A Comprehensive Review On Dry Concrete - Application, Raw Material, Preparation, Mechanical, Smart and Durability Performance

Journal of Building Engineering 55 (2022) 104676
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Building Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jobe
A comprehensive review on dry concrete: Application, raw

material, preparation, mechanical, smart and
durability performance
Ruizhe Shao, Chengqing Wu *, Jun Li
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW, 2007, Australia
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Dry concrete, which can be understood literally, is defined as the fresh mixture of concrete having
Dry concrete no flowability with a very small slump value. It is a hardened mixture mixed with essentially the
Roller-compacted concrete same raw materials (cement, aggregate and supplementary cementitious material) but lower
Dry-cast concrete water content as compared to conventional concrete. Performance and properties of dry concrete
Raw material are closely related to the raw materials dosage, preparation technique, curing regimes and curing.
Preparation method
At present, the applications of dry concrete products have been expanded to many engineering
Mechanical behaviour
areas which benefit from their prominent advantages such as fast hardening, high early strength,
Smart and durability performance
along with low material and production cost. This paper reviews two most representative dry
concrete mixtures, namely roller-compacted concrete (RCC) and dry-cast concrete (DCC), in terms
of raw material, preparation method, static/dynamic mechanical behaviour, smart and durability
performance, and application. Among them, the static and dynamic mechanical properties,
including static strength behaviour and elastic modulus, as well as dynamic responses under
seismic and impact loads, are reviewed in detail. In addition, the freeze-thaw resistance,
carbonation resistance, permeability, abrasion resistance, fatigue characteristic and volume
change which involved in durability investigation of both RCC and DCC are successively elabo
rated and analysed. Finally, some suggestions and ideas on the further researches of dry concrete
are also presented.
1. Introduction
Since the advent of concrete, it has become the most widely used building material due to its advantages of broad source of raw
materials, low cost and energy consumption, simple process and good fire resistance. Based on the marked difference in appearance
and flowability of the mixture, concrete can be simply divided into two types, namely dry concrete and self-compacting concrete.
Generally, dry concrete is defined as its fresh mixture having no flowability when the mixing is completed and the slump value is very
small of no more than 25 mm [1]. As compared to usual self-compacting concrete, dry concrete has a lower water-binder ratio and
cementing material content in which part of cement is normally replaced by alternative supplementary cementitious materials
(ASCMs). These characteristics contribute to fast hardening speed and high early strength, and the low workability allows rapid
demoulding after compaction, or even without any formwork operation in the preparation process [2–4]. Roller-compacted concrete
(RCC) and dry-cast concrete (DCC) are two different types of dry concrete mixture with different casting and fabrication methods [5].
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: Chengqing.wu@uts.edu.au (C. Wu).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2022.104676
Received 18 March 2022; Received in revised form 5 May 2022; Accepted 17 May 2022
Available online 26 May 2022
2352-7102/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
R. Shao et al. Journal of Building Engineering 55 (2022) 104676
The moulding of RCC is usually achieved by repeated steel/rubber-tired rolling compaction, and it is generally applied to engineering
areas of dams and pavements [5–8]. While in the preparation of DCC, mechanical consolidation and vibration are greatly required to
cast the prefabricated elements like pipes, segmental retaining wall and concrete masonry units [5,9,10]. Moreover, when concrete
mixes are utilized in the engineering aspects of normal pavements and concrete masonry products where strength is not the primary
concern, many industrial by-products that do not meet the requirements of the raw materials of conventional concrete are still feasible
to substitute a large amount of ingredients in dry concrete mixtures [11,12].
For RCC, the most important engineering applications are RCC dams (RCCD) and RCC pavements (RCCP) as shown in Fig. 1. Fresh
mixtures with zero slump used in roller-compacted method of RCCD and RCCP are favourable to obtain the sufficient compaction
during laying. The construction process of RCCD is simpler and faster than conventional concrete dams [13], and the laying process as
well as machines and equipment used for RCCP are essentially the same as those of asphalt pavements with no formwork [3]. It is
reported that for RCCD, the layer-by-layer roller-compacted placement of dry concrete mixture may result in poor adhesion between
the layers, which in turn significantly reduce the horizontal strength behaviour and increase the permeability at the construction
interfaces and joints of the dam body [7,14]. Moreover, thermal stress and temperature cracking due to cement hydration and poor
thermal conductivity of the super-volume structures are another primary unfavourable factors affecting the durability and long-term
serviceability of RCCD [15,16]. Data from several experiments have indicated that the early strength of the mixture whose cement or
aggregate is partially substituted with ASCMs or recycled aggregates is significantly reduced, causing a decline in the early abrasion
and fatigue resistance of concrete [17–19]. It is therefore, for RCCP, important to choose appropriate materials and dosage when RCC is
laid as the outermost layer which needs to resist repeated vehicle loads, especially in heavy-duty pavements. It should be pointed out
that the rough and uneven surface of RCC without grinding renders it unsuitable for paving rapid transit pavements, and also the loose
state of the dry mixture makes the transportation volume of the ready-mix truck much smaller [20]. Finally, due to the large surface
area and low water content of either RCCD or RCCP, improper curing regime considerably accelerates the evaporation of water within
the mixture, making strengths and durability of the structure unable to be guaranteed [21–23].
