Abstract

The idea of using agricultural and industrial waste materials in concrete helps to
develop alternatives for protecting the environment, compensating for the shortage of
environmental sources, and resolving the waste dumping issue. Environmental
awareness about possible adverse effects has substantially expanded, and, consequently,
recycling or utilizing agricultural and industrial waste by-products has become an
increasingly desirable option for waste disposal. A review of corn cob ash (CCA) use in
the construction industry is provided, and emerging trends in fresh properties, strength
properties, durability characteristics, and microstructural properties are evaluated. The
results show that adding CCA to concrete is advantageous for waste reduction and
sustainable development. Furthermore, the optimum substitution of CCA is important.
Although different researcher recommends different optimum substitution of CCA due
to different source. However, the typical range of optimum substitution of CCA varies by
5–10% by weight of the binder. Therefore, the review recommends that CCA can be
utilized in concrete for up to 10% without any harmful impact on concrete qualities. To
close the possible research gap, a thorough investigation of the chemical composition of
CCA from a different source and durability factors including alkali-silica reaction,
shrinkage, and creep properties must be performed.

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Keywords
Corn cob ash
Concrete
Chemical composition
Fresh concrete
Strength
Durability and microstructure

1. Introduction
To consistently develop toward sustainable growth, a huge revolution in the cement and
concrete industry is necessary to prevent environmental harm, notably carbon
dioxide [1], [2], [3], [4]. Concrete manufacture has grown in recent centuries, and it has
become one of the primary priorities of researchers concerned with sustainable
development [5], [6], [7], [8], [9], [10], [11]. The advantage of waste materials in
concrete manufacture has been demonstrated to diminish the usage of environmental
resources [12], [13], [14], [15]. Construction consumes the resources and energy of some
economic interests on the globe today. Concrete is a typical building material employed
all around the world. Cement, a major ingredient of concrete, is manufactured through
an energy-rigorous procedure. Cement manufacture generates a significant amount of
harmful gas discharges, which promote worldwide warning [8], [16]. Cement plants are
the second-biggest industrial carbon dioxide emitter [17], [18], [19], [20]. There have
been a lot of studies on using different waste materials as alternatives to cement to
reduce CO2 emissions [21], [22], [23]. In modern societies, employing waste as
secondary material in the construction industry is an expensive and ecologically
responsible method of waste disposal [24], [25]. Sustainability has become critical in the
construction sector, and several solutions have evolved to reduce the environmental
impact of current construction processes [26], [27], [28], [29], [30]. Growing energy
production prices, lower CO2 discharges, and the release of unrefined, poor-quality
components are all threats to the OPC industry [31]. Therefore, rather than cement,
other sources should be explored.
The need for environmentally friendly sources of energy-building materials has
demanded substantial study into alternative materials that may lessen the
environmental effect of cement [32], [33], [34]. It is critical to lessen this effect by
replacing cement with natural pozzolan, clay, agricultural waste, and other geo-based
materials [35], [36]. Supplementary cementing materials (SCM) are often residues of
other operations or natural resources. They might be further processed for use in
concrete or not. A few of these minerals are known as pozzolans, and although they do
not have cementitious qualities on their own, when combined with Portland cement,
they react to generate hydration products. SCMs are mostly utilized to
increase flowability, durability, and strength. They improved the microstructure of
concrete and lowered its permeability, minimizing water and salt entry into concrete. As
a result, ongoing attempts are required to meet the need for natural resources by
substituting recycled materials, which make more sustainable concrete.
The burning of biomass is a major environmental problem, particularly in agricultural
nations, and is capable of decreasing pollution levels, hazy situations, and negative
consequences for public health [37]. Open-field burning of crop deposits accounts for a
large component of biomass emissions in agriculturally based countries such as China
and India [38]. This enormous quantity of maize produces around the same amount
of corn cob. As a result, including these waste materials in concrete mixes will aid in
waste management while also providing a substitute for ingredients in concrete blends.
Because ash has a poor financial value, rather than putting it in a landfill, which would
cause ecological contamination, using it as a construction material will yield great
benefits [39].
Corncob is a crop residue and agricultural waste derived from the maize crop. A study
reported [38], that of the 750 Tg of biomass burnt across Asia, 250 Tg (33.4%) came
from open-field combustion. The main contributors were India (84 Tg) and China (10
Tg). CCA is an agricultural residue product made from maize, the highly significant
grain crop in Sub-Saharan Africa. The Food and Agriculture Organization reported that
589 million tons of maize were made globally. The US was the top maize manufacturer,
accounting for 43% of global output. Africa accounted for 7% of global maize
production. With 4.62 million tons, Nigeria was Africa's second-highest manufacturer of
maize. South Africa has the largest output (8.04 million tons) [40]. Corncob is often
dumped as garbage in poor nations. Therefore, it blocks sewers, drains and pollutes the
air via combustion, causing major socioeconomic and health problems.
Maize cob ash is a secondary cementitious material (SCM) that has recently received a
lot of attention since it has shown pozzolanic capabilities in several experiments on the
application of CCA as a partial substitute in concrete instead of
OPC [41], [42], [43], [44]. A study noted that the leaching procedure considerably
enhanced the physical and chemical characteristics of maize straw ash, resulting in a
decrease in the amount of portlandite [45]. The findings also indicated that chemical
compounds (CaO and MgO) on fly ash surfaces may regulate the pH of the fly ash and
leaching [46]. The chemical compounds (CaO and MgO) on fly ash surfaces may control
the pH of the fly ash and leaching [47].
Maize cob ash (MCA) reduced water absorption and enhanced resistance to acid attack.
According to Kamau et al. (2017), MCA caused a considerable drop in
concrete compressive strength (CS) [48]. The blend of CCA and sawdust ash (SDA) is a
good pozzolanic material since it has more than 70% of the sum of
SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 which is the requirement for pozzolanic materials. Concrete
compressive strength (CS) improves with curing time and declines as the proportion
blend of corn cob and saw dust ash increases. Despite the fact that the strength of
concrete is less than that of the control concrete, it may still be utilized for conventional
concrete developments where strength is not important factor, such as flooring,
mortars, and mass concrete [49]. The research concludes that, when 10% CCA is utilized
as an alternative to OPC, the cement setting time increases from 258 min to 277 min.
Replacement beyond this limit reduces concrete strength. This kind of replacement
(10%) may also be utilized to decrease the usage of OPC and its high price in creating
walls and beam units [50]. A study looked at the impacts of CCA as a binder substitute
between 3% and 20%, and they discovered that it had a detrimental impact on cement
hydration, compressive strength, and chloride ion permeability. The resistance of CCA
concrete to chloride corrosion is a significant issue that has the potential to lower the
building life span globally [51].
The goal of this research is to offer a summary of the application of CCA in concrete. The
properties of CCA are initially described, which mostly relate to physical and chemical
properties. After that, fresh concrete properties, strength qualities, durability, and
microstructure of CCA-based concrete are reviewed. The finding provides an easy path
for the reader to use CCA as concrete ingredients without experimental work. In
addition, the most relevant findings and suggestions are presented for future studies,
which will improve further performance of CCA based concrete. Fig. 1 reveals a different
segment of the review. The associated keywords CCA in concrete, sustainable concrete
with renewable resources (CCA), the chemical composition of CCA, physical
characteristics of CCA, mix design, mechanical properties, and durability features were
used to conduct a complete literature review. CCA-based concrete is used to reprocess
the relevant papers in the databases of Elsevier, Scopus, Springer, Taylor & Francis,
Wiley, and other engineering and scientific resources. In the form of tables and graphs,
analysis and findings have been allocated and shown. The sources are discussed in the
appropriate context when the observations are being presented.
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Fig. 1. Various segments of this study.

