Journal of Cleaner Production 238 (2019) 117882

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Waste tire rubber and pozzolans in concrete: A trade-off between

cleaner production and mechanical properties in a greener concrete
Mostafa Jalal a, b, *, Navid Nassir c, Hamid Jalal d
a
Zachry Department of Civil Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
b
Texas A&M Transportation Institute, Texas A&M University, 3135 TAMU, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
c
Department of Civil Engineering, Pouyandegan Danesh University, Chalus, Mazandaran, Iran
d
Department of Civil Engineering, Semnan University, Semnan, Iran

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This study presents a cleaner production of a concrete by incorporating waste rubber chips and poz-
Received 28 June 2018 zolans to make a greener concrete through partial replacement of aggregates and cement. For this
Received in revised form purpose, aggregate was replace by 10 and 15% by graded waste rubber (RB) and cement was partially
6 July 2019
replaced by pozzolans, namely silica fume (SF) and zeolite (ZE) by 10%. Fresh and hardened properties of
Accepted 1 August 2019
Available online 2 August 2019
the concrete was investigated through slump, compressive strength and elasticity modulus. The effect of
RB, SF and ZE addition on fresh properties was assessed which indicated 5% and 14.6% slump reduction
Handling editor. Baoshan Huang for 10% and 15% rubber replacement, 4% increase due to SF addition, and 4% decrease as a result of ZE
addition. The microstructure of the pozzolans was also investigated using SEM micrographs. Compres-
Keywords: sive strengths of the samples were measured at different ages of 3, 7, 28, and 42 days and compared with
Greener concrete ACI 318 equation in order to modify the coefficients for the greener concrete. Elasticity moduli of the
Cleaner product concrete mixes were determined according to ASTM C469. The results indicated that 10% and 15% rubber
Waste tire rubber replacement led to 30% and 50% strength drop, respectively. The corresponding reduction in elastic
Pozzolans
modulus was observed as 14% and 32%. The elastic modulus was also estimated using relationships
Mechanical properties
presented in different standards based on compressive strength. It was found that ACI 318 relationship
Strength prediction
underestimates the elastic modulus for which the correction factors were determined. Three different
regression models namely Linear, Logarithmic, and Power were also developed in order to predict the
compressive strength of greener concrete. Power regression with R2 ¼ 0.92 proved to be more powerful
among other assessed regression models.
© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Kellett, 1995). On the other hand, the latter is environmentally

Concrete is the most widely used building material in the world
for which the aggregates and cement are the main constituents.
The former comprises about 70% of the concrete which is a high
demand. Aggregate products play an important role in the everyday
life as these materials are used in almost all forms of built infra-
structure, such as roads, sidewalks, foundations, sewers, and the
buildings themselves (MNR, 2010a). Aggregate extraction has been
identified as one of the controversial land-uses which is largely due
to the environmental consequences and the social costs associated
with aggregate extraction activities (Winfield and Taylor, 2005;
* Corresponding author. Zachry Department of Civil engineering, Texas A&M
University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA.
E-mail addresses: m.jalal.civil@gmail.com, mjalal@tamu.edu (M. Jalal).
and economically challenging due to its carbon footprint and pro-
duction costs.
As a results, recycling remains the best alternative to reduce the
impact that the environment in terms of the consumption of raw
materials, CO2 emission, and the accumulation of waste materials.
In this regard, the construction and concrete industry can be
considered as one of the best alternatives to consume recycled
materials and industrial by-products.
Several studies have addressed the application of waste tires in
concrete in different aspects such as fibers and aggregate partial
replacement. Some studies have already confirmed the viability of
using the vulcanized rubber fiber into construction materials (Chiu,
2008; Estevez, 2009; Hern
andez-Olivares et al., 2007; Milanez and
Bührs, 2009; Sunthonpagasit and Duffey, 2004). Some others have
investigated the mechanical and darability properties of the