In terms of DCC, its widespread use in the precast concrete industry is profited from its time efficiency and effectiveness [26]. Some
published literature pointed out that the lean or very low-slump mixtures used to manufacture DCC pipes were not particularly suitable
to the fibre dispersion as well as the interfacial interactions between the mixture and steel cages or fibres [27,28]. During the casting,
fresh mixture needs to be poured into the mould with steel cages fixing on the bottom rings to prevent brittle failure and help early
demoulding of concrete pipes. Moreover, appropriate consistency is positively beneficial to disperse fibres and improve vibration
efficiency when preparing fibre-reinforced DCC pipes [28–30]. Unlike RCC, DCC is more utilized to produce and manufacture smaller
concrete units like concrete bricks, blocks, sewer pipes and paving stones (Fig. 2). The casting moulds can be removed immediately
once the mixture is formed, and thus remarkably increase the turnaround speed of moulds [27,31,32]. Steam curing regime is
generally used following the rapid demoulding to accelerate the hardening rate and improve the early mechanical properties of
mixtures. Besides, it was illustrated by Willis [33] that the application of DCC in the constructions of site-cast prefabricated panels,
supported slabs and concrete brick work set made it possible to save approximately 35%, 10% and 25% of the cost, even without
considering the multiple advantages such as reduced working time and higher early strength.
The purpose of current study is to provide an extensive literature review on raw material, preparation technique, static/dynamic
mechanical behaviour, and smart and durability performance of dry concrete reported above. The combination of tables and figures is
used to summarize the scattered achievements obtained by researchers, to better and more conveniently understand and capture the
related information. Some suggestions and ideas are put forward for further studies on dry concrete at the end of conclusions.
2. Raw materials and preparation methods

2.1. Raw materials
The performance of concrete is closely associated with the type and quality of the raw materials. It is essential to choose appropriate
materials to obtain the satisfying mechanical properties. The primary raw materials of dry concrete are essentially the same as those of
Fig. 1. Typical RCC engineering applications: RCC dams (left) [24] and RCC pavements (right) [25].
2
Fig. 2. Typical DCC prefabricated units: DCC sewer pipes (left) [28] and DCC paving blocks (right) [34].
conventional concrete. The following sections elaborate the raw materials including the cementitious components, aggregate and
additional additives (chemical addition and fibre) of dry concrete in detail.
2.1.1. Cementitious material

It is generally known that cement is a major and important powdery hydraulic cementitious material applied to civil engineering,
water conservancy, national defence and other engineering applications. The slurry formed by mixing with water can firmly bond
various aggregates and fibres together. At present, Portland cement complying with ASTM C150-05 (TYPE I) [8,32,35], ASTM C150
(TYPE II) [12,30,36,37], IS4031 [38–40] and CEM II 42.5 N [41,42] is the most commonly used cement type in the mix designs of dry
concrete. Additionally, Portland cement of type GU [9,43] and type HE [31] are also employed as cementing materials for preparing
dry concrete. The specific gravity and Blaine surface area of the above cement are around 3.15 g/cm3 and 300–450 m2/kg, respec
tively, and the initial and final setting time is approximately 155 and 225 min, respectively. The main chemical composition of re
ported cement includes CaO, SO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, MgO and SO3. It should be noted that compared with self-compacting concrete, TYPE
III Portland cement is impractical for the preparation of most dry concrete structures and components due to its faster early hardening
speed and higher thermal evolution rate, which evidently shortens the available cast/fabrication time and increase the possibility of
thermal cracking of dry concrete mixtures [3].
Fly ash (FA) is a kind of industrial by-product produced by pulverized coal combustion in the process of thermal power generation.
Considering the perspectives of the environmental sustainability and the filling, lubricating, dispersing and reactivating functions, a
certain amount of FA is usually introduced into dry concrete mixtures substituting partial cement (commonly up to approximately 50%
by weight) or aggregate to achieve the purpose of saving resource cost, improving fresh concrete workability and enhancing long-term
performance [43–45]. Additionally, the effect of mixing FA to reduce temperature rising and initial cracking, and further improve the
structural durability shows particularly important when dry concrete is used to construct RCCD or RCCP [46–49].
Silica fume (SF) is an ultrafine siliceous powder material produced in the smelting of ferroalloy and industrial silicon. The main
constituent of SF is SiO2 and it has a specific surface area of 20,000 m2/kg and an average particle size of 0.1–1 μm. These charac
teristics make SF possess excellent pozzolanic activity and a desired effect on increasing lower early strengths of hardened mixture
caused by partial replacement with alternative materials [23,36,50,51]. Generally, the improvement of SF to concrete cementing
system is mainly achieved through the filling, pozzolanic activity, rheological and solution chemical effects [52].
In addition to FA and SF introduced above, some other waste materials and by-products like industrial coal waste, rice husk ash
(RHA), ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS), white cement by pass dust (WCBPD), municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI)
bottom ash, trass and glass powder [9,12,19,22,31,53–59] are also added to dry concrete mixtures to partially replace cement, in
considerations of raw material cost and severe environmental issues. These materials are therefore called ASCMs. It is noteworthy that
a promising ASCM called sludge ash has been utilized to prepare self-compacting concrete blocks relying on its high pozzolanic
reactivity and the ability to accelerate the early hydration reaction [60,61]. The proper addition of sludge ash is thus very beneficial to
dry concrete since most of ASCMs mentioned above will reduce the early performance which is very important for dry concrete
structures/units. In addition, nanoscale material, such as nano-silica, has been used as a supplementary cementitious material in dry
concrete mixtures to densify the internal micro-structure and improve the physical-mechanical properties of hardened concrete
[62–64].
