Journal of Cleaner Production 278 (2021) 123842

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Flexural response of fiber reinforced concrete beams with waste tires

rubber and recycled aggregate
Md. Shahjalal a, Kamrul Islam a, b, Jesika Rahman a, d, Khondaker Sakil Ahmed a,
Mohammad Rezaul Karim c, AHM Muntasir Billah d, *
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Military Institute of Science and Technology (MIST), Bangladesh
b
Department of Civil, Geological and Mining Engineering, Polytechnique Montreal, Canada
c
18 Engineering Construction Battalion (ECB), Bangladesh Army Corps of Engineers, Bangladesh
d
Department of Civil Engineering, Lakehead University, Canada

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The increasing amount of waste tires and construction wastes mounting up on the landfills create a huge
Received 16 June 2020 concern to environmental stability. Researchers and policymakers are searching for ways to reduce and
Received in revised form reuse these waste materials to promote a sustainable construction practice. Thus, incorporating crumb
18 July 2020
rubber (CR) derived from the waste tire and recycled coarse aggregate (RCA) in concrete production
Accepted 16 August 2020
pertains to a sustainable future of the construction industry. This paper investigates the combined in-
Available online 26 August 2020
fluence of RCA, CR, and polypropylene (PP) fiber on the physical and mechanical properties of Fiber
Handling Editor: Prof. Jiri Jaromir Kleme
s Reinforced Rubberized Recycled Concrete (FR3C). Furthermore, the flexural response of reinforced con-
crete (RC) FR3C beams is investigated. A series of fourteen RC beam specimens measuring
Keywords: 150 mm
200 mm x 1500 mm (w x d x L) are prepared and tested. Several combinations are designed
Sustainable construction where the variables are CR content (5% and 10%) and steel ratio (0.59% and 1.60%) with contents of RCA
Recycled aggregate and fiber fixed at 30% and 0.5%, respectively. The results of the experimental study suggest an
Waste tire improvement in the concrete short-term and long-term mechanical properties following the introduc-
Polypropylene fiber
tion of CR and PP fiber. Concrete beams with 30% RCA, 5% CR and 0.5% PP fiber showed improved flexural
Mechanical behavior
capacity, ductility, and toughness. Additionally, analysis demonstrates that the existing codes and design
Deflection
Ductility guidelines are inadequate for quantifying the flexural capacity of FR3C beams with different reinforce-
ment ratios. Overall, this research demonstrates a new pathway towards the cleaner production of
sustainable concrete.
© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction natural resources when the average yearly consumption is 30

Environmental sustainability is a primary concern for many
countries around the globe. This arises the possibility of reusing
waste materials such as crumbed rubber extracted from scrap tires
and recycled concrete from demolition sites. Conventional concrete
is composed of the resources which are not replenished naturally.
With continued rapid urbanization, it is time for adopting sus-
tainable alternatives in construction practices (Verian et al., 2018;
Mohammed et al., 2015). A small percentage replacement of natural
aggregate with recycled ones can result in significant savings in
* Corresponding author. Department of Civil Engineering, Lakehead University,
Thunder Bay, ON, P7B 5E1, Canada..
E-mail address: muntasir.billah@lakeheadu.ca (A.M. Billah).
billion tons (Verian et al., 2018). Attempts made in the past studies
observed satisfactory performance in terms of strength and sus-
tainability when natural aggregates are replaced by various recy-
cled materials like recycled coarse aggregate (RCA), recycled
granulated steel (RGS) and Poly-Ethylene Terephthalate (PET)
(Quadir et al., 2016; Islam et al., 2016; Huda and Alam, 2015; Arora
and Singh, 2017; Arora and Singh, 2018; Sharma et al., 2019; Singh
et al., 2019). The replacement of natural sand by 50% with ferro-
nickel slag sand in fly ash-based cement concrete is found to reduce
the early-age cracking as well as improve the compressive and
tensile strength properties compared to the conventional fly ash-
based cement concrete (Nguyen et al., 2019). In 2014, 70% of the
construction and demolition waste (CDW) produced in the United
States consisted of concrete (US-EPA, 2016). The yearly production
of such waste concrete by the Canadian construction industry