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.117882
0959-6526/© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 M. Jalal et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 238 (2019) 117882
concrete containing up to 30% of waste tire rubber (Khaloo et al.,
2008; Turatsinze and Garros, 2008; Tortum et al., 2005).
Many studies have also been conducted on cement replacement
by various pozzolans and industrial by-products in different types
of concrete. This supplementary cementitious materials include
nanomaterials (Jalal et al., 2012a,b; Jalal and Mansouri, 2013; Jalal,
2014, Jalal et al., 2015; Jalal and mansouri, 2012; Jalal and Noorzad,
2012; Sotoudeh and Jalal, 2013; Vazinram et al., 2015), fly ash (Jalal
et al., 2012; Jalal and Mansouri, 2012; Jalal and Tahmasebi, 2015),
silica fume (Arabali and Shekarchi, 2015; Jalal et a., 2015; Guneyisi
et al., 2004; Jalal et al., 2015; Jalal, 2012; Jalal, 2014), slag
(Teimortashlu et al., 2018; Jalal et al., 2019a,b,c), zeolite
(Nagrockiene and Girskas, 2016; Tran et al., 2019; jokar et al.,
2019), and some other types of pozzolans that can help reduce
the cement content, and hence leading to a cleaner and more
sustainable production. The Zeolite that is investigated in this
study is known as a natural pozzolan that has been studied by a
few studies. However, it can be classified as zeolite clinoptilolite-
Na, which does not thoroughly conform to the maximum limit of
SO3 described in ASTM C618 for a pozzolan, but it has pozzolanic
behavior in concrete mixture (Raggiotti et al., 2018). Regarding its
influence on fresh properties of concrete, it was reported that
zeolite can lead to decreased workability and setting time of
conventional concrete (Najimi et al., 2012), and viscosity increase
of the fresh state of self-compacting concrete (Samimi et al., 2018).
Nagrockiene and Girskas (2016) showed that the density of con-
crete increases by increasing the zeolite content. Most of the
studies have investigated the zeolite content in concrete up to 30%
and shown that durability properties improve by increasing the
zeolite up to 30% (Tran et a. 2019; Samimi et al., 2018;
Ramezanianpour et al., 2015; Najimi at al. 2012). However, ma-
jority of the studies show that the optimum content of zeolite for
enhancement of mechanical properties is 10% (Nagrockiene and
Girskas, 2016; Markiv et al., 2016; Tran et al., 2019; jokar et al.,
2019; Ramezanianpour et al., 2015; Najimi et al., 2012). There-
fore, 10% cement replacement by zeolite was considered as the
optimum content in this study.
Potential applications of rubberized cement composites include
impact barriers, asphalt or concrete pavements, playground floors,
and sports area pavements, which have been suggested by various
sectors in industry (Jiang et al., 2018; Akhtar and Sarmah, 2018; Jalal
et al., 2019a,b,c). It is preferred in some applications for a concrete
to have lower unit weight, higher energy absorption, and impact
strength (Topçu, 1997). Besides, rubberized concrete with reduced
mechanical properties can also be used for hollow concrete blocks
(Mohammed et al., 2012).
Tire rubber particle size have been classified into three groups,
namely shredded or chipped, crumb and ground rubber with par-
ticle size range of 150-13 mm, 0.425e4.75 mm, 0.075e0.475 mm,
respectively (Ganjian et al., 2009). In this study, 10 and 15% of the
aggregate was replaced by waste rubber chips, and the effect of 10%
cement replacement by silica fume and zeolite was investigated.
Nine mixes were designed with different replacement levels. Fresh
properties of concrete were assessed through slump test and the
mechanical properties were investigated by compressive strength
and elastic modulus. The compressive results were compared with
ACI equation and the coefficients were modified for the rubberized
concrete. The elastic moduli were measured according to ASTM
C469. Regression models namely linear, logarithmic, and power
were also developed to predict the compressive strength.
2. Research significance
This research has investigated a greener concrete as a cleaner
product mainly from two aspects, namely aggregate and powder as
two main ingredients of concrete. Due to concrete being the most
widely used made-made material in the world, replacing even a
small portion of its ingredients with waste materials can be of
huge significance. In this study, a cleaner concrete product is
investigated from two perspectives: aggregate replacement by
waste rubber, and cement replacement by silica fume (SF) as an
industrial by-product, and zeolite (ZE) as a natural pozzolan. In this
way, less cement is consumed which leads to less CO2 footprint.
Moreover, cutting down on natural aggregates’ consumption by
waste rubber replacement will result in more environment-
friendly product.
Even though several studies have investigated a wide range of
rubber fractions in concrete (Li et al., 2003; Huang et al., 2004,
2013; Shu and Huang, 2014; Dong et al., 2013), however, this
research has focused on optimum percentage, namely up to 15%, to
make a trade-off between waste management and structural con-
crete strength. This study also investigates for the first time the
comparative effects of SF and ZE on rubberized concrete. The op-
timum fractions of pozzolans to replace cement was selected as 10%
according to available literature for SF (Cohen et al., 1990;
Mohammed et al., 2012; Gupta et al., 2016) and ZE (Nagrockiene
and Girskas, 2016; Tran et al., 2019; jokar et al., 2019). Another
significance of this study is that regression models as simple and
robust tools were utilized for the first time in this study for strength
prediction of the rubberized concrete mixtures. It should be
mentioned that the models developed in this study are valid
within the range of variables studies herein and similar type of
materials.
3. Materials
3.1. Mineral admixtures
3.1.1. Silica fume (SF)
As defined in ASTM C1240, silica fume is a very fine white to
grayish pozzolanic, amorphous powder which is a by-product of
production of silicon or ferrosilicon alloys in electric arc furnaces.
The main field of application is as pozzolanic material for high
performance concrete. Standard specifications for silica fume used
in cementitious mixtures can be found in ASTM standard (ASTM
C1240, 2003).
Prior to the mid-1970s, nearly all silica fume was discharged into
the atmosphere. After environmental concerns necessitated the
collection and landfilling of silica fume, it became economically
viable to use silica fume in various applications, in particular high-
performance concrete (ACI 234R-06, 2006). Chemical and Physical
Characteristics of the SF used in this study are listed in Table 1.
3.1.2. Zeolite (ZE)
Natural zeolite called Clinoptilolite is comprising a microporous
arrangement of silica and alumina tetrahedrals. It has a complex
formula as following:
ðK2 ; Na2 ; Ca2 ; MgÞ3 Al2 Si2 O2 :24 H2 O (1)
It forms as white to light greenish crystals with an ion exchange
capacity of 140e160 milli-equivalent per gram (mEq/g). The zeolite
used had a density of 1e1.83 g/cm3 and minerals purity of 85e95%.
Chemical composition of zeolite is as listed in Table 1.
3.2. Cement
In this study, cement type II was used for which the physical and
chemical characteristics are presented in Table 1.
 M. Jalal et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 238 (2019) 117882 3

Table 1
Properties of cement, silica fume, and zeolite.

Chemical analysis (wt%)

Composition SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO SO3 Na2O K2O L.O.I

Cement 21.37 4.83 3.34 62.46 3.62 1.76 0.18 0.51 1.87
Silica fume 93.16 1.13 0.72 e 1.6 0.05 e e 1.58
Zeolite 66.5 11.81 1.3 3.11 0.72 0.26 2.01 3.12 12.05

Physical Characteristics of Cement

Initial setting time (min) Initial setting time 3- day compressive 7- day compressive 28- day compressive
(min) strength (MPa) strength (MPa) strength (MPa)
135 175 19.2 26.9 39.7

Physical Characteristics of Silica fume

Form Color Specific gravity pH

powder gray 1.3e1.5 8.5e9

3.3. Aggregate properties
3.3.1. Sand
The sand used for this study was prepared form river sand,
crushed, washed and sieved with maximum size as retained on
sieve #4. Water absorption and specific gravity in SSD state for the
sand were 2% and 2.51, respectively. Sand equivalent as well as
fineness modulus (FM) were determined as 79% and 3.09, based on
ASTM D2419 and ASTM C33 respectively. The gradation curve of the
sand used is shown in Fig. 1a, which is lied between upper and
lower limits specified by ASTM C33. Fineness modulus is supposed
to be between 2.3 and 3.1 to ensure it is neither too rough nor too
fine; since very fine particles increase the water demand and too
rough sand leads to reduced workability and possible entrapped
voids while placing the concrete.
3.3.2. Gravel
Maximum nominal size of the gravel used was 19 mm. Other
properties such as water absorption and specific gravity in satu-
rated surface dry (SSD) state for the gravels were determined as
2.37% and 2.57 respectively. Coarse aggregate gradation was carried
out in the lab conforming to ASTM C33 standard. The gradation
curve is presented in Fig. 1b which is between upper and lower
specs as specified in the standard.
3.4. Waste tire rubber chips

The rubber chips for this study were provided from waste tires
chopped up, washed and sieved so that different sizes of the tire
chips can be stored separately. A view of the plant with crushing
machine where waste tire rubber chips were prepared for the
experiment is displayed in Fig. 2a.
Most of the tires include reinforcing threads and wires. On the
one hand, the aim of this study is to investigate the effect of rubber
chips as a partial replacement of coarse aggregates and on the other
hand, rusting of wires may lead to some strength reduction. Hence,
an attempt was made to put all the rubber chips in a huge water
container so that in addition to having them washed, the threads
can be separated from the rubber chips. Then a big magnet was
passed over the rubber chips to get the remaining steel wires
separated from them. A sample of rubber chips after processing and
preparation is illustrated in Fig. 2b.
Since the rubbers chips are prepared from waste tires, and there
is no particular standard and industrial production unit for them,
the particle shape and gradations may not be desirable, and thereby
leading to some variability and error in the results of concrete
samples. Nevertheless, it was tried to follow the gravel gradation
conforming to ASTM C33 for the rubber chips, which is shown in
Fig. 1b. The maximum size of the rubber particles used was 19 mm.