2.1.2. Aggregate
Aggregate, which accounts for more than half of the mass fraction of the mix proportion, is the main component of the concrete
mixture, and its characteristics have a vital impact on concrete technical properties and economic benefit [65]. The aggregate used to
prepare dry concrete is basically the same as conventional concrete composing of fine and coarse aggregate and sand. The particle size
gradation is particularly important since the total dosage of cement paste used to fill the aggregate voids is reduced, owing to the low
moisture and cementitious material content of dry concrete. Furthermore, the size and category of aggregate are related to practical
applications, such as crushed limestones with larger dimensions are generally used to improve the abrasion resistance of RCCP [66,67],
3
and the mixture with fine sand is used to cast the surface layer of paving blocks [2]. In order to reduce the raw material cost and in line
with the aim of protecting environment and saving resources, a variety of recyclable aggregate like manufactured sand (M-sand) [38,
39,68], reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) aggregate [19,69,70], recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) [41,71,72], electric arc furnace
(EAF) slag [73], circulating fluidized bed combustion (CFBC) ash [35], polyethylene polymer pellets [31] and recycled cathode ray
tube (CRT) glass [74] are used to replace partial natural sand or aggregate in dry concrete without high strength requirement. In
addition, rubber particles shredded by waste rubber products is another kind of reclaimed material substituting the partial fine and
coarse aggregate, and the prepared concrete is usually called rubberized concrete [4,30,36,75–77].
2.1.3. Chemical additives and fibre

High-performance polycarboxylates water-reducing agent (superplasticizer) and air-entraining agent are two most commonly-used
chemical additives in the preparation of dry concrete units and structures. Superplasticizer has a considerable effect on increasing
consistency and various strengths, especially for fibre-reinforced dry concrete with poor workability [28,78,79]. Incorporating
air-entraining agent can be beneficial for dry concrete against freeze-thaw damages [44,55,57,80]. Furthermore, the addition of steel,
polypropylene (PP) and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fibres is another effective method frequently utilized to improve the bending and
ductility behaviour of dry concrete [27,28,81–83]. Some treated “ecological green” fibres (recycled glass, plastic, steel and PP fibre)
recovered from waste materials are also adopted as the reinforcement considering both mechanical performance and cost [84–87].
2.2. Preparation method

Even though the raw materials of dry concrete are roughly the same as conventional concrete and the properties are closely related
to mix proportions, the different appearance of fresh concrete makes the preparation method also have a great impact on dry concrete
performance. At present, the commonly used fabrication method for DCC precast units is the mechanical consolidation with plant
compaction or hand ramming, and vibration is also considered in some cases to disperse the mixture evenly [2,26]. For RCC samples,
vibrating table [42,46,88] and vibrating hammer [48,54,89] compaction, respectively in accordance with ASTM standards
C1176/C1176 M [90] and C1435/C1435 M [91], are widely employed laboratory preparation techniques. The former method utilizes
a certain mass of surcharge compacting the fresh concrete to achieve the final form on the vibrating table, and the latter uses a steel
tamping plate to uniformly distribute the vibrated compaction energy generated by hammer on each layer of the mixture. In addition,
roller compaction adopting vibratory roller drum and rubber-tired roller is employed in the engineering constructions of RCCD and
RCCP, and this method is also used in RCC behaviour studies to simulate real construction conditions [89,92–94]. Fig. 3 depicts the
typical preparation methods reported above, and all of which aim to compact the fresh mixture to reduce the void content and obtain
the dense concrete structure.
3. Performance and properties

3.1. Mixture basic performance
3.1.1. Adiabatic temperature rising
The adiabatic temperature rising of concrete mainly relies on the amount and rate of cement hydration heat. When cement is mixed
with water, various unbalanced compounds in the high-energy state react with water and hydration products are formed with stable
low-energy state, that is, cement hydration is a continuous energy-released (exothermic) process [95]. RCCD, as a typical engineering
application of the large-volume dry concrete structure reported above, its quick construction process and poor thermal conductivity
cause the internal temperature to rise rapidly and the volume expansion occurs due to the cement hydration. Consequently, the
thermal stress and resulting surface cracks appear on account of the lower initial strength of the matrix, along with the combined action
of the large temperature gradient and surface tensile stresses [16]. The cracks further develop into penetration cracks once the
following curing is inappropriate, causing serious damage as well as unguaranteed serviceability and durability of RCCD structure. To
control and reduce the temperature cracking caused by the thermal stress, it is usually realized by adjusting the cement ratio in the
Fig. 3. Preparation methods for fresh dry concrete: (a) mechanical consolidation and vibration [30]; (b) vibrating table compaction [6] and (c) roller compaction [94].