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123842
0959-6526/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 Md. Shahjalal et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 278 (2021) 123842
makes up about 27% of the country’s municipal solid waste (Yeheyis
et al., 2013). Due to the lack of proper waste management, these are
dumped on landfills thereby reducing the useable land area as well
as increasing environmental concerns. Using the recycled demoli-
tion waste as coarse aggregates in concrete will lessen the burden
on natural resources and reduce the concrete waste stored in
landfills. Alam et al. (2013) reported that the compressive strength
did not differ considerably for the concrete containing 25e50% RCA
replacement compared to the control mixture. Wen et al. (2015)
found no significant effects on concrete properties up to 45% RCA
replacement by volume. Another study showed no effect on con-
crete strength when 30% of natural coarse aggregate (NCA) was
replaced by RCA, however, beyond 30% replacement the strength
started to decrease (Limbachiya et al., 2000). Uncertainties in the
properties of RCA hinders its use in the construction industry. RCA
is proven to have inferior quality over the NCA such as lower unit
weight, higher absorption capacity, and reduced workability due to
the attached mortar (Juan and Gutie rrez, 2009). The mechanical
properties of the RCA are inconsistent and thus need to be thor-
oughly analyzed before they can be used in mass-scale construc-
tions. Topçu and Şengel (2004) reported a 13% reduction in flexural
strength when traditional coarse aggregate is replaced by 100%
RCA. Xiao et al. (2005) reported that RCA could be used in structural
members when the mix design and details of construction are
properly maintained.
As the end-users are increasing, a considerable amount of scrap
tires are being thrown away every day. This is responsible for
producing tire waste that mounts up in landfills causing significant
damage to the environment. About 4.2 million tons of scrap tires
were produced in the US during 2017 and out of this only 3.16
million tons were reused in construction industries (Tire Recycling
Riding On, 2020). Australia, on the other hand, discarded about 51
million waste tires during the years 2013 and 2014 (Mountjoy et al.,
2015). The problems of increasing tire waste can be alleviated when
the natural fine aggregates are replaced by these scrap tires. The
Crumbed Rubber Concrete (CRC) therefore comes into existence
where the fine aggregate is replaced with crumbed rubber (CR)
from old tires. CRC has enhanced shock absorption capacity,
toughness, and fatigue performance compared to the conventional
concrete (Son et al., 2011; Turatsinze et al., 2005; Benazzouk et al.,
2007; Al Bakri et al., 2007). On the contrary, CRC has lower unit
weight, compressive and tensile strength compared to regular
concrete. Previous studies reported reduced brittleness index and
increased toughness with increasing rubber content in the concrete
mix (Khaloo et al., 2008; Reda Taha et al., 2008). Both RCA and CR
decrease the workability resulting from RCA’s increased absorption
capacity and air content; and the air entrapping properties of CR
(Topcu and Şengel, 2004; Salem et al., 2003; Fedroff et al., 1996;
Khatib and Bayomy, 1999). Consequently, rubberized concrete
possesses lower compressive strength than the concrete
comprising natural aggregates (Khaloo et al., 2008; Raghavan et al.,
1998). While increasing the level of CR content results in improved
energy absorption capacity, the elastic modulus and strength of
concrete are found to decrease (Son et al., 2011; Turatsinze et al.,
2005; Benazzouk et al., 2007). Mendis et al. (2017) concluded
that CRC beams exhibit similar flexural capacities when compared
with normal concrete beams regardless of the rubber content in the
CRC matrix. They also mentioned that the available design guide-
lines are as accurate as predicting the flexural capacities of a normal
concrete beam. Mendis et al. (2018) reported that the ultimate
shear capacities of CRC beams are 0e15% lower compared to that of
normal concrete beams. They suggested that modifications should
be made in the available design guidelines to increase the accuracy
of predicting the shear capacities of the CRC beams (Mendis et al.,
2018). Liu et al. (2020) found that rubberized concrete with 0%e
20% rubber has a better energy dissipation capacity as indicated by
a loss factor which is 43.1%e62.5% higher than those of normal
concrete, respectively. Suggestions are made by various researchers
in the past to use rubberized concrete in non-structural members
because of its lower compressive strength (Ling et al., 2009; El-
Sherbini et al., 2010). As investigated by Thomas et al. (2016), the
performance of both normal and high strength rubberized concrete
is superior to conventional concrete in terms of its abrasion resis-
tance. The effect of CR on the flexural response of self-consolidating
rubberized beams was studied by Ismail and Hassan (2016b). They
reported that replacing 10% of natural sand by CR can improve the
deformation capacity. However, the ultimate tensile and
compressive strength is found to decrease when rubber particles
are included in the concrete matrix (Youssf et al., 2015; Sadek and
El-Attar, 2015). This reduction can be compensated by introducing
fibers into the mix design. The lookout for more sustainable
building materials is not limited to replacing the natural aggregates
but to cement requirements as well. Several studies have reported
the advantages of using fly-ash based geopolymers to partially
substitute Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) in fire-resistant con-
crete structures (Jiang et al., 2020a, 2020b).
Ductility remains one of the most critical issues for concrete.
Incorporation of fiber in concrete led to the coined term fiber
reinforced concrete (FRC) that can enhance the ductility and flex-
ural properties compared to the conventional concrete. Steel fiber is
the most prominent form of fibers to be used in FRC but when the
cost is considered, the commercial success of steel fibers in coun-
tries like Bangladesh is difficult to achieve (Emon et al., 2016).
Polypropylene (PP) fiber is an efficient low-cost alternative to steel
fiber in FRC. Chemically inert and hydrophobic, the PP fibers are
excellent additives that restrict plastic shrinkage cracking
(Martínez-Barrera et al., 2011). Although the incorporation of fibers
enhances the ductility, it reduces the workability of the concrete
mix (Najimi et al., 2009). Wang and Wang (2013) suggested 1e1.5%
steel fiber content (by concrete volume) as the optimum level.
AbdelAleem et al. (2018) reported notable improvement in the
impact resistance due to the addition of the synthetic fibers and CR
in concrete, however, the mechanical strength degraded.
However, lack of adequate bonding between the fibers and
cement paste increases the risk of external agents penetrating
through concrete thereby degrading the quality (Martínez-Barrera
et al., 2011). Akça et al. (2015) observed that upon increasing the
replacement of RCA and fiber content, the elastic modulus of the
concrete decreased, but the effect of RCA was more prominent than
that of the PP fiber content. The effect on flexural properties due to
the inclusion of CR and steel fibers in the matrix of self-
consolidating and vibrated concrete is studied by Ismail and
Hassan (2017). The study identified that the CR content reduced
the crack widths and self-weight when replaced by 15%e35% of
natural aggregates. Beyond 35% the CR content reduced ductility,
toughness, and the maximum flexural capacity of the concrete
beams.
A very few studies have been conducted on the combination of
RCA, CR, and PP fiber on the flexural properties of reinforced con-
crete structural members. In a recent study, long term mechanical
properties were found to be increased when the RCA replacement
was 30% but then began to decrease for more than 30% replacement
(Tamanna et al., 2020). Experimental studies (Guo and Zhu, 2012;
Ismail and Hassan, 2016a) investigated the effect of CR on the RC
beams concluded that CR helped increase the cracking resistance of
the concrete beams. The influence of RCA on the performance of RC
beams has been investigated by many researchers. Arezoumandi
et al. (2015) found out that replacing 50% natural aggregates by
RCA resulted in no significant change in the shear strength as
compared to the conventional concrete. In a recent study (Gümüş
 Md. Shahjalal et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 278 (2021) 123842
and Arslan, 2019), the effect of type and content of fibers on the
flexural performance of high strength concrete beams with low
reinforcement ratios have been investigated. They concluded that a
higher volume of steel fibers improves the flexural properties of the
RC beams whereas adding carbon fiber has a negligible effect.
The main focus of the current study is to investigate the flexural
response of RC beams incorporating RCA, CR, and PP fiber and to
evaluate the applicability of the existing design standards, devel-
oped for conventional RC beams, for this newly developed Fiber
Reinforced Rubberized Recycled Concrete (FR3C) beams for sus-
tainable construction.
2. Research significance
Upon reviewing the existing literature, it is clear that the com-
bination of CR, PP fiber, and RCA in reinforced concrete beams has
been studied by very limited researchers. Past studies indicated
that the inclusion of CR increases the energy absorption capacity
whereas the addition of fibers improves the ductile characteristics
of concrete. However, all past studies investigating concrete made
of RCA, CR, and PP fiber employed concrete cylinders, small scale
prisms, and unreinforced beams. The inadequacy of adequate test
data on reinforced FR3C beams makes it difficult to identify the
flexural response and ductility which is a prerequisite for practical
applications. This research aims to bridge this gap by thoroughly
investigating the flexural response through large scale tests of the
FR3C beams. It is expected that the outcome of this study will
expedite the production and application of a cleaner sustainable
concrete comprising RCA, CR, and PP fiber.
3. Experimental program
3.1. Constituent materials
The materials shown in Fig. 1 are used in this study for designing
and developing the different concrete mixes. General-purpose
Portland Composite Cement (PCC), natural sand, and crushed
stones (19 mm maximum size) conforming to ASTM standards are
used in all concrete mixes. The normal consistency and setting time
of PCC are determined following the ASTM C187-16 (ASTM, 2016)
and ASTM C191-18 (ASTM, 2018b) specifications, respectively and
provided in Table 1. A properly graded natural fine aggregates
(NFA), ensured by sieve analysis following ASTM C136-14 (ASTM,
2014c), with a nominal maximum grain size of 4.75 mm is used.
The gradation of NFA which falls within the range specified by
ASTM is shown in Fig. 2. Following ASTM C128-15 (ASTM, 2015b)
and ASTM C29-17 (ASTM, 2017a) specifications, the NFA properties
are determined and summarized in Table 2. Fig. 2 shows that the
Fig. 1. Aggregate used in concrete: (a) Recycle Coarse Aggregate (b) CR (c) Polypropylene Fiber.
3
gradation of the natural coarse aggregate (NCA), performed per
ASTM C136-14 (ASTM, 2014c), comply satisfactorily with the range
specified by ASTM. The properties of NCA are listed in Table 2 as
determined following ASTM C127-15 (ASTM, 2015a) and ASTM
C29-17 (ASTM, 2017a). The abrasive resistance of the coarse ag-
gregates is tested following the ASTM C131-14 (ASTM, 2014a). RCA
is obtained from a demolished commercial structure which is then
crushed manually to bring the size down to a maximum of 19 mm.
The RCA was screened, sieved, and washed several times to get rid
of the impurities adhered to the RCA. Particles less than 4.75 mm
size are discarded through sieving. The physical properties of the
RCA are determined using similar standards followed for NCA. Fig. 2
depicts the RCA gradation curve and the properties are listed in
Table 2. The CR used in this study is supplied by a local company
that produces it on a commercial basis. As shown in Fig. 2, the
gradation of the CR alone does not comply with the ASTM specified
upper and lower range. As CR is partially replaced with NFA in this
study, the combined gradation of CR and the fine aggregates are
considered to fit within the ASTM standard range. Table 2 lists the
physical properties of CR. The PP fiber used in this study is provided
by a Japanese company. Table 3 represents the specifications of the
PP fibers. Mild steel rebar is incorporated as the longitudinal tensile
and shear reinforcement in this study. The properties of the mild
steel rebar used are summarized in Table 4.
3.2. Concrete mix proportions
In order to accomplish a comparative study, seven different
concrete mixes are prepared with a target 28 day compressive
strength of 30 MPa. The percentages of NCA, RCA, CR, sand, PP fiber,
and rebar are varied during the mix design in this study. The natural
coarse aggregates are replaced by RCA up to 30% of its weight.
Previous researchers have identified that replacing the coarse ag-
gregates with RCA by more than 30% by weight gradually decreases
the mechanical properties of RAC (Alam et al., 2013; Huda and
Alam, 2015; Limbachiya et al., 2000; Etxeberria et al., 2007). The
sand used in this study is replaced with CR in 5% and 10% pro-
portions by volume. As suggested by Meherier (2016), the CR
content should not exceed 10% to obtain comparable outcomes
with the control specimens. Keeping these observations in mind,
CR replacement levels are selected in this study. The PP fibers are
added in the concrete mixture by 0.5% of concrete volume as sug-
gested by Mohod (2015). The detailed concrete mix proportions are
presented in Table 5. A separate name for each batch is given, for
instance, batch code R30C0F0.5L refers to 30% RCA replacement with
0% and 0.5% CR replacement and PP fiber content, respectively
having low reinforcement ratio (0.59%). Similarly, batch code
R30C5F0.5H refers to 30% RCA replacement, 5% CR replacement and
4 Md. Shahjalal et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 278 (2021) 123842

Table 1
Properties of portland composite cement.