3.5. Super plasticizer (SP)

Due to selection of water to cement ratio of 0.4 from one hand,

Fig. 1. Gradation curve of the (a) sand, (b) gravel and rubber.
and incorporation of rubber chips on the other hand, super plas-
ticizer needed to be used in this study to maintain a desirable
workability of the concrete. Polycarboxylate-based super plasti-
cizer conforming to ASTM C494 Type F, G was used in this research
which is compatible with different types of pozzolanic admixtures.
The properties of the SP used along with the recommended dosage
of the manufacturer are summarized in Table 2. In this study, a
constant optimum value of 0.37% of cement weight was chosen for
4 M. Jalal et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 238 (2019) 117882

(a) (b)
Fig. 2. A view of tire crushing plant (a), and ready rubber chips (b).

Table 2 aggregates. Cement content was considered as 400 kg/m3 and a

Properties of superplasticizer (SP). relatively low water to binder ratio (w/b) was selected as 0.4. Waste
Phase Liquid tire rubber chips were also added to the concrete as 10 and 15%
Color Dark brown replacement of coarse aggregate.
Density (g/ml) 1.08e1.10 The designation for each mix design is composed of RB as for
pH 6e7 “rubber” preceded by rubber replacement percentage, followed by
Optimum (wt % of cement) 0.3e0.7
C, SF or ZE as for “control”, “silica fume” and “zeolite” respectively.
Presented in Table 3 are the mix design details along with the
SP amount for all mixes, based on trial and error carried out on sample designations for each mixture.
preliminary samples.
4.2. Mixing and sample preparation
4. Test methods
In this research, cubic and cylindrical molds were used with
4.1. Mix design dimensions of 150*150*150 and 150*300 mm to cast concrete
samples to measure mechanical properties such as compressive
In this study, original concrete mixture was designed based on strength and elasticity modulus. SP was added to the mixing water
ACI-211-92 and accordingly the amount of coarse and fine aggre- and was mixed properly. To mix the concrete ingredients, a drum
gates, water, cement and other admixtures were determined. To mixer of 62lit capacity with speed of 18 rpm was used. Since for this
determine the coarse aggregate volume, according to fineness type of concrete containing rubber chips, mixture uniformity is of
modulus of the sand, the ratio of gravel to sand was roughly utmost importance and may easily affect the workability and me-
selected as 60 to 40%. It was tried to use the relative optimum chanical properties of the samples, especial care was taken to the
percentage of silica fume and zeolite found in the literature, i.e. 10% mixing process and after several trial and error, the following steps
of cement, to partially make up the strength loss due to rubber were determined to be taken for all mixtures:
chips addition to the concrete as a partial replacement of coarse First, the inner surface of the mixture was washed and the

Table 3
Mix design proportions of a batch of 3 samples of 15*15*15 cm dimensions.

Sample ID Binder content (kg/m3) w/b SP (kg) Rubber (kg) Gravel (kg) Sand (kg) Water (kg) Zeolite (kg) Silica fume (kg) Cement (kg)

0RB.C 400 0.4 0.005 0 3.726 2.487 0.54 0 0 1.350

0RB.SF 400 0.4 0.005 0 3.726 2.487 0.54 0 0.135 1.215
0RB.ZE 400 0.4 0.005 0 3.726 2.487 0.54 0.135 0 1.215
10RB.C 400 0.4 0.005 0.373 3.352 2.487 0.54 0 0 1.350
10RB.SF 400 0.4 0.005 0.373 3.352 2.487 0.54 0 0.135 1.215
10RB.ZE 400 0.4 0.005 0.373 3.352 2.487 0.54 0.135 0 1.215
15RB.C 400 0.4 0.005 0.558 3.168 2.487 0.54 0 0 1.350
15RB.SF 400 0.4 0.005 0.558 3.168 2.487 0.54 0 0.135 1.215
15RB.ZE 400 0.4 0.005 0.558 3.168 2.487 0.54 0.135 0 1.215
 M. Jalal et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 238 (2019) 117882 5

excessive water was removed. Then coarse aggregates along with
rubber chips were placed in the mixer and while mixing, half of the
mixing water was added and mixing continued for 30 s. After that
the fine aggregates were added while mixing for another 60s.
Cement was then added while mixing was going on for 30 s. Af-
terwards, other binders i.e. zeolite and silica fume were added and
allowed to be mix for 30 s. Rest of water was gradually added to the
mixture in 30 s while mixing being carried out. Finally, mixing
continued for 3 min to ensure a totally uniform mixture would be
achieved. Therefore, mixing process of the concrete was carried out
in 6 min.
After getting the mixture prepared, cubic and cylindrical molds
with dimensions of 150*150*150 and 150*300 were cast for
compressive test and elasticity modulus respectively. After 24 h, the
samples were demoded and placed in water tank for curing until
the day of testing.
4.3. Fresh and hardened concrete tests
4.3.1. Slump test
Slump test was conducted to evaluate the effect of rubber
addition as a partial replacement of coarse aggregates, and
pozzolanic admixtures as a partial replacement of cement on
workability of rubberized concrete. In this study, the concrete
slump test was performed conforming ASTM C 143.
4.3.2. Compressive tests
Cubic samples with 150*150*150 dimensions were prepared for
compressive strength test (BS, 2001). Loading rate of the apparatus
was specified as 680 kgf/sec for cubic samples. Three samples were
cast for each mix and the average value was considered as the
compressive strength.
et al., 2018a,b), optimization (Garmsiri and Jalal, 2014; Jalal and
Goharzay, 2018), and modeling (Jodaei et al., 2013; Jalal et al.,
2013a,b) and prediction (Fathi et al., 2015; Saeidi Marzangoo and
Jalal, 2014). Prediction models using regressions are among the
most widely-used models which are quite straight forward, prac-
tical and accurate. In this study, several multivariable regression
models namely linear, power and logarithmic were used to predict
compressive strength of rubberized concrete by taking into account
five variables. Table 4 shows the equations along with the variables
and coefficients used for the regression models. Variables comprise
cement (C), Silica Fume (SF), Zeolite (ZE), rubber (RB), and Age,
while a0, …an are calibration coefficients of the models.
However, in experimental and practical applications, sometimes
the predictor variables are interdependent. This interdependency
can result in some analysis problems by magnifying the strength of
relationships between the variables. This is a simple case
commonly known as the problem of multicollinearity (Dunlop and
Smith, 2003). If the absolute vale of the correlation coefficient (R)
between two variables is higher than 0.8, there is a strong corre-
lation between these variables (Smith, 1986). Hence, in order to
assess the interdependency of the variables in this study, the cor-
relation coefficient between each pair of variables were calculated
by using Eq. (3), the results of which are presented in Table 5. As is
noted form the table, the maximum absolute R value is 0.5.
Consequently, all of the five variables were considered to develop
the regression models.
Pn  
i¼1 hi  hi ðti  t i Þ
R ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi (3)
Pn  2 Pn 2
i¼1 hi  hi i¼1 ðti  t i Þ