4
concrete mixture [47] and adopting new technical approaches such as superficial thermal insulation [15,96]. In terms of adjusting the
cement proportion within concrete mixes, RCCDs are advantaged with better temperature cracking resistance as compared to con
ventional concrete dams, by virtue of the natural characteristics of dry concrete with low cement addition as well as a large amount of
ASCMs added to substitute partial cement, as elaborated in Section 2.1.1. This, hence, provides potential and advantages for the wide
use of RCCD in practical engineering. In addition, it is noteworthy that the finite-element simulation is an effective analysis technique
when assessing the adiabatic temperature rising and thermal stress of RCCD. For instance, Zhang et al. [96] evaluated the impact of
superficial thermal insulation on the superficial temperature of RCCD in cold regions by performing simulation and analysis. It was
demonstrated that the existence of the superficial insulation remarkably raised the surface temperature and effectively reduced the
surface temperature difference and maximum tensile stress of RCCD, and therefore limited the formation of temperature cracking. For
another instance, Jaafar et al. [97] numerically studied the influence of placing season on the temperature responses of RCCD by
introducing the technology of element’s birth and death, which could effectively decrease the volume of the input data. The findings
indicated that the location of the maximum temperature zone could be optimized by changing the placing schedule, and the seasons
with lower temperatures were more favourable to reduce the tensile stresses within the critical zone.
3.1.2. Consistency and unit weight

In order to achieve a sufficient compaction of the dry concrete mixture and provide a good appearance as it is compacted, good
workability is particularly important. It is also conductive to minimize the compaction energy during preparation. Traditionally,
performance of fresh dry concrete is commonly indicated by the consistency and unit weight, and Vebe time (VBT) is used to char
acterize the consistency since the slump of fresh concrete is closed to zero [8,45,85]. VBT is the time interval expressed in seconds from
when Vebe apparatus starts to vibrate to a complete mortar ring appears between the surcharge and the container wall [98]. However,
the proper consistency obtained through the laboratory test may not be fully applicable to engineering practice. Chhorn et al. [92]
noted that the range of VBT should be expanded to 30–75 s to improve the practicality. Additionally, the appropriate consistency of the
mixture, e.g., whether the paste is cohesive enough, should also be determined by specific concrete structures/components applied in
the actual projects. The universality of much published research has illustrated that several factors like water content, aggregate type
and gradation, cementitious material dosage and additives have a considerable impact on the consistency and unit weight of RCC
mixtures. For instance, Karadelis et al. [79] and Kolase et al. [82] pointed out that the incorporation of steel and PP fibres in RCC
mixtures resulted in bad workability, whereas using superplasticizer with a dosage of 2.5% and 1.0% could effectively improve the
workability and mechanical properties of fibre-reinforced RCC. Fig. 4 displays the relationships between the rubber content and the
density or VBT of fresh RCC concluded by Meddah et al. [42] who used shredded rubber tire to partially replace the natural crushed
aggregate. As can be observed that the unit weight lightens as the rubber addition increased within the mix, but the consistency tends
to increase as the replacement level changes from 0 to 30%, which was attributed to the low water absorption of rubber particles and
the free water within the mixture is therefore increased. Similar increase in VBT was also observed in the fabrication of pedestrian DCC
blocks by Sukontasukkul et al. [4]. Lessard et al. [43] drew a conclusion that an evident workability loss can be observed when biomass
FA and bottom ash were respectively utilized to replace cement and sand in DCC mixtures, and the compacted energy required to
achieve the prescribed consolidation indices was therefore increased. In addition, the partial substitution of cement by glass powder
[57] and aggregate by electric arc furnace (EAF) slag [73] both increase the unit weight of fresh RCC.
3.2. Static mechanical properties

3.2.1. Strength behaviour
It is well known that the static strengths including compressive and tensile strengths are the most critical and frequently-used
indicators for the static behaviour assessment of various concrete, especially for dry concrete which is characterized by fast hard
ening speed and high early strength. Even though the ingredients of dry concrete are similar as those of conventional concrete as
introduced above, its static strength properties and research focus are quite different due to the distinctions in composition ratio,
moulding method and application field, as well as more ASCMs and less moisture content. Table 1 and Table 2 respectively indicate the
Fig. 4. Relationships between rubber content and fresh density (left) as well as Vebe time (right) of RCC [42].
5
effects of various alternative materials (AM) and fibres on the strength behaviour of hardened dry concrete obtained by organizing the
relevant literature. Then, the mechanical performance is elaborated in detail from above two aspects.
In the research team of Rao et al. [38–40,68], they conducted experimental investigation on the mechanical perporties of RCC with
cement (295 kg/m3) and river sand (801 kg/m3) being partially substituted by FA, GGBS and M-sand, respectively. Test results
indicated that when cement was replaced by FA (0–60%), the strengths were reduced with increasing FA content, especially at early
ages. For instance, the compressive and flexural strengths of RCC (60% FA substitution), respectively, diminished by 67.9% and 65.8%
at 3-day age as compared to those of the control case without FA addition, and, respectively, diminished by 49.9% and 36.1% at 90-day
age. For RCC with partial cement substituted by GGBS (10–60%), the strengths also reduced with GGBS content at 3 days but improved
to varying degrees at 7–90 days. Moreover, the use of M-sand at the level of 50% replacement yielded higher strengths, whereas the
complete replacement caused a decrease in strengths, ultrasonic pulse velocity and dynamic elastic modulus. It was noteworthy that
for normal-strength self-compacting concrete with higher cement (340 kg/m3) and lower sand (737 kg/m3) addition, its strengths
under the same FA substitutions (10–60%) showed significantly less decline, and the long-term strengths even increased to some
extents [99]. For instance, the compressive strength of the foregoing concrete (60% FA substitution) decreased by 34.8% at 3-day age
in comparison with the control case, while increased by 4.3% and 18.6% at 56 and 91 days, respectively. The reason might be that at a
higher FA substitution, the hydration degree of dry concrete mixture with low cement addition was reduced, causing an evident
decrease in its mechanical properties at early ages. Then, a small amount of continuously generated hydration products like Ca(OH)2
could not fully react with FA and therefore affected the later strength development. Above views regarding the negative influence of FA
replacing cement were supported by other researchers [43,45,100], but meanwhile the positive impact on improving strength per
formance was also observed when FA content was appropriate and the curing age was extended [18,101,102]. The activation effect of
FA and GGBS is realized by the formation of cementing products during the crystallization and pozzolanic reaction between cement
hydration products and active components of FA and GGBS, in the middle and later stage of the concrete curing period [40,68,103].