Compound (%Mass) Normal Consistency (%) Setting Time (min)

Initial Final

SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO SO3 Na2O K2O LOI 26.7 130 180
20.60 4.74 3.28 64.82 1.84 2.4 0.21 0.38 1.73

Fig. 2. Gradation curve of (a) natural coarse aggregate (NCA) and recycled coarse aggregate (RCA); (b) natural fine aggregate (NFA) and crumb rubber (CR).

wide and 200 mm height) are designed. A total of 84 concrete

Table 2 cylinders are cast following the ASTM C31-19 (ASTM, 2019) stan-
Physical Properties of aggregates.
dard to quantify the short-term and long term mechanical prop-
Variables NCA RCA Sand CR erties which are discussed in detail in the result section. Fig. 3
Apparent Specific Gravity 2.73 2.64 2.47 - shows the beam specimen with a total length of 1500 mm where
Bulk Specific Gravity (SSD) 2.71 2.51 2.41 1.18 the effective length is 1200 mm. The beams are reinforced with
Bulk Specific Gravity (OD) 2.70 2.44 2.36 e longitudinal bars at the bottom as tensile reinforcements with two
Absorption Capacity (%) 0.48 3.23 1.8 1.3
binder rods at the top to support the stirrups. For beams having a
Fineness Modulus 2.51 2.45 2.39 3.49
Loose Condition Unit Weight (kg/m3) 1477.02 1557.54 1455.44 e
low reinforcement ratio (0.59%) (further referred to as LR), two
Compact Condition Unit Weight (kg/m3) 1525.57 1658.71 1579.25 e 10 mm diameter rebars are placed at the bottom. Beams with a high
Loose Condition % of Voids 45.1 35.9 38.3 e reinforcement ratio (1.60%) (further referred to as HR) are rein-
Compact Condition % of Voids 43.3 31.7 33.0 e forced with five 10 mm diameter rebars placed in two layers at the
Abrasion value (%) 14.58 40.5 e e
bottom. 4.5 mm diameter rebars with a spacing of 75 mm and
100 mm in the shear span and the mid-span regions, respectively
Table 3 are used as stirrups for all the fourteen beam specimens. The
Specifications for polypropylene fiber. effective depth of the LR and HR beams are 175 mm and 162.5 mm,
respectively.
Variables Polypropylene fiber

No. of Denier 03
Specific gravity (g/cm3) 0.91 3.4. Testing procedure
Fiber Length (mm) 12
Tensile Strength (MPa) 480
Elastic Modulus (GPa) 7.0 The casting and curing procedures are done following the pro-
visions of ASTM C31-19 (ASTM, 2019). At first, the CR was mixed

Table 4
Mechanical properties of reinforcing steel.

Sl. No. Diameter (mm) Yield Strength (MPa) Ultimate Strength (MPa) Elongation (%)

1 10 550 640.7 21
2 4.5 530 610.2 14

0.5% PP fiber content with a high reinforcement ratio (1.6%). No
admixtures of any kind are used in this study.
3.3. Specimen details
Based on ACI 318-14 (ACI, 2014) guidelines, fourteen simply
supported beams having rectangular cross-sections (i.e. 150 mm
manually with natural sand. As PP fiber forms a better mixture with
cement, it is thoroughly mixed with the designed cement content
by hand to ensure a uniform distribution. In addition, to ensure
uniform distribution of fibers, molds were filled with fresh concrete
from one end in a single layer. At first, the designated amounts of
NCA and RCA are inserted in the mixture machine. Then the com-
bined ingredient of CR and sand are added followed by the addition
 Md. Shahjalal et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 278 (2021) 123842 5

Table 5
Proportion of aggregates for concrete mixtures per cubic meter.

Batch No Batch Code Water (kg) Cement (kg) NCA (kg) NFA (kg) RCA (kg) CR (kg) PP Fiber (kg)

1 R0C0F0L/H 188.0 428.0 1015.0 638.0 0.0 0.00 0.00

2 R30C0F0L/H 188.0 428.0 710.5 638.0 304.5 0.00 0.00
3 R30C0F0.5 L/H 188.0 428.0 710.5 638.0 304.5 0.00 4.55
4 R30C5F0L/H 188.0 428.0 710.5 622.4 304.5 15.62 0.00
5 R30C5F0.5 L/H 188.0 428.0 710.5 622.4 304.5 15.62 4.55
6 R30C10F0L/H 188.0 428.0 710.5 606.8 304.5 31.24 0.00
7 R30C10F0.5 L/H 188.0 428.0 710.5 606.8 304.5 31.24 4.55

Note: R ¼ RCA; C ¼ CR; F ¼ PP Fiber; L ¼ Low reinforcement ratio; H ¼ High reinforcement ratio.

Fig. 3. (A) Four-point static bending test (Schematic diagram), (b) cross section of LR beams, and (c) cross section of HR beams.

of the mixture of cement and PP fiber with the last ingredient being
water. Slump and air content of fresh concrete are measured
following the ASTM C143-15 (ASTM, 2015c) and ASTM C231-17
(ASTM, 2017b), respectively. The beam samples are moist cured
under wet jute fiber layer which is a common procedure of curing
structural members in Bangladesh. The compressive strength and
tensile strength tests are done on cylindrical specimens following
ASTM C39-18 (ASTM, 2018a) and ASTM C496-14 (ASTM, 2014b),
respectively. The unit weight of the hardened concrete samples is
determined per ASTM C642-13 (ASTM, 2013). All the beams are
subjected to four-point static loading to failure after 56 days of
casting. The beams are tested on a simply supported span having an
effective length of 1200 mm as illustrated in Fig. 3. The load is
applied using a Universal Testing Machine (UTM) with 1000 kN
capacity at a displacement-controlled rate of 5 mm/min. The beam
specimens are loaded gradually until failure. The flexural test setup
and loading system are shown in Fig. 3. Moreover, to examine the
deflection behavior along the beam, three additional LVDTs are
used (two at shear span and one at mid-span) with the UTM. The
data is recorded through an automatic data logger system at regular
intervals. The formation of cracks is marked, and the corresponding
loads are noted during the test protocol. A high-resolution camera
is also used to observe the crack propagation. Failure patterns of
each of the corresponding beams are also captured.
4. Test results and discussions
4.1. Fresh concrete properties
The slump and air content of different concrete batches are
compared in Fig. 4. Overall, it is seen that all mixes show reduced
slump compared to the control mix. The slump of the control mix is
115 mm which is close to the targeted slump of 100 mm. For 30%
RCA combination the slump is reduced to 95 mm as a result of the
increased absorption capacity of RCA. The same trend is also
observed when CR is introduced in the design. The slump value
begins to decrease with an increase in amounts of CR in the mix. As
the surface of the CR particles is too rough, they create internal
friction between the ingredients of the concrete which leads to
decrease the slump value. The slump value for 0%, 5%, and 10% CR
combinations are 95 mm, 72 mm, and 64 mm, respectively. Besides,
it is also seen that when an additional 0.5% PP fiber is added the
workability of concrete reduces further. The slump values for 0%, 5%
and 10% CR combinations are found to be 45 mm, 36 mm, and
30 mm, respectively. As CR is a porous material, more water is
required to overcome interparticle friction which reduces the
workability. The reduction in workability can also be greatly
attributed to the increased density and the apparent dryness
imparted by PP fiber. Moreover, fiber creates higher interlocking
between aggregates which drastically reduces the workability.
Batch 7 (R30C10F0.5) has the lowest slump which is 74% lower than
that of the control batch.
The air content is found to increase as the CR content increased.
6 Md. Shahjalal et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 278 (2021) 123842

Fig. 4. Fresh properties of different concrete mixtures (a) slump value, (b) air content.

Due to the lower specific gravity and porous nature of CR, it cannot
mix properly with the other ingredients, thus providing a higher
value of air content. The air content increases by 1.9%, 25.4%, and
38.5% for 0%, 5%, and 10% CR combinations, respectively. However,
adding PP fiber in concrete decreases the air content value as it
creates a strong interlocking between the aggregates. For 0% CR
combination the air content values are 2.17% and 1.55%; for 5% CR
combination they are 2.67% and 1.85% and for 10% CR combination
they are 2.95% and 2.1% with and without fiber, respectively.
4.2. Compressive strength
The compressive strength of different concrete batches is sum-
marized in Table 6 and Fig. 5. From Batch-2 (R₃₀C₀F₀), Batch-4
(R₃₀C₅F₀), Batch-6 (R₃₀C₁₀F₀) and Batch-3 (R₃₀C₀F0.5), Batch-5
(R₃₀C₅F0.5), Batch-7 (R₃₀C₁₀F0.5), it can be observed that the compres-
sive strength declines with the increasing amount of CR which are
33.91, 28.09, 25.93 MPa, and 36.71, 30.02, 27.48 MPa at 28 days,
respectively. The same trend is also observed for 56 days’ compres-
sive strength. As CR is porous, and has a lower specific gravity and
absorption capacity than NFA, it creates a weaker bond within the
concrete matrix, thus creating a weaker ITZ (Interfacial Transition
Zone). This strength reduction may also happen because of the
various impurities presented in CR. On the contrary, from Batch-2
(R₃₀C₀F₀), Batch-3 (R₃₀C₀F0.5); Batch-4 (R₃₀C₅F₀), Batch-5 (R₃₀C₅F0.5)
and Batch-6 (R₃₀C₁₀F₀), Batch-7 (R₃₀C₁₀F0.5) it is seen that fiber inclu-
sion in the concrete mixture increases the compressive strength.
Fiber can strongly bridge the cement paste and aggregate which

Table 6
Compressive strength and splitting tensile strength of concrete.