4.3.3. Elasticity modulus test 6. Results and discussion

The test was carried out on cylindrical samples of 150*300 mm
dimensions conforming ASTM C469 to measure static modulus of
elasticity of the rubberized concrete. In this experiment, to elimi-
nate the effects of creep, the main loading was preceded by a quite
number of loading and unloading. During load application, the
applied load and axial strain were recorded in two steps: (1) when
strain value of 0.000050 was reached (ε1 ¼ 50*106 ), (2) Once 40%
of ultimate load is reached (ε2 ). Then the static elasticity modulus
can be calculated by Eq. (2):
. 
E ¼ ðS2  S1 Þ ε2  50 * 106
where, E, S1, S2, and ε2 are chord modulus of elasticity, stress cor-
responding to a longitudinal strain of ε1 at 0.000050, stress cor-
responding to 40% of the ultimate load of the concrete, and
longitudinal strain produced by S2, respectively.
6.1. Workability
The results of slum tests for different mixes are reported in
Fig. 3. For better comparison of the workability results of various
mixes, slump values are also displayed in the figure. As is noted
from Fig. 3, workability of the concrete reduces with increased
percentage of the rubber chips so as 14% slump reduction occurred
for the mixtures containing 15% rubber particles. This fact has been
proved also by other researchers (Sgobba et al., 2010) which was
attributed to more specific surface area of rubber chips compared to
(2)
coarse aggregates, and thereby leading to more water consumption
for surface coverage of the rubber particles as a sort of lubrication
Table 5
Correlation coefficients between all pairs of the variables.

Variables C SF ZE RB Age
5. Regression-based prediction model for compressive C 1 0.5 0.5 0 0
strength SF 0.5 1 0.5 0 0
ZE 0.5 0.5 1 0 0
Computer-aided techniques are robust tools that have been RB 0 0 0 0 0
Age 0 0 0 0 0
efficiently used in engineering design (Goharzay et al., 2017; Jalal

Table 4
Equations of multiple regression models.

Regression Type Equation

Linear fc ¼ a0 þ a1 C þ a2 SF þ a3 ZE þ a4 RB þ a5 Age (3)

Logarithmic fc ¼ a0 þ a1 LnðCÞ þ a2 LnðSFÞ þ a3 LnðZEÞ þ a4 LnðRBÞ þ a5 LnðAgeÞ (4)
Power fc ¼ a0 þ a1 C a2 þ a3 SF a4 þ a5 ZEa6 þ a7 RBa8 þ a9 Agea10 (5)
6 M. Jalal et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 238 (2019) 117882
Fig. 3. Comparison of slump results for different RB, SF, and ZE percentage.
and less free water to maintain a higher workability. As is obvious
from the plot, silica fume and zeolite additions reduce the work-
ability as well, which results from higher specific surface area of
these admixtures compared to cement.
An interesting point regarding workability of mixture contain-
ing SF and ZE is that lower workability of ZE mixtures compared to
SF mixtures can be explained by microstructure of these mineral
admixtures. As illustrated in the SEM micrographs of Fig. 4. ZE
particles are porous and amorphous and the lattice structure can
restrict the particles form skidding on top of each other and ease of
movement in the mixture, and thereby limiting the ball-bearing
effect of the admixture particles. However, the SF particles are
more spherical and even in case of flocculated particles, the sur-
faces are more smooth which make the particles or floccules
capable of better skidding and moving through the mixture. On the
other hand, even though the SF particles are spherical and can
move more easily compared to cement particles in control samples,
however, the SF particles are several times finer than cement par-
ticles. This can lead to higher water or SP demand to lubricate all of
the SF particles in fresh concrete, and thereby leading to reduced
workability of SF-contained mixtures compared to control
mixtures.
(a)
Fig. 4. SEM micrographs of (a) zeolite and (b) silica fume.
6.2. Compressive strength
The samples were tested at the age of 3, 7, 28, and 42 days. For
more reliability, average of three samples for each mix was taken
and reported as the compressive strength. Plotted in Fig. 5 are the
compressive strengths of different mixtures. For the sake of better
comparison of the effects of rubber chips and mineral admixtures,
the strength values are also displayed in Fig. 5 for all mixtures.
As obviously is clearly noted from the figure, compressive
strengths decrease with increased percentage of waste rubber
replacement. The curves also show a consistent ascending trend in
compressive strength due to strength evolution in later ages.
To scrutinize the compressive strength increase by time, the
incremental strength evolution bar chart is presented in Fig. 6. As is
observed from the plots, the compressive strengths differences at
early ages are relatively low compared to those of later ages. This
phenomenon can be attributed to two main reasons. Firstly, as the
mixing water is consumed for cement hydration by time, the
interface of rubber chips and binder gets drier. Since the bonding of
rubber and binder is not as well as aggregate and binder on the one
hand, and the potential shrinkage occurrence is relatively high for
rubber compared to aggregate on the other hand, microcracks may
form around the rubber particles which can be the source of stress
concentration and crack propagation. Secondly, as rubber is a
flexible material, once the load is applied to the concrete sample,
deformation of rubber particles will be higher relative to that of
binder and thereby leading to some incompatibility of deformation
resulting in microcrack formation at the interface of rubber particle
and binder.
It is observed from this bar chart that a higher strength evolu-
tion have occurred in 0e3 day and 7e28 day intervals, with the
highest strength gain at 7e28 period for samples congaing mineral
admixtures. This observation may indicate that most of pozzolanic
activity of the admixtures has occurred in this period to enhance
the strength of the concrete samples.
According to the results gained from compressive strength tests,
it can be said that incorporation of waste tire rubber chips as a
partial replacement of the coarse aggregates as a solution to cleaner
production for greener concrete, to some extent compromise the
compressive strength of the concrete product at different ages. It is
observed in this study that 10% and 15% addition of rubber chips
(b)
 M. Jalal et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 238 (2019) 117882 7

Fig. 5. Comparative strength results for different percentages of RB, SF, and ZE.

Fig. 6. Strength evolution of the concrete mixes at different ages.