Interestingly, the strength values exhibited a significant enhancement as compared to control samples when the material substituted by
Table 1
Effects of alternative materials (AM) on strength behaviour of hardened RCC and DCC from literature (Increase: ↑, Decrease: ↓).
Researchers AM (substituted content) Replaced material Compressive Flexural strength Split tensile strength
strength
Aghabaglou et al. FA (20%, 40%, 60%) Cement 20–60%↓ 20–60%↓ 20–60%↓

[100] Aggregate 20–60%↑ 20–60%↑ 20–60%↑
Adamu et al. [18] FA (50%, 60%, 70%) Cement 3-28d↓, 90-365d↑ 7-90d↓ 3-90d↓
Atis [101] FA (50%, 70%) Cement 50% 28-365d↑, 50%↑, 70%↓ 50%↑, 70%↓
70%↓
Rao et al. [40] GGBS (10%, 20% … 60%) Cement 3d↓, 7-90d↑ 3d↓, 7-90d↑ 3d↓, 7-90d↑
Madhkhan et al. [78] GGBS, FA (15%, 30%) Cement 15%↓, 30%↓ 15%↓, 30%↓ –
Ashteyat et al. [54] WCBPD (10%, 20%, 30%, Cement 0–10%↑, 10–40%↓ – 0–10%↑, 10–40%↓
40%)
Ghahari et al. [55,56] Trass (15%, 20%, 25%) Cement 15–25%↓ – 15–25%↓
Modarres et al. [19] RHA (3%, 5%) Cement 3% 120d↑, 5%↓ 3% 120d↑, 5%↓ –
Coarse/Fine RAP (100%) Coarse/Fine Coarse↓, Fine↓ Coarse↓, Fine↓ –
aggregate
Omran et al. [57] Glass powder (20%) Cement 7d↓, 28-91d↑ 7d↓, 28-91d↑ 1.18 Years↑
Lessard et al. [43,45] BFA (10%, 20%, 30%) Cement 10–30%↓ 10–30%↓ 10–30%↓
BBA (50%, 100%)/(20% … Sand 50%↓, 100%↓ 50%↓, 100%↓ 20–80%↓
80%)
Rao et al. [39] M-sand (50%, 100%) River sand 50%↑, 100%↓ 50%↑, 100% –
Variable
Settari et al. [104] Coarse/Fine RAP (50%, 100%) Coarse/Fine Coarse↓, Fine↓ – 50% Coarse+50% Fine↑,
aggregate Others↓
Debbarma et al. [17] Coarse/Fine RAP (50%, 100%) Coarse/Fine Variable Coarse↓, Fine↓ Coarse↓, Fine↓
aggregate
Rooholamini et al. Coarse/Fine EAF slag (25%, Coarse/Fine Coarse↓, Fine↓ Coarse↓, Fine↓ Coarse↑, 25% Fine↑, 50%
[105] 50%) aggregate Fine↓
Lopez et al. [41] RCA (50%, 100%) Coarse aggregate 50%↓, 100%↓ 50%↓, 100%↓ 50%↓, 100%↓
Poon et al. [72] CCB (25%, 50%, 75%) RCA 25–75%↓ 25–75%↓ 25–75%↓
Ling [2] Crumb rubber (10%, 20%, Sand 0–10%↑, 10–30%↓ 0–10%↑, 10–30%↓ –
30%)
Sukontasukkul et al. Crumb rubber (10%, 20%) Coarse/Fine 10–20%↓ 10–20%↓ –
[4] aggregate
Fakhri et al. [36] Waste rubber (5%, 10% … Sand 0–10%↑, 10–35%↓ 0–5%↑, 5–35%↓ –
35%)
Meddah et al. [42] Shredded rubber (5%, 10% … Coarse aggregate 5–30%↓ 5–30%↓ 5–30%↓
30%)
Mohammed et al. Crumb rubber (10%, 20%, Fine aggregate 0–10%↑, 10–30%↓ 0–20%↑, 20–30%↓ 0–10%↑, 10–30%↓
[106] 30%)
Notes: “FA” denotes fly ash; “M-sand” denotes manufactured sand; “GGBS” denotes ground granulated blast furnace slag; “WCBPD” denotes white cement by pass dust;
“RHA” denotes rice husk ash; “RAP” denotes recycled asphalt pavement; “BFA” denotes biomass fly ash; “BBA” denotes biomass bottom ash; “EAF” denotes electric arc
furnace; “RCA” denotes recycled concrete aggregate; “CCB” denotes crushed clay brick; “d” denotes curing ages and “-” denotes unstudied.
6
Table 2
Effects of various fibres on strength behaviour of hardened RCC and DCC from literature (Increase: ↑, Decrease: ↓).