Batch No BN-1 BN-2 BN-3 BN-4 BN-5 BN-6 BN-7

Batch Name R₀C₀F₀ R₃₀C₀F₀ R₃₀C₀F₀.₅ R₃₀C₅F₀ R₃₀C₅F₀.₅ R₃₀C₁₀F₀ R₃₀C₁₀F₀.₅

Compressive Strength (MPa) 28 Days Individual 33.83 33.18 36.11 28.56 30.82 27.3 28.26
33.77 33.39 37.78 27.12 30.09 24.46 25.7
34.31 35.17 36.25 28.6 29.14 26.04 28.48
Average 33.97 33.91 36.71 28.09 30.02 25.93 27.48
SD 0.30 1.09 0.93 0.84 0.84 1.42 1.55
COV 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.06
Increase/Decrease (%) 0.2 8.1 17.3 11.6 23.7 19.1
Fracture Type Shear Shear Cone Columnar Cone Columnar Cone
56 Days Individual 38.89 36.97 39.21 32.8 34 25.06 31.38
36.19 35.02 39.38 31.87 32.38 27.15 30.93
39.21 36.31 38.53 30.43 e 28.21 30.32
Average 38.10 36.10 39.04 31.70 33.19 26.81 30.88
SD 1.66 0.99 0.45 1.19 1.15 1.60 0.53
COV 0.04 0.03 0.01 0.04 0.03 0.06 0.02
Increase/Decrease (%) 5.2 2.5 16.8 12.9 29.6 19.0
Fracture Type Shear Shear Cone Columnar Cone Shear Cone & Shear

Splitting Tensile Strength (MPa) 28 Days Individual 2.53 2.86 2.23 2.37 2.48 2.44 2.25
2.57 2.33 2.67 2.37 2.51 2.1 2.27
2.47 2.13 2.86 2.23 2.43 2.18 2.34
Average 2.52 2.44 2.59 2.32 2.47 2.24 2.29
SD 0.05 0.38 0.32 0.08 0.04 0.18 0.05
COV 0.02 0.15 0.12 0.03 0.02 0.08 0.02
Increase/Decrease (%) 3.3 2.5 7.9 2.0 11.2 9.4
56 Days Individual 2.57 2.53 2.63 2.47 2.74 2.22 2.51
2.63 2.56 2.67 2.41 2.25 2.43 2.24
2.61 2.54 2.63 2.42 2.52 2.35 2.39
Average 2.60 2.54 2.64 2.43 2.50 2.33 2.38
SD 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.25 0.11 0.14
COV 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.10 0.05 0.06
Increase/Decrease (%) 2.3 1.5 6.5 3.8 10.4 8.6
 Md. Shahjalal et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 278 (2021) 123842
Fig. 5. Variation in compressive strength of different concrete mixtures.
Fig. 6. Variation in splitting tensile strength of different concrete mixtures.
needs additional strength to break, thus providing a higher strength
of concrete. From the results of Batch-1 and Batch-2, it is observed
that replacement of NCA by RCA reduces the compressive strength
since RCA induce a higher porosity that creates a weaker bond
thereby a lower strength. Batch-3 (R₃₀C₀F0.5) provides the highest
compressive strength which is 8.1% and 2.5% more than the control
batch because it is a fiber reinforced concrete without any CR.
4.3. Splitting tensile strength
Fig. 6 compares the splitting tensile strength of different con-
crete mixes at 28 days and 56 days. The splitting tensile strengths of
different batches are found to increase with the addition of fiber
content. This is evident from comparison between Batch-2
(R₃₀C₀F₀), Batch-3 (R₃₀C₀F0.5); Batch-4 (R₃₀C₅F₀), Batch-5 (R₃₀C₅F0.5)
and Batch-6 (R₃₀C₁₀F₀), Batch-7 (R₃₀C₁₀F0.5) having values of 2.44,
2.59 MPa; 2.32, 2.47 MPa and 2.24, 2.29 MPa, respectively at 28
days.
The same trend is also observed at 56 days. Fiber has a good
tensile capacity and it bridges the aggregate and cement paste
strongly, thus providing a higher concrete tensile strength. On the
contrary, the concrete tensile strength drops with the increasing
percentage of CR owing to the fragility of CR in tension. For Batch-2
(R₃₀C₀F₀), Batch-4 (R₃₀C₅F₀), Batch-6 (R₃₀C₁₀F₀) the splitting tensile
strength decrease by 3.3%, 7.9%, and 11.2%, respectively. Batch-3
(R₃₀C₀F0.5) provides the highest splitting tensile strength which is
2.5% and 1.5% more than that of the control mix.
7
4.4. Load-deflection characteristics
Fig. 7 shows the load versus deflection responses at the mid-
point of the tested FR3C beams. Experimental results show that
the load-deformation behavior of LR beams and HR beams are
slightly different. For LR-FR3C beams, the first segment of the load-
deformation curve is up to the point of first cracking which rep-
resents the uncracked beam. After that, due to concrete cracking,
the slope of the load-deflection curve starts to decrease gradually
with an increasing number of cracks developed in the tested beam
specimens. With further increase in the applied load, the longitu-
dinal reinforcements start to yield and then the slope of the curves
significantly declined beyond the yielding point. In this stage, with
a small increment in the applied load the deflection suddenly in-
creases and reaches up to the maximum load-carrying capacity
when the concrete crushing takes place with an abrupt drop in the
load level. On the other hand, from the load-deflection response of
HR-FR3C beams, it is observed that the curves start with a gradually
increasing slope up to the ultimate point. After reaching the ulti-
mate capacity the load drops abruptly. As the HR beams are over
reinforced beam, the concrete crushing was observed before
yielding of steel and no distinct yield point could be observed.
Table 7 and Fig. 7 (c, g, k) show that for LR beams, in the com-
bination of RCA and CR, the ultimate deflection (deflection at
maximum load) decreases with the increasing percentage of CR
(0e10%). The ultimate mid-span deflection for 0%, 5%, and 10% CR
combinations are 11.61 mm, 9.43 mm, and 9.36 mm, respectively.
Fig. 7 also shows that with increasing CR percentage the flexural
stiffness decreases due to the low elastic modulus of CR. On the
other hand, it is seen that adding 0.5% PP fiber with RCA and CR, the
ultimate deflection capacity escalates with a higher amount of CR
content. For 30% RCA and 0.5% PP fiber combinations, the ultimate
deflection are 12.20 mm, 13.42 mm, and 13.68 mm for 0%, 5%, and
10% CR, respectively.
For HR beams (Fig. 7 (d, h, l)), this trend is slightly changed. For
the combinations of RCA and CR, the ultimate deflection is
increased for 5% CR and then again decreased for 10% CR content
(Beam-9, Beam-11, and Beam-13). But when 0.5% PP fiber is added
with RCA and CR the deflection capacity is increased with an
increasing amount of CR content like LR beams (Beam-10, Beam-12,
and Beam-14). Comparison among the beams with fiber and
without fiber combinations (Beam-2 & 3; Beam-4 & 5; Beam-6 & 7;
Beam-11 & 12, and Beam-13 & 14) except Beam-9 and Beam-10, it is
observed that adding additional fiber in the concrete mix can in-
crease the ultimate deflection capacity, thus provides more warn-
ing before failure. Fiber can take more tension and can resist beam
deformation by bridging the aggregate particles. It is seen that the
LR beams can resist more deflection than the HR beams. As HR
beams are over reinforced beam, the concrete crushes before the
steel reaches its yield value. Thus, the ultimate deflection capacity
of HR beams is comparatively lower than that of the LR beams.
4.5. Cracking moment
The first cracks of the tested beams are identified with the naked
eye during testing and with the help of a high-resolution camera
and then verified by the load versus deflection curves. The values of
the cracking moments are presented in Table 7. Then this experi-
mental cracking moment is compared by predicted cracking
moment as per the following equations prescribed by different
codes and standards.
As per ACI 318 (ACI, 2014):
8 Md. Shahjalal et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 278 (2021) 123842

Fig. 7. Experimental load vs deflection responses of different RC beams at mid-point.