can lead to 35% and 50% strength reduction respectively. Ganjian
et al. (2009) replaced up to 10% of coarse aggregates by waste
rubber and reported around 23% strength loss. The 12% less
strength loss could be due to the higher specific gravity of coarse
aggregates they used (2.65) compared to that used in this study
(2.51) (Pelisser et al., 2011). However, application of 10% rubber
crumbs as replacement of fine aggregates has led to less strength
loss, as studied by a few researchers (Richardson et al., 2016;
Thomas et al., 2014; Huang et al., 2013). Khatip and Bayomy,
(1999) have attributes this strength reduction to two main factor
as flexibility of rubber particles under loading and improper
bonding of rubber and binder. The former is considered the main
factor (Pham et al., 2018), while the latter can be improved by
rubber pre-treatment (Huang et al., 2013; Pham et al., 2018) and
addition of admixtures (Raffoul et al., 2016) in order to improve the
interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between the rubber particles and
the paste. Another reason of weak bonding can be attributed to
hydrophobicity of rubber particles that forms a thin layer of air
around the rubber. This could lead to incomplete cement hydration,
weaker bond and ITZ, and thereby stress concentration and crack
initiation at loading (Raffoul et al., 2016).
However, addition of pozzolans such as SF and ZE can enhance
the bonding between rubber and binder by improving the inter-
facial transition zone (ITZ) that can lead to less strength loss
(Ramezanianpour et al., 2015; Tran et al., 2019). It can be explained
by the fact that the calcium hydroxide (CH) formed during cement
hydration has a weak structure and can be also dissolved in mois-
ture (Tran et al., 2019). On the other hand, pozzolans contain high
content of SiO2 and Al2O3 that react with CH to form calcium silicate
hydrate (CSH) gel (3CaO.2SiO2.3H2O) and calcium aluminate
8 M. Jalal et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 238 (2019) 117882
hydrate gel (3CaO.2Al2O3.3H2O), as shown in the following (Mehta,
1987):
2SiO2 þ 3CaðOHÞ2 /3CaO:2SiO2 :3H2 O ðCSHÞ
Al2 O3 þ 3CaðOHÞ2 þ 3H2 O/3CaO:Al2 O3 :6H2 O
The these gels are mainly responsible for concrete compressive
strength (Tran et al., 2019) that are provided by pozzolans, and
thereby leading to a denser microstructure of concrete. According
to the results, 10% SF enhanced the compressive strength of the
concrete without and with rubber chips at the age of 42 days by 4%
and 12% respectively. 3% and 8% strength improvement was also
observed for 10% ZE addition at the same age for plain and
rubberized concrete respectively. This strength enhancement could
be attributed to filler effect of the admixtures and especially
pozzolanic activity (Tran et al., 2019; Mohammed et al., 2012).
Besides, addition of SF and ZE results in the phase modification of
hydration products due to extra formation of CSH, ettringite, and
hydrogelenites (Markiv et al., 2016). It is worth mentioning that
strength enhancement performance of ZE is kind of sensitive to
water to binder ration (w/b). Najimi et al. (2012) reported that for
w/b ¼ 0.5, concrete containing ZE showed strength decrease
around 37% in some cases, however for w/b ¼ 0.4 strength
enhancement was observed in all ages.
6.3. Elasticity modulus
The results obtained from static elasticity modulus tests on cy-
lindrical samples are plotted in Fig. 7. For the sake of clarity, the
values of the static elasticity modulus at different ages are also
displayed in this figure. As is noted from the figure, rubberized
concrete samples obviously show lower modulus relative to control
samples so as the values obtained for samples containing 10% and
15% of rubber chips at the age of 28 days were respectively lower
than control samples by 14% and 32%. However, the modulus loss
decreased to 10% and 16% at 42 days of age. It is observed that the
reduction in compressive strength is less that elastic modulus, as
proved by other researchers (Pelliser et al., 2010). In a study by
Ganjian et al. (2009), 10% rubber chips replacement resulted in 25%
Fig. 7. Elastic modulus comparison for different mixes at various ages.
of reduction in elastic modulus. Jokar et al. (2019) reported 22% and
41% elastic modulus reduction for 10% and 15% of rubber crumb
replacement, respectively. They concluded that rubber pre-
(4) treatment can also improve the elastic modulus by 11% compared
to that of untreated rubber due to bond improvement of rubber
(5) particles and cement paste. Pelliser et al. (2010) reported 49% loss of
elastic modulus due to 10% replacement of rubber crumb, which is
quite higher compared to others. They concluded this modulus loss
is due to much lower elastic modulus of rubber relative to that of
sand. It can also be due to the fact that rubber shows larger strain
compared to aggregate at a given stress (Pelliser et al., 2010). Be-
sides, reduced strength of the rubberized samples can lead to lower
stress to strain ratio which means lower elasticity modulus (Pham
et al., 2018). On the other hand, 10% of SF and ZE led to a little in-
crease in the static elastic modulus of concrete. However, this in-
crease was negligible and respectively around 2% and 1% for SF and
ZE, for both 10% and 15% of rubber replacement. It is observed that
mitigation of modulus loss by admixtures addition is less effective
compared to that of compressive strength, as proved by
Onuaguluchi and Panesar (2014). A few researches have shown that
rubber pre-treatment and admixtures can enhance the pore
structure and ITZ of rubberized concrete, and thereby greatly affect
the transport properties (Pham et al., 2018; Onuaguluchi and
Panesar, 2014; Pelisser et al., 2010). Again it can be attributed to
filler effect of the admixtures which refines the pore structure of
the concrete and shift the pores to a less harmful pore size distri-
bution which strengthens the binder of the concrete, as well as
bonding enhancement of the binder and rubber particles
(Mohammed et al., 2012). This fact has been verified by Mousa et al.
(2015). They have also maintained that binder content increase and
w/b decrease can improve the elasticity modulus of concrete.
However, the admixtures effect on elastic modulus would be slight
(Pham et al., 2018). Jokar et al. (2019) also found that pre-treatment
and addition of 5% zeolite could improve the elastic modulus only
by 5%.
6.4. Comparison with standards and potential applications
Since compressive strength is the most important characteristic
of concrete to which other properties are somehow related. Various
 M. Jalal et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 238 (2019) 117882 9

standards recommend different relationships to estimate elastic

modulus of concrete from its compressive strength. For better Ecm ¼ 22½ðfcm Þ=100:3 (9)
comparison in this study, different relationships from four different
standards are employed and compared for estimation of elastic where, Ecm is mean modulus of elasticity, and fcm is mean
modulus, as presented in the following. compressive strength of concrete at 28 days.
American standard (ACI 318): The values of elasticity modulus obtained from compressive
strength based on the above relationships form different standards
are plotted and compared with the experimental values in Fig. 8a,
qffiffiffiffiffi
E ¼ 4700 f 0c (6) along with the estimation error in Fig. 8b. As is noted from the
figure, BS relationship gives the closet estimation of elastic
Canadian Standard Association (CSA A23.3): modulus to the experimental values. ACI and CSA though under-
estimate the elastic modulus, and overestimation is observed in the
results obtained from EC relationship.
qffiffiffiffiffi
Since ACI relationship underestimates the values of elastic
E ¼ 4500 f 0c (7)
modulus in this study, an attempt was made to correct the equation
British Standard (BS 8110): by adding a calibration coefficient (correction factor) to modify it
for rubberized concrete. The correction factor for each data was
calculated as the ratio of measured elasticity modulus to calculated
Ec; 28 ¼ ko þ 0:2fcu;28 (8) elasticity modulus from Eq. (6). Then, as there was three levels of
rubber replacement as 0, 10, and 15%, so average of three factors for
where, ko is 20 kN/mm2, and fcu,28 is concrete compressive strength each level was calculated as the correction factor of that replace-
at 28 days. ment level which resulted in three correction factors as following
Euro Code (EC): for this study:

Fig. 8. Comparison of elastic modulus obtained from experiment with different standards.
10 M. Jalal et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 238 (2019) 117882
pffiffiffi0ffi
E ¼ a*4700 f ; a ¼ 1:06 ; for concrete without rubber chips
(10)
pffiffiffi0ffi
E ¼ b*4700 f ; b ¼ 1:31; for concrete containing 10% rubber chips
pffiffiffi0ffi
E ¼ c*4700 f ; c ¼ 1:38; for concrete containing 15% rubber chips
The results of elasticity modulus vs. compressive strength for
ACI original and modified equations are plotted in Fig. 9.
Thomas et al. (2014) have recommended the application of
rubberized concrete for pavements, non-structural works, and
structural works (up to 7.5% leading to compressive strength of over
35 MPa). It has also been suggested for lightweight structures
(20 MPa reference) and building panels, as well as facades for the
purpose of energy saving (Pelisser et al., 2010). Richardson et al.
(2016) recommended that rubberized concrete is promising due
to the synergy of enhanced toughness and freeze-thaw perfor-
mance. Rubber fiber concrete with 10% replacement of fine aggre-
gates also maintained compressive strength over 35 MPa, for which
applications such as earthquake shockwave absorbers, foundation
pad of machinery, highway pavement, airport barrier, and crash
barrier have been recommended (Gupta et al., 2016). In a research
by Mohammed et al. (2012), it was recommended that load-bearing
Fig. 9. Experimental results vs. ACI 318 (a) original and (b) modified equations.
hollow blocks and non load-bearing ones can be produced by using
up to 6.5% and 40.7% rubber crumbs, respectively. Elchalakani
(2015) studied and designed the reinforced rubberized concrete
(11)
(12)
for roadside barrier application and observed more resilient
behavior compared to pain concrete. He concluded that the new
design is applicable to medium performance concrete road sided
barrier but not to special performance ones. ACI 318 and Interna-
tional Building Code (IBC) indicate 17 MPa (2500 psi) as the mini-
mum strength of structural concrete. However, there are different
grades of concrete for various applications. British standard (BS
8500, 2006) classifies the concrete with compressive strength of
less than 25 MPa as normal grade and above that as standard grade.
Based on the standards such as BS, ACI 318 and Eurocode 2, it can be
concluded that the rubberized concrete with specified strength of
17e25 MPa (2500e3500 psi) can be suggested for applications such
as driveways, garages, and floor slabs. However, for pavements with
heavy traffic, specified strength of 30 MPa is required (Arabali et al.,
2017). Therefore, according to this study, the rubberized with up to
10% rubber replacement is recommended for driveways, garages,
and floor slabs. Since building codes and standards have specified
 M. Jalal et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 238 (2019) 117882 11

Table 6 regression models were developed and the models’ coefficients

Statistical analysis of the variables used in regression models. were obtained. The coefficients of Eqs (3)e(5) pertaining to the
variable Beta t Sig. multiple regression models are listed in Table 7. By using the close
Age 0.731 13.979 0.000
form equations of the models, compressive strengths of the
RB 0.613 11.719 0.000 rubberized concrete were predicted that can be seen in Fig. 10. As
C 0.046 0.387 0.701 can be seen from the plots, even though the correlation factor (R2)
SF 0.047 0.398 0.693 of the models are rather close, nonetheless, the power regression
ZE 0.001 0.011 0.991
models shows the highest correlation.

different applications based on compressive strength, elastic 7. Conclusion

modulus of rubberized concrete for various applications can be
accordingly determined form the relationships given in each,
where the a specific modulus is required in certain applications.
6.5. Prediction models results
In order for regression models development, analysis of variance
(ANOVA) was performed and significance of each variable was
investigated to better understand the contribution of each variable
to the model. Presented in Table 6 are the results of the statistical
analysis. The variables are listed in this table in descending order of
significance, i.e. Age is the most significant and ZE is the least sig-
nificant one. Beta is also a parameter indicating the relative
strength of the variables.
Once the significance of the variables were determined, the
In this research, cleaner concrete was produced and studied by
incorporation of 10e15% of waste tire rubber as a partial replace-
ment of the aggregates and 10% of cement replacement by SF and
ZE. Fresh properties of the greener concrete was tested and it was
found that rubber and ZE addition decreases the workability, while
SF increases. The effect of SF and ZE on workability was investigated
through SEM images of SF and ZE powders. The results obtained
indicated 5% and 14.6% slump reduction at 10% and 15% rubber
replacement, 4% increase in slump due to SF addition, and 4% slump
decrease as a result of ZE addition. Compressive strengths of the
rubberized concretes were measured at different ages and around
30% and 50% reductions were observed for 10% and 15% rubber
replacements, respectively. The strength results were compared
with ACI equation and the coefficients were modified for rubber-
ized concrete. Elastic moduli of rubberized concrete were measured

Table 7
Coefficients of multiple regression models.

Regression a0 a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 a6 a7 a8 a9 a10

Linear 2754.85 6.93 6.97 6.95 1.04 0.47 e e e e e

Logarithmic 82.11 13.94 0.02 0.06 1.45 7.11 e e e e e
Power 331.30 5.62 0.80 91.05 0.06 56.21 0.10 1095.66 0.001 6.86 0.39