Researchers Fibre type (volume fraction, %) Compressive strength Flexural strength Split tensile strength
Rooholamini et al. [8] Twisted PP (0.25, 0.5) Not significant 0.25–0.5%↑ –

Algin et al. [83] Twisted/Mesh PP (0.2, 0.4, 0.6) 0.2–0.6%↑ 0.2–0.6%↑ –
Kolase et al. [82] Triangular PP (0.25, 0.5, 0.75) 0.25–0.75%↓ 0.25–0.75%↑ Variable
Yazici et al. [107] Mesh PP (0.25, 0.5, 0.75) 0.25–0.75%↓ 0.25–0.75%↓ 0.25–0.5%↑, 0.75%↓
Ashteyat et al. [54] Virgin PP (0.25, 0.5) 0.25%↑, 0.5%↑ – 0.25%↑, 0.5%↑
LaHucik et al. [108] Embossed/Smooth PP (0.2, 0.4) 0.2%↑, 0.4%↑ 0.2%↓, 0.4%↓ 0.2%↑, 0.4%↑
Hooked end steel (0.2, 0.4) 0.2%↑, 0.4%↓ 0.2%↑, 0.4%↓ 0.2%↑, 0.4%↑
Madhkhan et al. [78] Monofilament PP (0.1) 0.1%↑ Variable –
Hooked end steel (0.4, 0.6, 0.8) 0.4–0.8%↑ Variable –
Karadelis et al. [79] Straight steel (1.0, 1.5, 2.0) Not significant 1.0–2.0%↑ –
Mohamed et al. [29] Hooked end steel (0.25, 0.5, 0.75) 0.25–0.75%↑ 0.25–0.75%↑ 0.25–0.75%↑
Peyvandi et al. [27] Polyvinyl alcohol (0.8) 0.8%↓ 0.8%↑ –
Yildizel et al. [84] Glass (1.0, 1.5, 2.0) 1.0–2.0%↓ 1.0–1.5%↓, 2.0%↑ –
Sobhan et al. [86] Plastic (0.25, 0.5) 0.25%↓, 0.5%↓ Variable 0.25% Variable, 0.5%↑
Notes: “PP” denotes polypropylene and “-” denotes unstudied.
FA is changed from cement to aggregate (Fig. 5), which was attributed to more cementing material content and higher compatibility
[100]. In addition to FA and GGBS, a certain amount of literature has been published on mechanical properties of dry concrete utilizing
some other ASCMs to partially replace cement participating in the hydration and secondary hydration reaction. As an illustration,
Hesami et al. [12] and Modarres et al. [53] jointly conducted the experimental research on strengths, toughness and microstructure of
RCCP containing limestone powder (LS), coal waste powder (CWP) and its ash (CWA). It was illustrated that the use of 5% CWP and up
to 10% CWA as the cement substitution into mixtures expressed comparable strength values as compared to the control case, in spite of
CWP was proved incapable being a pozzolanic material. The hybrid of CWA with 7% LS outperformed the mechanical behaviour of
RCCP attributed to the denser and homogenous microstructure which observed in the SEM micrographs. Again for instance, Zhang
et al. [9] explored the feasibility of using MSWI bottom ash (MSWI-BS) as an ASCM in DCC mixes. The common expansion cracking
occurred in high-slump concrete was not observed in DCC containing MSWI-BS. The incorporation of MSWI-BS replacing Portland
cement enhanced the early-age cement hydration and pozzolanic reactivity, and 20% content showed up to 18% higher strength at 90
days in comparison with control samples. In some cases, even if a high amount of cement substitution leads to a signal decrease in the
strength values, the minimum strength requirements of standards and practical engineering are still met [19,45,74].
Aggregate acts a considerable role in affecting the strength behaviour of hardened concrete, and several studies examining the
relations between aggregate replacement and mechanical characteristics of dry concrete have been conducted with pertinence. At
present, recycled aggregate including RAP [17,19,69,104] and RCA [41,72] is one of the major alternative materials for natural
aggregate appeared in research papers to analyse the replacement effect. The strength properties of hardened RCC with coarse and fine
RAP materials (without bitumen extraction) replacing 50% and 100% coarse and fine natural aggregate were evaluated by Settari et al.