Ig
Mtheo
cr ¼ fr (2)
Ig yt
Mtheo
cr ¼ fr (1)
yt pffiffiffiffiffiffi
where fr ¼ 0.6 f 0c for normal-weight concrete.
pffiffiffiffiffiffi As per the AS3600 (AS, 2009):
where fr ¼ 0.62 f ’c for normal-weight concrete; yt is the distance
from the centroid of the cross-section to the extreme tensile fiber of
the section; and Ig is the second moment of inertia of the cross- Mtheo
cr ¼ Zfcf0 (3)
section. pffiffiffiffiffiffi
As per CSA (CSA, 2004): where fcf0 represent the concrete flexural strength ¼ 0.6 f ’c and
 Md. Shahjalal et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 278 (2021) 123842
Fig. 7. (continued).
Z ¼ section modulus of the uncracked transformed section.
As per EC2 (EC2, 2005):
Iu
Mtheo
cr ¼ fctm
ðh  xu Þ
where fctm is the mean concrete axial tensile strength ¼ 0.3f0.67
ck ; fck
is the concrete cylinder strength; Iu is the second moment of area;
xu is the distance from the neutral axis to the extreme fibre; and h is
the beam overall height.
From Table 7, the value of Mexp
cr decreases as the CR content in RC
beams increases. For example, for 0% CR (R30C0F0L) the first
cracking moment is 3.81 kN-m, then decreased to 2.45 kN-m for 5%
CR (R30C5F0L) and for 10% CR (R30C10F0L) it is 1.72 kN-m which is
about 58% reduction compared to the control sample. This reduc-
tion in the cracking moment is due to an increased percentage of CR
content resulting in the lower tensile capacity of the concrete,
which is observed in splitting tensile strength tests (Table 6). But
adding the fiber content in concrete mixture significantly increases
9
the first cracking moment, which can be easily understood by
comparing Beam-2 & 3, Beam-4 &5, Beam-6 & 7, Beam-9 & 10,
Beam-11 &12, and Beam-13 &14. This is largely attributed to the
higher tensile capacity of PP fiber. The cracking moment capacity is
(4) increased by 10.7% for Beam-3 (R30C0F0.5L) where there is no CR but
the PP fiber is present. Comparing the LR beams to HR beams, it is
seen that the HR beams can exhibit greater cracking moment ca-
pacity than the LR beams.
Fig. 8 shows the theoretical cracking moments which are
calculated using available design guidelines. The experimental-to-
theoretical cracking moment (Mexp theo
cr /Mcr ) ratio of all tested
beams is shown in Fig. 9. A ratio higher than 1 designates a con-
servative prediction, while an over-prediction is indicated by a ratio
of less than 1. All LR beams seem to underestimate (experimental
value is greater than predicted value) the cracking moment except
R30C5F0L and R30C10F0L which are not within the acceptable range
of 1 ± 0.20 of Mexp
cr . So, the cracking moment of CR combinations
cannot be predicted using these available RC design equations. On
the other hand, the cracking moment is underestimated in beams
10 Md. Shahjalal et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 278 (2021) 123842

Table 7
Results of the flexure test of RC beams.

Beam Name Moment Capacity (kN-m) Deflection at Mid-Point Ductility Toughness (kN-m) Failure Type
(mm)

First Crack Ultimate Yield Ultimate

R0C0F0L 4.12 18.28 4.80 14.91 3.11 1.07 Flexural

R30C0F0L 3.81 16.76 4.24 11.61 2.74 0.79 Flexural
R30C0F0.5L 4.56 17.36 4.23 12.20 2.88 0.86 Shear/Flexural
R30C5F0L 2.45 16.94 5.07 9.43 1.86 0.60 Shear/Flexural
R30C5F0.5L 3.64 17.82 4.09 13.42 3.28 1.00 Shear/Flexural
R30C10F0L 1.72 15.83 5.40 9.36 1.73 0.56 Shear/Flexural
R30C10F0.5L 3.58 16.42 5.03 13.68 2.72 0.93 Flexural
R0C0F0H 5.92 26.98 4.75 8.91 1.88 0.71 Shear
R30C0F0H 5.65 25.43 5.60 7.80 1.39 0.59 Shear
R30C0F0.5H 5.85 25.74 3.73 7.63 2.05 0.60 Shear
R30C5F0H 5.42 26.38 5.65 8.44 1.49 0.71 Shear
R30C5F0.5H 5.74 27.74 3.04 8.72 2.87 0.78 Shear
R30C10F0H 3.53 22.32 4.98 6.77 1.36 0.45 Shear
R30C10F0.5H 4.38 25.29 3.40 9.45 2.78 0.75 Shear

Fig. 8. Comparison of first cracking moment with different codes.

Fig. 9. The ratio between the experimental and the theoretical values (x) of first cracking moment using available design codes.
 Md. Shahjalal et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 278 (2021) 123842 11

with fiber compared to the control specimens (where there is no CR

and fiber content). This can be understood by comparing Beam-3 b ¼ 0:85  0:05ðfc0  28Þ=7  0:65 where fc0 > 28 MPa
with Beam-1 where Mexp theo
cr /Mcr ratio varies from 1.18 to 1.30 for (7)
Beam-3 and 1.08 to 1.20 for the Beam-1. This may be attributed to
CSA (CSA, 2004):
the fact that fiber reinforced beams can take more tensile forces
compared to the control beam and exhibits the first crack at a a ¼ 0:85  0:0015fc0  0:67 (8)
higher load. For all the HR beams ratio is greater than 1 indicating
underestimation as the HR beams’ cracking moment capacity is
more than the LR beams. b ¼ 0:97  0:0025fc0  0:67 (9)
AS 3600 (AS, 2009):

a ¼ 1  0:003fc0 where 0:67  a  0:85 (10)

4.6. Ultimate moment capacity
Table 7 summarizes the ultimate moment capacities of all the
tested beams. The ultimate capacities of the HR beams are 1.5 times
more than the LR beams. This is because the HR beams have a high
percentage of steel which can take more load than the LR beams.
For example, ultimate moment capacity of Beam-8 is 26.98 kN-m
which is 47.6% more than the Beam-1 and for only 30% RCA com-
binations (R₃₀C₀F₀L and R₃₀C₀F₀H) this increment is 51.7%. A similar
trend is observed between the other LR and HR beams. Test results
show that for all RCA and CR or RCA, CR, and fiber combinations the
moment capacity decreases gradually due to the presence of either
RCA or CR in the concrete mixture.
Both for LR and HR beams, the ultimate moment capacity for CR
combinations increases up to 5% CR and then starts to decrease for
10% CR. For LR beams, the moment capacity is increased from
16.76 kN-m to 16.94 kN-m for 0% and 5% CR beams and then starts
to decrease to 15.83 kN-m which is almost 5.53% less than the 0% CR
beam. For RCA, CR, and fiber combinations (Beam-3, Beam-5 and
Beam-7) the same trend is observed. As the RCA and fiber per-
centages are constant, the only variation is CR. For Beam-3 to Beam-
5 the capacity is increased slightly and then decreased by 5.4% for
Beam-7. For a lower percentage of CR (5%), the tensile capacity does
not vary significantly but when CR percentage is high (10%) it can
reduce the moment capacity notably. A similar pattern is observed
for the HR beams as well. This is due to the existence of weaker ITZ
resulting from the presence of CR in the concrete mixture which
can reduce the ability to sustain higher loads. Comparing between
beams having fiber and no fiber (Beam-2 & 3, Beam-4 & 5, Beam-6
& 7, Beam-9 & 10, Beam-11 &12, and Beam-13 &14), it is observed
that the ultimate moment capacity is increased when the addi-
tional fiber is mixed in the concrete mixture. PP fibers create strong
bridging phenomena thereby increase the tensile capacity and
enhance the ultimate moment capacity of the fiber reinforced beam
specimens.
The experimental moment (Mexp
ult ) capacities of the beam spec-
imens are compared to the code predicted moment (Mtheo
ult ) ca-
pacities which are calculated using the rectangular stress block
approach as suggested by different standards (ACI, CSA, AS 3600,
and EC2). The height of the rectangular stress block is represented
by “bc” and width is by ‘‘af ’c ” in which f ’c is the concrete
compressive strength, a and b are defined as Whitney stress block
parameters as per different standards. These parameters are
determined by using equations (5)e(15) according to various
design standards developed for conventional concrete beams
(Ismail and Hassan, 2017).
ACI 318 (ACI, 2014):
a ¼ 0.85
b ¼ 0:85 where fc0  28 MPa
gð ¼ bÞ ¼ 1:05  0:007fc0 where 0:67  g  0:85 (11)
EC2 (EC2, 2005):
h ð ¼ aÞ ¼ 1:0 where fc0  50 MPa (12)
fc0  50
h ð ¼ aÞ ¼ 1:0  where 50 < fc0  70 MPa (13)
200
lð ¼ bÞ ¼ 0:8 where fc0  50 MPa (14)
fc0  50
lð ¼ bÞ ¼ 0:8  where 50 < fc0  70 MPa (15)
400
Fig. 10 shows the theoretical ultimate moments calculated based
on available design codes. Then these theoretical values are
compared with the tested results. The experimental-to-theoretical
ultimate moment (Mexp theo
ult /Mult ) values of all beams are shown in
Fig. 11. It is seen that the ratio for all the LR beams indicate an under
prediction of the result (experimental value is greater than the
predicted value). On the other hand, the code overestimates the
capacity of all the HR beams. But all the values (both LR and HR
beams) are within the acceptable range of 1 ± 0.20 of Mexp ult .
4.7. Toughness and ductility
The flexural toughness of the RC beams is calculated by sum-
ming up the area under the load versus deflection curve up to
failure point and the ductility ratio (m) is calculated using equation
(16) (Ismail and Hassan, 2017):
m ¼ Dult/ Dy (16)
where Dult denotes the deflection at failure load and Dy is the
deflection at first yielding of rebar. The flexural toughness and the
ductility ratios of the 14 beam specimens are shown in Table 7 and
Fig. 12. The toughness of HR beams increases with increasing levels
of CR up to 5% and then decreases for 10% CR content. For example,
the HR beams with RCA and CR (R30C0F0H, R30C5F0H and
R30C10F0H), the toughness is increased from 0.59 kN-m to 0.71 kN-
m for 0%e5% CR respectively (about 20.3% increased) and then
decreased to 0.45 kN-m. Same trend is also observed when addi-
tional 0.5% fiber is added with CR (R30C0F0.5H, R30C5F0.5H and
R30C10F0.5H). It is observed that a small amount of CR (5%) can in-
crease the energy absorption of a beam. However, adding a large
amount of CR (10%) can have a detrimental effect on the load-
deformation behavior of the beams such as reducing the ultimate
(5) load capacity prior to failure. A similar tendency is also observed in
ductile properties. At the same time comparing the beam combi-
nations with fiber and without fiber (Beam-9, Beam-10; Beam-11,
(6)
Beam-12 and Beam-13, Beam-14) the ductility value is increased
remarkably when the additional fiber is mixed with the concrete.
12 Md. Shahjalal et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 278 (2021) 123842