Fig. 10. Strength prediction results by multiple regressions: (a) linear, (b) logarithmic, (c) power.
12 M. Jalal et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 238 (2019) 117882
according to ASTM C469. It was found that 10% and 15% rubber
replacement can respectively lead to reduction in elastic modulus
around 14% and 32% at 28 days and 10% and 16% at 42 days. Com-
parison of the elastic modulus values obtained from relationships
in different standards such as ACI, CSA, EC, and BS with those of
experiment showed that ACI 318 relationship underestimates the
elastic modulus of rubberized concrete, for which the correction
factors was determined based on the results in this study. Regres-
sion models namely linear, logarithmic, and power were also used
to predict the compressive strength of the rubberized concrete in
terms of the influencing variable such as cement, SF%, ZE%, RB%, and
age. Power regression model was found to be more accurate to
predict the compressive strength of the rubberized concrete. It
should also be noted that the predictions of the models are valid
within the range of the variables used and for similar materials
used in this study.
References
ACI 234R-06, 2006. Guide to Silica Fume in Concrete. American Concrete Institute.
Akhtar, A., Sarmah, A.K., 2018. Construction and demolition waste generation and
properties of recycled aggregate concrete: a global perspective. J. Clean. Prod.
186, 262e281.
Arabali, P., Shekarchi, M., 2015. Durability of jointed reinforced concrete pavements
under sever exposure conditions: a case study in Iran. XIII Int. Conf. Durab.
Build. Mater. Compon. 866e873.
Arabali, P., Sakhaeifar, M.S., Freeman, T.J., Wilson, B.T., Borowiec, J.D., 2017. Decision-
making guideline for preservation of flexible pavements in general aviation
airport management. J. Transport. Eng., Part B: Pavements 143 (2), 04017006.
ASTM C1240-03, 2003. "Standard Specification for Silica Fume Used in Cementitious
Mixtures.
ASTM C469, 2002. Standard Test Method for Static Modulus of Elasticity and
Poisson’s Ratio of Concrete in Compression.
British Standards Institute, 2001. Testing Hardened Concrete: Compressive Strength
of Test Specimens. BS EN, London, UK, 12390e3: Part 3.
Chiu, C.-T., 2008. Use of ground tire rubber in asphalt pavements: field trial and
evaluation in Taiwan. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 52 (3), 522e532.
Cohen, M.D., Olek, J., Dolch, W.L., 1990. Mechanism of plastic shrinkage cracking in
portland cement and portland-cement-silica fume paste and mortar. Chem.
Concr. Res 20 (1), 103e119.
Dong, Q., Huang, B., Shu, X., 2013. Rubber modified concrete improved by chemi-
cally active coating and silane coupling agent. Constr. Build. Mater. 48, 116e123.
Dunlop, P., Smith, S., 2003. Estimating key characteristics of the concrete delivery
and placement process using linear regression analysis. Civ. Eng. Environ. Syst.
20, 273e290.
Elchalakani, M., 2015. High strength rubberized concrete containing silica fume for
the construction of sustainable road side barriers. Structure 1, 20e38.
Guneyisi, E., Gesog lu, M., Ozturan, T., 2004. Properties of rubberized concretes
containing silica fume. Cement Concr. Res. 34, 2309e2317.
Estevez, M., 2009. Use of coupling agents to stabilize asphalt-rubber-gravel com-
posite to improve its mechanical properties. J. Clean. Prod. 17 (15), 1359e1362.
Fathi, M., Jalal, M., Rostami, S., 2015. Compressive strength prediction by ANN
formulation approach for CFRP confined concrete cylinders. Earthq. Struct. 8
(5), 1171e1190.
Ganjian, E., Khorami, M., Maghsoudi, A.A., 2009. Scrap-tyre-rubber replacement for
aggregate and filler in concrete. Constr. Build. Mater. 23, 1828e1836.
Garmsiri, K., Jalal, M., 2014. Multiobjective optimization of composite cylindrical
shells for strength and frequency using genetic algorithm and neural networks.
Sci. Eng. Compos. Mater. 21 (4), 529e536.
Goharzay, M., Noorzad, A., Mahboubi Ardakani, A., Jalal, M., 2017. A worldwide SPT-
based soil liquefaction triggering analysis utilizing gene expression program-
ming and bayesian probabilistic method. J. Rock Mech. Geotech. Eng. 9 (4),
683e693.
Gupta, T., Chaudhary, S., Sharma, R.K., 2016. Mechanical and durability properties of
waste rubber fiber concrete with and without silica fume. J. Clean. Prod. 112,
702e711.
Herna
ndez-Olivares, F., Barluenga, G., Parga-Landa, B., Bollati, M., Witoszek, B.,
2007. Fatigue behaviour of recycled tyre rubber-filled concrete and its impli-
cations in the design of rigid pavements. Constr. Build. Mater. 21 (10),
1918e1927.
Huang, B., Li, G., Pang, S., Eggers, J., 2004. Investigation into waste tire rubber-filled
concrete. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 16 (3), 187e194.
Huang, B., Shu, X., Cao, J., 2013. A two-staged surface treatment to improve prop-
erties of rubber modified cement composites. Constr. Build. Mater. 40, 270e274.
Jalal, M., 2012. Transport properties of high-performance cementitious composites
incorporating micro and nano SiO2 into the binder. Sci. Eng. Compos. Mater. 19
(4), 415e421.
Jalal, M., 2014. Corrosion resistant self-compacting concrete using micro and nano
silica admixtures. Struct. Eng. Mech. 51 (3), 403e412.
Jalal, M., Mortazavi, A.A., Hassani, N., 2012a. Thermal properties of TiO2 nano-
particles binary blended cementitious composites. J. Am.Sci. 8, 391e394.
Jalal, M., Goharzay, M., 2018. Cuckoo search algorithm for applied structural and
design optimization: float system for experimental setups. J. Comput. Des. Eng.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcde.2018.07.001.
Jalal, M., Mansouri, E., 2012. Effects of fly ash and cement content on rheological,
mechanical, and transport properties of high-performance self-compacting
concrete. Sci. Eng. Compos. Mater. 19 (4), 393e405.
Jalal, M., Noorzad, A., 2012. Effect of binder content, pozzolanic admixtures and
SiO2 nanoparticles on thermal properties and capillary water absorption of
high performance concrete. J. Am.Sci. 8 (7), 395e399.
Jalal, M., Tahmasebi, M., 2015. Assessment of nano-TiO2 and class F fly ash effects on
flexural fracture and microstructure of binary blended concrete. Sci. Eng.
Compos. Mater. 22 (3), 263e270.
Jalal, M., Mansouri, E., Sharifipour, M., Pouladkhan, A.R., 2012b. Mechanical, rheo-
logical, durability and microstructural properties of high performance self-
compacting concrete containing SiO2 micro and nanoparticles. Mater. Des. 34,
389e400.
Jalal, M., Ramezanianpour, A.A., Pool, M.K., 2013a. Split tensile strength of binary
blended self-compacting concrete containing low volume fly ash and TiO2
nanoparticles. Compos. B Eng. 55, 324e337.
Jalal, M., Ramezanianpour, A.A., Pouladkhan, A.R., Tedro, P., 2013b. Application of
genetic programming (GP) and ANFIS for strength enhancement modeling of
CFRP-retrofitted concrete cylinders. Neural Comput. Appl. 23 (2), 455e470.
Jalal, M., Pouladkhan, A., Harandi, O.F., Jafari, D., 2015. Comparative study on effects
of Class F fly ash, nano silica and silica fume on properties of high performance
self-compacting concrete. Constr. Build. Mater. 94, 90e104.
Jalal, M., Mukhopadhyay, A.K., Goharzay, M., 2018a. Bat algorithm as a metaheuristic
optimization approach in materials and design: optimal design of a new float
for different materials. Neural Comput. Appl. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00521-
018-3430-4.
Jalal, M., Mukhopadhyay, A.K., Grasley, Z., 2018b. Design, manufacturing, and
structural optimization of a composite float using particle swarm optimization