[104]. It was shown that all the substitution ratios caused a regularly strength reduction in compression and tension, except that 50%
RAP replacement contributed to higher tensile strength. The reason might be that RAP materials were at the virgin state and thus their
surfaces were covered with untreated bitumen, resulted in poor adhesion between RAP particles and slurries [70]. Similar conclusions
had also been drawn from other studies conducted by Modarres et al. [19] and Debbarma et al. [17], but they also obtained a useful
achievement that the mixture containing RAP aggregate reached the minimum requirements of compressive (27.6 MPa) and bending
strengths (3.7 MPa) at 28-day age for RCCP constructions. Poon et al. [72] investigated the density, compressive and indirect tensile
strengths of DCC paving blocks containing RCA and crushed clay brick (CCB). It was demonstrated that the above properties gradually
reduced as CCB substitution percent increased, but the incorporation of 25% and 50% still respectively met the paving block re
quirements for traffic and pedestrian areas. Moreover, Debieb et al. [71] found that although the chloride ion content seemed to have
less impact on RCC properties, the contaminated RCA could be reused in reinforced concrete without any corrosion concern as their
surface chloride content could be leached into the water. Apart from recycled aggregate, EAF slag [73,105] and rubber particles [2,4,
42,75,76] are another two commonly used alternative materials of natural aggregate for preparing dry concrete. Lam et al. [73]
conducted mix design and mechanical property studies of RCCP made of EAF slag pre-treated with spraying water to ensure the volume
stability of slag aggregate. It was pointed out that the replacement of crushed stone aggregates using EAF slag slightly weakened the
compressive and split tensile strengths due to bad interfacial transition zones (ITZs) between EAF slag and cement paste as indicated in
Fig. 6. In contrast, the combination of the slag aggregate and 20% FA replacement could manufacture good-quality RCCP that satisfied
the requirements of exposed wearing surfaces. The mechanical behaviour of RCC containing crumb rubber and nano-silica were
evaluated by the research team of Adamu et al. [18,75,106]. It was concluded that the substitution of fine aggregate with up to 20%
rubber particles contributed to higher flexural strength and ductility index as compared to the control case, but the splitting tensile and
compressive strengths evidently decreased when the substitution percentage exceeded 10%. The addition of up to 2% nano-silica
significantly mitigated the 28-day strength loss in compression and splitting tension, and the optimum addition was tested to be
1%. The main principle was that nano-silica with high pozzolanic reactivity accelerated the cement hydration rate and increased the
quantity of C–S–H gel [64]. The microstructure and the ITZs between cement paste and rubber particles were therefore both densified,
which in turn improved the strengths of rubberized concrete while possessing great flexural toughness, crack resistance and longer
service life. In addition, the properties of DCC paving blocks considering various consolidation methods and rubber replacement ratios
7
Fig. 5. Relationships between mechanical strength behaviour and FA content of RCC in which FA substitutes partial (a, c and e) cement and (b, d and f) aggre
gate [100].
of sand were explored by Ling [2]. Research findings reported that the delamination and cracks might occur on fresh block samples
when the rubber content exceeded 20%, and the volume and dimensions were easily changed as samples were demoulded (Fig. 7),
which caused the rejection rate increased. Inclusion of soft rubber particles of no more than 10% slightly enhanced the samples’
strengths, but observably improved the deformability and toughness at all substitution levels. In the practical viewpoint, plant-made
compaction technique is more recommended for rubberized paving blocks as compared to the hand-ramming method.
Since one of the most critical criteria for evaluating RCCP and DCC pipes is whether they have an excellent tensile performance,
researchers in their investigations pay particular attention to the effects of fibre type and dosage on strength behaviour, especially the
flexural tensile strength. Rooholamini et al. [8] assessed the effects of twisted bundle polyethylene fibre on pre-cracking RCCP
behaviour including flexural strength and fracture energy by conducting the notched three-point bending test. According to the
8
Fig. 6. SEM images of ITZ between EAF slag and paste under 200 and 1000 magnifications [73].
Fig. 7. Cracking and volume expansion of rubberized DCC paving blocks [2].
laboratory test results, conspicuous influence of fibre incorporation on compressive strength was not concluded, whereas a promising
potential in increasing flexural and residual strength was obtained and the post-cracking behaviour showed great ductility in
high-flexural-strength RCCP. They further assessed the Mode I plain-strain cracking toughness of different mono/hybrid steel and PP
fibre-reinforced RCC using revised two-parameter model in another research [88]. It can be seen from Fig. 8 that the variation in fibre
type, stiffness and aspect ratio (R1, R2 and H, respectively, denote mono PP, mono steel and hybrid fibre reinforcement) had less impact
on the appearance of possible kinked cracks during the stable growth in comparison with control RCC without fibre reinforcement (N).
The hybrid of copper-coated steel and macro PP fibres presented excellent fracture toughness in all cases (H1, H2 and H3) owing to the
Fig. 8. Crack trajectory envelope for different mono/hybrid FRCC samples under Mode I applied loading [88].
9
effects of steel fibres on preventing the crack development and providing wider contact surface area. Karadelis et al. [79] conducted
detailed experimental tests on the flexural behaviour and fibre efficiency of polymer modified (PM) RCC reinforced with steel fibres. It
was indicated that the PM RCC containing 1.5% steel fibres presented very high flexural strength (15.2 MPa) and great bonding with
old concrete, which was beneficial for the rehabilitation of worn concrete pavements. In addition, Mohamed et al. [29] explored the
structural and mechanical behaviour of full-size steel fibre-reinforced DCC pipes by conducting the three-edge bearing tests. Not
surprisingly, the engineering characteristics including strengths and elastic modulus of hardened mixture were improved with fibre
addition, which endowed fibre-reinforced pipes with higher ultimate strength and great post-cracking performance. Collated hooked
end steel fibres were more effective on enhancing the flexural and tensile strengths of specimens, and dispersed steel fibres with
minimum dosage of 20 kg/m3 could be utilized to replace the conventional steel cages and met the reinforcement specification for
Class V pre-fabricated concrete pipes. Similar fibre toughening effect was also achieved by other researchers who employed PP and
PVA fibres in the fabrication of DCC precast pipes [28,30,109]. Whether DCC mixtures were reinforced with mono or hybrid fibres, it
had a remarkable impact on enhancing the pipe strength and ductility, along with holding cracks and preventing the collapse. Fig. 9
shows the typical crack patterns of the fibre-reinforced DCC pipe after three-edge bearing tests. Except for the four main cracks, no
other serious damage was observed, and the majority of the fibres remained intact bridging the cracks and pipe matrix. In terms of fibre
efficiency, Shao et al. [110] reported that the addition of steel fibres (within the range of 0.5–2.0%) into dry concrete mixtures
contributed more positive impact to the flexural strength rather than the compression, owing to the adopted preparation method of
layering compaction endowed steel fibres with a longer anchorage length when the concrete matrix was cracked under bending loads.