Fig. 10. Comparison of ultimate moment capacity with different codes.

Fig. 11. The ratio between the experimental and the theoretical values (x) of ultimate moment capacity using available design codes.

Fig. 12. Variation in toughness and ductility of different RC beams.

For HR beams with no fiber, the ductility values are 1.39, 1.49, and
1.36 for 0%, 5%, and 10% CR, respectively which are increased to
2.05, 2.87, and 2.78 for 0%, 5%, and 10% CR, respectively when
additional 0.5% PP fiber is added with the concrete mixture. The
inclusion of PP fibers resulted in a change in the failure mode by
limiting the progression of cracks and enhancing the aggregate
interlock along failure planes. This in turn resulted in higher
ductility in concrete beams with PP fiber.
Among the HR beams, Beam-12 shows the highest toughness
and ductility value because in this combination 5% CR is mixed with
 Md. Shahjalal et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 278 (2021) 123842
Fig. 13. Variation in harden concrete density of different concrete mixtures.
fiber which can enhance the energy absorption capacity. For LR
beams, a slight variation occurs. The beam specimen with only RCA
and CR, both toughness and ductility decreased gradually as the CR
percentage increases. With the inclusion of PP fiber in the concrete
mixture, toughness and ductility values are increased for 5% CR
content but then decreased for 10% CR content. From the load vs
deflection curves (Fig. 7 (c, g, k)) it is observed that the ultimate
point of the CR beams is not distinct, and they deformed without
taking any additional load. On the other hand, these values are
increased for 5% CR content but then decreased for 10% CR content
when fiber is added in the mix (Beam-3, Beam-5 and Beam-7). The
beams show a clear ultimate point when reinforced with fiber and
thus can take an additional load up to failure with a gradual
deformation. Comparing between Beam-2 & 3, Beam-4 & 5, and
Beam-6 & 7, it can be confirmed that adding 0.5% PP fiber can in-
crease its ductility by almost 1.5 times.
4.8. Hardened concrete density
Fig. 13 compares the different concrete batches in terms of
Fig. 14. Failure pattern of concrete cylinder under compressive strength and splitting tensile strength.
13
hardened concrete density. Overall, it is observed that for all
batches, the density is decreased compared to the control mixture.
As the specific gravity of RCA, CR, and PP fiber is very low compared
to NCA, NFA, and cement, they can produce a lower density con-
crete. From Fig. 13, it is found that the addition of PP fiber along
with CR reduced the concrete density considerably. For the recycled
aggregate concrete containing fiber content, the density decreases
by 2.6%, 6.5%, and 9.4% for the 0%, 5%, and 10% CR mixture,
respectively. A similar tendency is detected in the CR combinations
where there is no fiber content. In that case a reduction of 2.1%,
2.9%, and 3.6% is observed for 0%, 5%, and 10% CR combinations.
4.9. Failure pattern of concrete cylinder and RC beam
Fig. 14 compares the observed failure pattern of different con-
crete specimens under compression. The specimen with RCA only
shows shear failure both at 28 days and 56 days. At the same time,
cylinders containing RCA and CR content also show shear failure
(Batch-2, Batch-4 and Batch-6) which is presented in Table 6.
However, concrete specimens with RCA, CR, and fiber show cone
failure instead of shear failure. A slow and gradual failure occurred
for these combinations (Batch-3, Batch-5 and Batch-8). As CR is a
soft material that is highly deformable under compression load, it
cannot bind the aggregate and cement paste strongly. Thus, a
sudden shear failure occurred in the combination of CR. But fiber is
stronger in crack prevention and thus follow an irregular failure
pattern. The same reason lies behind the splitting behavior of
concrete. To understand a better failure mechanism, the cylinders
are broken manually and seen that it is difficult to split the fiber
reinforced cylinder compared to RCA or CR content cylinders. As
mentioned previously, LVDTs are used to measure the deflection
behavior along the length of the beam. The overall deflection pro-
files of all the 14 beams tested under flexural loading are depicted
in Fig. 15, where the horizontal axis represents the effective beam
span and the vertical axis represents the deflection of that corre-
sponding location. All the LR and HR beams show symmetric
deflection patterns as depicted in Fig. 15.
14 Md. Shahjalal et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 278 (2021) 123842

Fig. 15. Deflection along the RC beam.

 Md. Shahjalal et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 278 (2021) 123842
Fig. 15. (continued).
The failure patterns observed during the testing are presented in
Fig. 16 which are captured after the beam failure. All the LR beams
show flexural failure at mid-span (i.e. zero shear region) and shear
failure near the support (i.e. shear span region). The main crack is
observed at the mid zone and propagated upward gradually with
the increasing transverse loading. The shear crack (i.e. diagonal
crack) is observed in the shear span region. Compared to RCA and
CR combination beams, the fiber reinforced beams show relatively
small crack width. Fiber has greater resistance to crack compared to
RCA and CR. The crack pattern is almost similar and symmetric for
the LR beams with different CR ratios. This is further confirmed by
the symmetric deflection pattern as shown in Fig. 15. For all LR
beams, the steel yielded first and then the concrete crushed. But for
HR beams, large inclined shear cracks are observed near the sup-
port (i.e. shear span region) as shown in Fig. 16. The concrete
crushed first and then the steel yielded. It is to be noted that all the
HR beams show shear failure near the support despite different CR
ratios. This is due to the over reinforcement ratio of HR beams. The
presence of PP fibers in HR beams helps reduce the formation of
flexural crack at mid span region (see crack pattern in Beam 10, 12,
and 14 of Fig. 16).
5. Conclusions
The usefulness of RCA and CR in lieu of the natural aggregates in
structural concrete elements is a noteworthy attempt in protecting
the ecosystem. This study provides a comprehensive evaluation of a
sustainable concrete made with RCA, CR, and PP fiber through large
scale tests on reinforced FR3C beams. The following conclusions can
be summarized based on the experimental observations:
 The compressive strength decreased as the percentage of CR
increased in the concrete mix. In contrast, incorporating fiber
increased the compressive strength due to its bridging charac-
teristics. The lowest compressive strength is found in Batch 6
15
(R30C10F0) with the highest amount of CR whereas Batch 3
(R30C0F0.5) is found to have the highest strength both at 28 and
56 days with 8.1% and 2.5% more than that of the control sample.
 The splitting tensile strength is improved as PP fiber is added,
however, increased CR percentage degraded the tensile prop-
erties. The highest splitting tensile strength is found in Batch 3
(R30C0F0.5) which is 2.5% and 1.5% more than that of the control
mix at 28 days and 56 days, respectively.
 The LR-FR3C beams can resist higher deflection than the HR-
FR3C beams. Concrete crushing precedes steel yielding in the HR
beams attributing to the over reinforcement. Shear-type failure
is prominent for the HR beams while combined flexure and
shear-type failure is found to govern the LR beams.
 Irrespective of other constituents, the cracking moment in FR3C
beams decreased with the increased CR percentage. However,
fiber content improved the cracking moment capacity signifi-
cantly. HR beams exhibited greater cracking moment capacity
than the LR beams.
 The ultimate bending moment capacity for the HR beams are
found to be 1.5 times greater than the LR beams. 5% CR content
improved the moment capacity of both HR and LR beams which
decreased considerably with 10% CR content. However, in gen-
eral, PP fiber enhanced the ultimate flexural capacities of all
beams.
 Code provided moment capacity equations can be used to pre-
dict the moment capacities of FR3C beams with some limita-
tions. The codes, in general, under-predict the ultimate moment
capacities of the LR beams and tend to overestimate that of the
HR beams.
 Both toughness and ductility values are found to be increased
for CR content up to 5% and then started to decrease for 10% CR
content. However, in LR beams with RCA and CR (R30C0F0L,
R30C5F0L, R30C10F0L) these values are reduced for both 5% and
10% CR content.
16 Md. Shahjalal et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 278 (2021) 123842

Fig. 16. Crack patterns of tested RC beams at failure.