2. Physical and chemical properties

Fig. 2 depicts the morphological composition of a corn cob, which is separated into three
strands: the pith, the woody ring, and the glume. Mineral additive physical qualities,
such as particle size range, surface area, and specific gravity, have a significant effect on
the characteristics of blended cement, concrete, and mortar. The surface area of CCA is
272 m2/kg [52], which is less than that of other agriculture ash like bagasse ash and rice
husk ash and equivalent to fly ash (FA). According to Ikponmwosa et al. [53], the
specific gravity of CCA ranges from 2.18, which is somewhat smaller than the specific
gravity of cement. CCA has a bulk density of 923 kg/m3, which is slightly smaller than
the specific gravity of sand.

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Fig. 2. (a) Corn and (b) corn cob ash after burning [39], [54].
Fig. 3 shows a scan electronic microscopy (SEM) of CCA. The form and size of the
irregular particles are seen in the SEM pictures of CCA. The sharp shape and exterior
harshness increased internal resistance among concrete components, which had a
negative impact on workability. However, rough surfaces improve their strength due to
increased friction resistance.

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Fig. 3. SEM of CCA particle after burning [55].
The chemical composition of CCA is displayed in Table 1. It can be observed that the
total sum of silica (SiO2), alumina (Al2O3), and iron oxide (Fe2O3) is greater than 70%,
which fulfills one of the ASTM C168–05 standards for cementitious material.
Additionally, an amorphous silica peak was identified in the x-ray diffraction of CCA, as
shown in Fig. 4, indicating that it might be employed as a pozzolan.
The XRD arrangement shows that amorphous silica is abundant in CCA. Because
amorphous SiO2 is more sensitive than crystalline SiO2, therefore it is chosen
for pozzolanic reactions [56].