measured for each sample and is plotted along with the UCS value
of the stabilized materials in Fig. 8 for comparison of the strength
10 5 0 and elastic rigidity of the samples. The static Young’s modulus is
relatively close and comparable with the UCS of the stabilized
materials. Fig. 8 shows the goodness of fit for comparison of the
secant Young’s modulus compared to axial strength. The static
secant modulus of stabilized materials was shown to be closely
related to UCS value of the materials [36].
The resilient modulus (MR) of stabilized C&D materials is shown
in Fig. 9. The confining pressure and cyclic axial stress of each of

the 15 stages is also presented in the figure. Similar to the UCS

11 results, RCA shows the highest resilient modulus followed by CB
and RAP. Although the elastic modulus is in direct correlation with
the UCS and occurs at the combination of CKD and FA as the pre-
10 cursors in stabilization, the dynamic modulus is observed to be
higher for higher CKD contents in all the tested C&D materials. This
RCA suggests that although the calcium bonds are ultimately weaker
9
CB than the Aluminosilicate gel bonds, they perform more success-
RAP fully in sustaining the dynamic resilient loads at lower stress
8 levels.
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Subsequently, a set of permanent resilient strain test was per-
CKD content (%) formed on the optimum blends with highest UCS value to investi-
gate the effect of repeated loading on the durability of the bond.
Fig. 7. Variation of pH with CKD + FA content.
Fig. 10 shows the progressive development of permanent resilient

5
CB - Unbound
CB + 30% CKD
CB + 20% CKD + 10% FA

4 CB + 15% CKD + 15% FA

CB + 10% CKD + 20% FA
CB + 30% FA
RCA - Unbound
3 RCA + 30% CKD
E50 (MPa)

RCA + 20% CKD + 10% FA

RCA + 15% CKD + 15% FA
RCA + 10% CKD + 20% FA
2
RCA + 30% FA
RAP - Unbound
RAP + 30% CKD
1 RAP + 20% CKD + 10% FA
RAP + 15% CKD + 15% FA
RAP + 10% CKD + 20% FA
RAP + 30% FA
0
0 1 2 3 4 5

Unconfined Compressive Strength (MPa)

Fig. 8. Comparison of UCS and stiffness of CKD + FA stabilized C&D materials.

 A. Arulrajah et al. / Construction and Building Materials 145 (2017) 218–225 223

1200
a) 400
Unbound CB
CB + 30% CKD
CB + 20% CKD + 10% FA
1000

Resilient Modulus, MR (MPa)

CB + 15% CKD + 15% FA
CB + 10% CKD + 20% FA 300

Applied Stress (kPa)

CB + 30% FA
800 Cyclic Axial Stress
Confining Pressure

600 200

400
100
200

0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Stress Stage Number

1800
b) 400
Unbound RCA
RCA + 30% CKD
1600
RCA + 20% CKD + 10% FA
Resilient Modulus, MR (MPa)

RCA + 15% CKD + 15% FA

1400 RCA + 10% CKD + 20% FA 300

Applied Stress (kPa)

RCA + 30% FA
1200 Cyclic Axial Stress
Confining Pressure
1000
200
800

600
100
400

200

0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Stress Stage Number

1200
c) 400
Unbound RAP
RAP + 30% CKD
RAP + 20% CKD + 10% FA
1000
Resilient Modulus, MR (MPa)

RAP + 15% CKD + 15% FA

RAP + 10% CKD + 20% FA 300
Applied Stress (kPa)

RAP + 30% FA
800 Cyclic Axial Stress
Confining Pressure

600 200

400
100
200

0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Stress Stage Number

Fig. 9. Resilient modulus of CKD + FA stabilized C&D materials after 7 days of curing for (a) CB (b) RCA and (c) RAP.

strain on unbound C&D aggregates that exhibits unstable behavior were investigated as an alternative binder to stabilize three types
for all C&D aggregates to the point that unbound CB has failed dur- of common C&D materials.
ing the third stage. However, the C&D + 20%CKD + 10%FA shows a The strength and resilient modulus properties of CKD/FA stabi-
very stable behavior. lized C&D materials was evaluated in this research to develop an
understanding of the properties and efficiency of CKD in construc-
tion stabilization activities.
4. Conclusions The strength and stiffness characterization of CKD + FA stabi-
lized C&D materials were evaluated by undertaking UCS and RLT
CKD is an industrial by-product formed during the manufacture tests at room temperature. The optimum performance for stabiliz-
of cement and is a waste material that is traditionally destined for ing C&D materials was obtained at the mix design of 20%CKD + 10%
landfills. CKD is calcium-rich whereas FA is silica-rich, hence the FA. RCA showed the highest strength and stiffness gain followed by
unique combination of these two pozzolanic materials (CKD + FA) CB and RAP. RCA and CB stabilized with CKD + FA can be utilized
224 A. Arulrajah et al. / Construction and Building Materials 145 (2017) 218–225
CB : Unbound
RCA : Unbound
RAP - Unbound
10000
Stage 1
deviator stress: 250 kPa
confining pressure: 50 kPa
Permanent Strain (micro strain) 8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0 5000
Fig. 10. Comparison of permanent strain results for unbound and CKD + FA stabilized C&D materials.
for base construction applications, while RAP can be utilized for
subbase construction.
The successful performance of CKD as an alternative binder in
combination with FA to stabilize C&D aggregates as demonstrated
in this research, will enable CKD to be utilized in low-carbon civil
construction activities.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Alex Fraser Group (Victoria,
Australia) for providing the demolition aggregates used in this
research. The last author is grateful to the Thailand Research Fund
under the TRF Senior Research Scholar program Grant No.
RTA5980005 and Suranaree University of Technology.
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