and genetic algorithm. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. L J. Mater. Des. Appl. https://
doi.org/10.1177/1464420718755546.
Jalal, M., Moradi-Dastjerdi, R., Bidram, M., 2019c. Big data in nanocomposites: ONN
approach and mesh-free method for functionally graded carbon nanotube-
reinforced composites. J. Comput. Des. Eng. 6 (2), 209e223. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.jcde.2018.05.003.
Jalal, M., Nassir, N., Jalal, H., Arabali, A., 2019a. On the strength and pulse velocity of
rubberized concrete containing silica fume and zeolite: prediction using
multivariable regression models. Constr. Build. Mater. 223, 530e543. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.06.233.
Jalal, M., Teimortashlu, E., Grasley, Z., 2019b. Performance-based design and opti-
mization of rheological and strength properties of self-compacting cement
composite incorporating micro/nano admixtures. Compos. B Eng. 163, 497e510.
Jiang, Y., Ling, T.C., Shi, C., Pan, S.Y., 2018. Characteristics of steel slags and their use
in cement and concreteda review. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 136, 187e197.
Jodaei, A., Jalal, M., Yas, M.H., 2013. Three-dimensional free vibration analysis of
functionally graded piezoelectric annular plates via SSDQM and comparative
modeling by ANN. Math. Comput. Model. 57 (5), 1408e1425.
Jokar, F., Khorram, M., Karimi, G., Hataf, N., 2019. Experimental investigation of
mechanical properties of crumbed rubber concrete containing natural zeolite.
Constr. Build. Mater. 208, 651e658.
Kellett, J.E., 1995. The elements of a sustainable aggregates policy. J. Environ. Plan.
Manag. 38 (4), 569e580.
Khaloo, A.R., Dehestani, M., Rahmatabadi, P., 2008. Mechanical properties of con-
crete containing a high volume of tire-rubber particles. Waste Manag. 28 (12),
2472e2482.
Khatip, Z.K., Bayomy, F.M., 1999. Rubberized Portland cement concrete. J. Mater. Civ.
Eng. ASCE 11 (3), 206e213.
Li, G., Stubblefield, M.A., Garrick, G., Eggers, J., Abadie, C., Huang, B., 2003. Devel-
opment of waste tire modified concrete. Cement Concr. Res. 34, 2283e2289.
Jalal, M., Mansouri, E., 2013. Thermal and mechanical characteristics of cement
nanocomposites. Sci. Eng. Compos. Mater. 20 (1), 35e40.
Markiv, T., Sobol, K., Franus, M., Franus, W., 2016. Mechanical and durability prop-
erties of concretes incorporating natural zeolite. Arch. Civ. Mech. Eng. 16,
554e562.
Saeidi Marzangoo, HR, Jalal, M., 2014. A semi-analytical three-dimensional free
vibration analysis of functionally graded curved panels integrated with piezo-
electric layers. Sci. Eng. Compos. Mater. 21 (4), 571e587.
Mehta, P.K., 1987. Natural pozzolans : supplementary cementing materials in con-
crete. CANMET Spec. Publ. 86, 1e33.
Milanez, B., Bührs, T., 2009. Extended producer responsibility in Brazil: the case of
tyre waste. J. Clean. Prod. 17 (6), 608e615.
Ministry of Natural Resources, 2010a. State of the Aggregate Resources in Ontario
Study, Paper #3: Value of Aggregates. Accessed on April 24th, 2013.
Mohammed, B.S., Hossain, K.M.A., Swee, J.T.E., Wong, G., Abdullahi, M., 2012.
Properties of crumb rubber hollow concrete block. J. Clean. Prod. 23, 57e67.
Mousa, M.I., Mahdy, M.G., Abdel-Reheem, A.H., Yehia, A.Z., 2015. Mechanical
properties of self-curing concrete (SCUC). HBRC J. 11 (3), 311e320.
Nagrockiene, D., Girskas, G., 2016. Research into the properties of concrete modified
with natural zeolite addition. Constr. Build. Mater. 113, 964e969.
Najimi, M., Sobhani, J., Ahmadi, B., Shekarchi, M., 2012. An experimental study on
durability properties of concrete containing zeolite as a highly reactive natural
 M. Jalal et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 238 (2019) 117882
pozzolan. Constr. Build. Mater. 35, 1023e1033.
Onuaguluchi, O., Panesar, D.K., 2014. Hardened properties of concrete mixtures
containing pre-coated crumb rubber and silica fume. J. Clean. Prod. 82, 125e131.
Pelisser, F., Zavarise, Ni., Longo, T.A., Bernardin, A.M., 2011. Concrete made with
recycled tire rubber: Effect of alkaline activation and silica fume addition.
J. Clean. Prod. 19, 757e763.
Pham, N.P., Toumi, A., Turatsinze, A., 2018. Rubber aggregate-cement matrix bond
enhancement: microstructural analysis, effect on transfer properties and on
mechanical behaviours of the composite. Cement Concr. Compos. 94, 1e12.
Raffoul, S., Garcia, R., Pilakoutas, K., Guadagnini, M., Medina, N.F., 2016. Optimisa-
tion of rubberised concrete with high rubber content: an experimental inves-
tigation. Constr. Build. Mater. 124, 391e404.
Raggiotti, B.B., Positieri, M.J., Oshiro, A., 2018. Natural zeolite, a pozzolan for
structural concrete. Procedia Struct. Integr. 11, 36e43.
Ramezanianpour, A.A., Mousavi, R., Kalhori, M., Sobhani, J., Najimi, M., 2015. Micro
and macro level properties of natural zeolite contained concretes. Constr. Build.
Mater. 101, 347e358.
Richardson, A., Coventry, K., Edmondson, V., Dias, E., 2016. Crumb rubber used in
concrete to provide freeze-thaw protection (optimal particle size). J. Clean.
Prod. 112, 599e606.
Samimi, K., Kamali-Bernard, S., Maghsoudi, A.A., 2018. Durability of self-compacting
concrete containing pumice and zeolite against acid attack, carbonation and
marine environment. Constr. Build. Mater. (165), 247e263.
Sgobba, S., Marano, G.C., Borsa, M., Molfetta, M., 2010. Use of rubber particles from
recycled tires as concrete aggregate for engineering applications. In: Universita
Politecnica delle Marche, Ancona, Italy, Second International Conference on
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies, ISBN 978-1-4507-1490-7.
Shu, X., Huang, B., 2014. Recycling of waste tire rubber in asphalt and portland
13
cement concrete: an overview. Constr. Build. Mater. 67, 217e224.
Smith, G.N., 1986. Probability and Statistics in Civil Engineering. Collins, London.
Sotoudeh, M.H., Jalal, M., 2013. Effects of waste steel fibers on strength and stress-
strain behavior of concrete incorporating silica nanopowder. Indian J. Sci.
Technol. 6 (10), 5411e5417.
Sunthonpagasit, N., Duffey, M.R., 2004. Scrap tires to crumb rubber: feasibility
analysis for processing facilities. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 40 (4), 281e299.
Teimortashlu, E., Dehestani, M., Jalal, M., 2018. Application of Taguchi method for
compressive strength optimization of tertiary blended self-compacting mortar.
Constr. Build. Mater. 190, 1182e1191.
Thomas, B.S., Gupta, R.C., Kalla, P., Cseteneyi, L., 2014. Strength, abrasion and
permeation characteristics of cement concrete containing discarded rubber fine
aggregates. Constr. Build. Mater. 59, 204e212.
Topçu, I.B., 1997. Assessment of the brittleness index of rubberized concretes.
Cement Concr. Res. V. 27 (No. 2), 177e183.
Tortum, A., Çelik, C., Aydin, A.C., 2005. Determination of the optimum conditions for
tire rubber in asphalt concrete. Build. Environ. 40 (11), 1492e1504.
Tran, Y.T., Lee, J., Kumar, P., Kim, K.H., Lee, S.S., 2019. Natural zeolite and its appli-
cation in concrete composite production. Composites Part B 165, 354e364.
Turatsinze, A., Garros, M., 2008. On the modulus of elasticity and strain capacity of
self-compacting concrete incorporating rubber aggregates. Resour. Conserv.
Recycl. 52 (10), 1209e1215.
Vazinram, F., Jalal, M., Foroushani, M.Y., 2015. Effect of nano ZnO2 and lime water
curing on strength and water absorption of concrete. Int. J. Mater. Prod. Technol.
50, 356e365.
Winfield, M.S., Taylor, A., 2005. Rebalancing the Load; the Need for an Aggregates
Conservation Strategy for Ontario. The Pembina Institute. Available at: http://
www.pembina.org/pub/179.