In summary, the sustainable concrete developed and investi-
gated in this study shows promise for different structural and
non-structural applications. The use of RCA and CR as re-
placements of natural aggregates will contribute to the produc-
tion of a sustainable material and cleaner environment. Concrete
made using waste materials will aid in recycling construction and
industrial wastes, reducing the material cost, and improving the
sustainability in concrete industry. Further research should be
conducted before this FR3C can be established as a safe and viable
alternative to natural aggregate-based concrete in practice. Future
research should focus on investigating the chemical compositions
of hydration products in the FR3C by scanning electron microscopy
 Md. Shahjalal et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 278 (2021) 123842 17

(SEM) and energy-dispersive X-ray photo spectroscopy (EDS) rubber and synthetic fibers on impact resistance of self-consolidating concrete.
Construct. Build. Mater. 162, 816e829.
analyses of the fractured concrete surface and mechanism of
Aci, 2014. Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete and Commentary on
strength change. Besides, future studies should investigate the Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI 318R-14).
shock absorption characteristic, long term durability properties, € Ipek, M., 2015. Properties of polypropylene fiber reinforced
Akça, K.R., Çakır, O.,
and bond behavior of FR3C. concrete using recycled aggregates. Construct. Build. Mater. 98, 620e630.
Al Bakri, A.M.M., Fadli, S.S.N., Bakar, M.A., Leong, K., 2007. Comparison of rubber as
aggregate and rubber as filler in concrete. Int. Conf. Sustain. Mater._ICoMS.
CRediT authorship contribution statement Alam, M.S., Slater, E., Billah, A.H.M.M., 2013. Green concrete made with RCA and FRP
scrap aggregate: Fresh and hardened properties. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 25,
1783e1794.
Md. Shahjalal: Writing - original draft, Investigation, Data Arezoumandi, M., Drury, J., Volz, J.S., Khayat, K.H., 2015. Effect of recycled concrete
curation, Formal analysis. Kamrul Islam: Conceptualization, aggregate replacement level on shear strength of reinforced concrete beams.
Methodology, Funding acquisition, Writing - review & editing. ACI Mater. J. 112, 559.
Arora, S., Singh, S., 2018. Flexural fatigue performance of concrete made with
Jesika Rahman: Investigation, Data curation, Writing - review & recycled concrete aggregates and ternary blended cements. J. Sustain. Cement-
editing. Khondaker Sakil Ahmed: Data curation, Project adminis- Based Mater. 7, 182e202.
tration, Supervision. Mohammad Rezaul Karim: Data curation, Arora, S., Singh, S.P., 2017. Fatigue strength and failure probability of concrete made
with RCA. Mag. Concr. Res. 69, 55e67.
Funding acquisition. AHM Muntasir Billah: Methodology, Writing - AS 3600, 2009. Australian Standard. Concrete Structures. Standards Association of
review & editing, Supervision. Australia, Sydney, Australia.
ASTM C642-13, 2013. Standard Test Method for Density, Absorption, and Voids in
Hardened Concrete. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA.
Declaration of competing interest ASTM C131-14, 2014. Standard Test Method for Resistance to Degradation of Small-
Size Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion and Impact in the Los Angeles Machine.
The authors declare that they have no known competing ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA.
ASTM C496-14, 2014. Standard Test Method for Splitting Tensile Strength of Cy-
financial interests or personal relationships that could have lindrical Concrete Specimens. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA.
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. ASTM C136-14, 2014. Standard Test Method for Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse
Aggregates. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA.
ASTM C127-15, 2015. Standard Test Method for Relative Density (Specific Gravity)
Acknowledgments and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate. ASTM International, West Conshohocken,
PA.
The research was funded by Engineering Construction Battalion ASTM C128-15, 2015. Standard Test Method for Relative Density (Specific Gravity)
and Absorption of Fine Aggregate. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA.
(ECB), CATS-MIST, and 24 Engineering Construction Brigade. The
ASTM C143-15, 2015. Standard Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic-Cement Con-
authors would like to acknowledge the start-up fund provided by crete. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA.
MIST and laboratory technicians of Concrete Lab and Strength of ASTM C187-16, 2016. Standard Test Method for Amount of Water Required for
Normal Consistency of Hydraulic Cement Paste. ASTM International, West
Materials Lab who helped during the experimental program.
Conshohocken, PA.
ASTM C29-17, 2017. Standard Test Method for Bulk Density (Unit Weight) and Voids
List of notation in Aggregate. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA.
ASTM C231-17, 2017. Standard Test Method for Air Content of Freshly Mixed Con-
crete by the Pressure Method. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA.
CDW Construction and Demolition Waste ASTM C39-18, 2018. Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical
FRC Fiber Reinforced Concrete Concrete Specimens. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA.
FR3C Fiber Reinforced Rubberized Recycled Concrete ASTM C191-18, 2018. Standard Test Methods for Time of Setting of Hydraulic
Cement by Vicat Needle. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA.
CRC Crumbed Rubber Concrete ASTM C31-19, 2019. Standard Practice for Making and Curing Concrete Test Spec-
RCA Recycle Coarse Aggregate imens in the Field. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA.
RC Reinforced Concrete Benazzouk, A., Douzane, O., Langlet, T., Mezreb, K., Roucoult, J.M., Que neudec, M.,
2007. Physico-mechanical properties and water absorption of cement com-
RAC Recycled Aggregate Concrete posite containing shredded rubber wastes. Cement Concr. Compos. 29,
CR Crumb Rubber 732e740.
PP Fiber Polypropylene Fiber CSA A23.3, 2004. Canadian Standards Association Committee, Design of Concrete
Structures. Canadian Standards Association Rexdale, Ontario.
NFA Natural Fine Aggregate EC2, 2005. EN 1992-1-1. Eurocode 2 - Design of Concrete Structures - Part 1-1:
NCA Natural Coarse Aggregate General Rules and Rules for Buildings. Thomas Telford, London, UK.
Mexp
cr Experimental First Cracking Moment El-Sherbini, Y., Abdel-Gawad, A., Shalaby, A., El-Gammal, A., 2010. Compressive
strength of concrete utilizing waste tire rubber. J. Emerg. Trends Eng. Appl. Sci.
Mtheo
cr Theoretical First Cracking Moment Using Available
1, 96e99.
Design Codes Emon, M.A.B., Manzur, T., Yazdani, N., 2016. Improving performance of light weight
LR Low Reinforcement Ratio concrete with brick chips using low cost steel wire fiber. Construct. Build. Mater.
106, 575e583.
HR High Reinforcement Ratio
Etxeberria, M., Vazquez, E., Marí, A., Barra, M., 2007. Influence of amount of recycled
UHFRC Ultra-High-performance Fiber-Reinforced Concrete coarse aggregates and production process on properties of recycled aggregate
PCC Portland Composite Cement concrete. Cement Concr. Res. 37, 735e742.
ITZ Interfacial Transition Zone Fedroff, D., Ahmad, S., Savas, B.Z., 1996. Mechanical properties of concrete with
ground waste tire rubber. Transport. Res. Rec. 1532, 66e72.
LVDT Linear Variable Differential Transformer Gümüş, M., Arslan, A., 2019. Effect of Fiber Type and Content on the Flexural
ACI American Concrete Institute Behavior of High Strength Concrete Beams with Low Reinforcement Ratios.
AS Australian Standard. Structures. Elsevier, pp. 1e10.
Guo, H.M., Zhu, H., 2012. Study on the Structural Properties of Steel Reinforced CRC
CSA Canadian Standards Association Beam-Cracking Resistance. Advanced Materials Research. Trans Tech Publ,
EC2 Eurocode 2 pp. 775e780.
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials Huda, S.B., Alam, M.S., 2015. Mechanical and freeze-thaw durability properties of
recycled aggregate concrete made with recycled coarse aggregate. J. Mater. Civ.
Mexp
u Experimental Ultimate Moment Capacity Eng. 27, 04015003.
Mtheo
u Theoretical Ultimate Moment Capacity Using Available Islam, M.J., Meherier, M.S., Islam, A.K.M.R., 2016. Effects of waste PET as coarse
Design Codes aggregate on the fresh and harden properties of concrete. Construct. Build.
Mater. 125, 946e951.
Ismail, M.K., Hassan, A.A., 2016a. Ductility and cracking behavior of reinforced self-
References consolidating rubberized concrete beams. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 29, 04016174.
Ismail, M.K., Hassan, A.A., 2016b. Performance of full-scale self-consolidating
AbdelAleem, B.H., Ismail, M.K., Hassan, A.A., 2018. The combined effect of crumb rubberized concrete beams in flexure. ACI Mater. J. 113, 207e218.
18 Md. Shahjalal et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 278 (2021) 123842
Ismail, M.K., Hassan, A.A., 2017. An experimental study on flexural behaviour of
large-scale concrete beams incorporating crumb rubber and steel fibres. Eng.
Struct. 145, 97e108.
Jiang, X., Xiao, R., Zhang, M., Hu, W., Bai, Y., Huang, B., 2020a. A laboratory inves-
tigation of steel to fly ash-based geopolymer paste bonding behavior after
exposure to elevated temperatures. Construct. Build. Mater. 254, 119267.
Jiang, X., Zhang, Y., Xiao, R., Polaczyk, P., Zhang, M., Hu, W., Bai, Y., Huang, B., 2020b.
A comparative study on geopolymers synthesized by different classes of fly ash
after exposure to elevated temperatures. J. Clean. Prod. 122500.
Juan, M.S., Gutierrez, P.A., 2009. Study on the influence of attached mortar content
on the properties of recycled concrete aggregate. Construct. Build. Mater. 23,
872e877.
Khaloo, A.R., Dehestani, M., Rahmatabadi, P., 2008. Mechanical properties of con-
crete containing a high volume of tireerubber particles. Waste Manag. 28,
2472e2482.
Khatib, Z.K., Bayomy, F.M., 1999. Rubberized Portland cement concrete. J. Mater. Civ.
Eng. 11, 206e213.
Limbachiya, M., Leelawat, T., Dhir, R., 2000. Use of recycled concrete aggregate in
high-strength concrete. Mater. Struct. 33, 574.
Ling, T.-C., Nor, H.M., Hainin, M.R., 2009. Properties of crumb rubber concrete
paving blocks with SBR latex. Road Mater. Pavement Des. 10, 213e222.
Liu, B., Yang, S., Li, W., Zhang, M., 2020. Damping dissipation properties of
rubberized concrete and its application in anti-collision of bridge piers.
Construct. Build. Mater. 236, 117286.
Martínez-Barrera, G., Uren ~ a-Nun
~ ez, F., Gencel, O., Brostow, W., 2011. Mechanical
properties of polypropylene-fiber reinforced concrete after gamma irradiation.
Compos. Appl. Sci. Manuf. 42, 567e572.
Meherier, M.S., 2016. Investigation of Mechanical and Durability Properties of
Cement Mortar and Concrete with Varying Replcement Levels of Crumb Rubber
as Fine Aggregate. University of British Columbia.
Mendis, A.S.M., Al-Deen, S., Ashraf, M., 2017. Effect of rubber particles on the flex-
ural behaviour of reinforced crumbed rubber concrete beams. Construct. Build.
Mater. 154, 644e657.
Mendis, A.S.M., Al-Deen, S., Ashraf, M., 2018. Flexural shear behaviour of reinforced
Crumbed Rubber Concrete beam. Construct. Build. Mater. 166, 779e791.
Mohammed, T.U., Hasnat, A., Awal, M.A., Bosunia, S.Z., 2015. Recycling of brick
aggregate concrete as coarse aggregate. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 27, B4014005.
Mohod, M.V., 2015. Performance of polypropylene fibre reinforced concrete. IOSR J.
Mech. Civ. Eng. 12, 28e36.
Mountjoy, E., Hasthanayake, D., Freeman, T., 2015. Stocks & Fate of End of Life Tyres-
2013-14 Study. National Environmental Protection Council.
Najimi, M., Farahani, F.M., Pourkhorshidi, A., 2009. Effects of Polypropylene Fibers
on Physical and Mechanical Properties of Concretes.
Nguyen, Q.D., Khan, M.S.H., Xu, T., Castel, A., 2019. Mitigating the risk of early age
cracking in fly ash blended cement-based concrete using ferronickel slag sand.
J. Adv. Concr. Technol. 17, 295e308.
Quadir, U.M.T., Islam, K., Billah, A.H.M.M., Alam, M.S., 2016. Mechanical and dura-
bility properties of concrete using recycled granulated steel. Construct. Build.
Mater. 123, 174e183.
Raghavan, D., Huynh, H., Ferraris, C., 1998. Workability, mechanical properties, and
chemical stability of a recycled tyre rubber-filled cementitious composite.
J. Mater. Sci. 33, 1745e1752.
Reda Taha, M.M., El-Dieb, A.S., Abd El-Wahab, M., Abdel-Hameed, M., 2008. Me-
chanical, fracture, and microstructural investigations of rubber concrete.
J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 20, 640e649.
Sadek, D.M., El-Attar, M.M., 2015. Structural behavior of rubberized masonry walls.
J. Clean. Prod. 89, 174e186.
Salem, R., Burdette, E., Jackson, M., 2003. Resistance to freezing and thawing of
recycled aggregate concrete. ACI Mater. J. 100, 216e221.
Sharma, V., Kumar, A., Kapoor, K., 2019. Sustainable deployment of crushed concrete
debris and geotextile to improve the load carrying capacity of granular soil.
J. Clean. Prod. 228, 124e134.
Singh, A., Arora, S., Sharma, V., Bhardwaj, B., 2019. Workability retention and
strength development of self-compacting recycled aggregate concrete using
ultrafine recycled powders and silica fume. J. Hazard. Toxic Radioact. Waste 23,
04019016.
Son, K.S., Hajirasouliha, I., Pilakoutas, K., 2011. Strength and deformability of waste
tyre rubber-filled reinforced concrete columns. Construct. Build. Mater. 25,
218e226.
Tamanna, K., Tiznobaik, M., Banthia, N., Alam, M.S., 2020. Mechanical properties of
rubberized concrete containing recycled concrete aggregate. ACI Mater. J. 117,
169e180.
Thomas, B.S., Kumar, S., Mehra, P., Gupta, R.C., Joseph, M., Csetenyi, L.J., 2016.
Abrasion resistance of sustainable green concrete containing waste tire rubber
particles. Construct. Build. Mater. 124, 906e909.
Tire Recycling Riding On, 2020. Global recycling- The magazine for business op-
portunities & international markets. https://global-recycling.info/archives/
2883.
Topcu, I.B., Şengel, S., 2004. Properties of concretes produced with waste concrete
aggregate. Cement Concr. Res. 34, 1307e1312.
Turatsinze, A., Bonnet, S., Granju, J.L., 2005. Mechanical characterisation of cement-
based mortar incorporating rubber aggregates from recycled worn tyres. Build.
Environ. 40, 221e226.
US-EPA, 2016. Construction and Demolition Debris: Generation in the United States.
Office of Resource Conservation and Recovery. US EPA.
Verian, K.P., Ashraf, W., Cao, Y., 2018. Properties of recycled concrete aggregate and
their influence in new concrete production. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 133, 30e49.
Wang, H., Wang, L., 2013. Experimental study on static and dynamic mechanical
properties of steel fiber reinforced lightweight aggregate concrete. Construct.
Build. Mater. 38, 1146e1151.
Wen, H., McLean, D.I., Willoughby, K., 2015. Evaluation of recycled concrete as ag-
gregates in new concrete pavements. Transport. Res. Rec. 2508, 73e78.
Xiao, J., Li, J., Zhang, C., 2005. Mechanical properties of recycled aggregate concrete
under uniaxial loading. Cement Concr. Res. 35, 1187e1194.
Yeheyis, M., Hewage, K., Alam, M.S., Eskicioglu, C., Sadiq, R., 2013. An overview of
construction and demolition waste management in Canada: a lifecycle analysis
approach to sustainability. Clean Technol. Environ. Policy 15, 81e91.
Youssf, O., ElGawady, M.A., Mills, J.E., 2015. Experimental Investigation of Crumb
Rubber Concrete Columns under Seismic Loading. Structures. Elsevier,
pp. 13e27.