As compared to self-compacting concrete with similar steel fibre dimension and content, the prepared dry concrete exhibited higher
compressive and flexural strengths at 28-day age, that is, steel fibres demonstrated a greater fibre efficiency. In addition, considering
the higher fibre cost and the purpose of increasing the recycling ratio of waste materials, several types of sustainable fibres are mixed in
concrete mixes to improve their properties. For example, Haghnejad et al. [85] examined the mechanical responses of recycled PP
fibre-reinforced RCCP against the freeze-thaw and fatigue damage; Sobhan et al. [86] conducted laboratory experiments to assess the
strength behaviour of RCCP with the incorporation of waste plastic fibres, and Angelakopoulos et al. [111] tested the compressive and
bending performance of RCC reinforced with reused tyre steel fibres.
It is noteworthy that since the main laying method of RCC is roller compaction layer by layer, the research into the interlayer
performance of RCC is especially important. Liu et al. [112] studied the effects of time interval and interlayer treatment on the
interlayer shear strength of RCC. It was shown that the ultimate shear strength of RCC interlayer reduced with time intervals, especially
after the final setting. In addition, the treatments of expansion agent and nano-silica with mortar were proved to be more effective to
improve the shear strength than the mortar alone. Zhu et al. [113] also studied the effects of the treatment (cement mortar with double
expansion agents) on the properties of RCC interlayer and it was indicated that the appropriate addition of double expansion agents
could increase the shear strength, cohesive strength and frictional coefficient. The utilization of interlayer treatment materials could
solve the permeation and bonding quality issues of RCCD structures. For the bond strength of RCC interlayer, Madhkhan et al. [114]
explored the effects of different normal pressures by carrying out the experimental investigation utilizing interlayer cement grout. Test
results showed that the use of cement grout, the increase in normal pressure and the decrease in moisture content of cement grout all
improved the bond strength of RCC interlayer. In addition to the shear and bond strengths of RCC interlayer, the influence of the
compaction quality on RCC interlayer behaviour was also very important. Liu et al. [115] evaluated the compaction quality of RCC
matrix and interface by using the real-time monitoring quality index (unit compaction energy, UCE). Based on the data collected from
laboratory compaction experiments, a density regression and a shear strength regression model of RCC matrix and interface were
developed to determine the control criteria of UCE. In addition, a UCE-based real-time monitoring software was established for
practical quality control, which could provide the quality assurance for RCC constructions.
3.2.2. Modulus of elasticity

The modulus of elasticity (MOE) is an essential and commonly used mechanical behaviour index for evaluating the ability of
concrete materials against the elastic deformation. Similar to conventional concrete, the MOE of dry concrete is commonly achieved by
Fig. 9. Typical flexural failure patterns and crack bridging by fibres of fibre-reinforced DCC pipe [30].
10
calculating the slope of linear elasticity within the compressive stress-strain curve of a cylindrical specimen. Thus, the variation law of
MOE is closely similar to that of compressive behaviour [116]. It can also be said that most of the factors affecting the compressive
strength, such as cementing material content, aggregate type, water-binder ratio and curing period, may cause a fluctuation of MOE of
dry concrete. Adamu et al. [18] found that the high-volume FA (HVFA) replacing cement remarkably decreased the MOE of RCC at
early ages derived from the slow pozzolanic reactivity of FA, and they further obtained 9–51% reduction in MOE at 28 days in the cases
of 10–30% of fine aggregate was replaced with crumb rubber. This was ascribed to the high deformation and low MOE of incorporated
crumb rubber, and thus the mixtures had less rigidity as compared to control samples. Moreover, a logarithmic correlation between
compressive behaviour and MOE of HVFA RCC (MOE = 28166lnfc - 83,485) was developed possessing a better goodness of fit in
comparison with ACI 318 model. Similar conclusions had also been drawn in other researches where shredded rubber was incorpo
rated into RCC mixes, and factors including higher porosity and poor adhesion between rubber particles and cement matrix were also
considered to be other reasons for decreasing the MOE of rubberized dry concrete [12,42,106]. Moreover, when natural aggregates
were partially substituted by waste marble, RCA, RAP, EAF slag and plastic aggregate, the MOE of dry concrete exhibited varying
degrees of declination due to the weak bonding between slurries and waste aggregates [31,41,73,104,117]. As an illustration, the MOE
of DCC paving blocks gradually diminished with the substitution level of waste marble increased from 0 to 40% (from A/B0 to A/B4),
while the higher strength grade of cement (A-CEM II 32.5 N, B-CEM II 42.5 N) contributed to greater MOE and a reliable linear
relationship existed between the compressive strength and MOE as presented in Fig. 10 [117]. Data in Table 2 demonstrated that the
influence of various fibres on the compressive performance of dry concrete was inconclusive, and the MOE fluctuated as the incor
poration of steel, PP and waste glass fibres increased [29,54,84,107,108]. The reason might be that the upper limit of MOE mea
surement was 40% of the ultimate compressive strength, that is, the fibres’ reinforcement and toughening effect had not yet been fully
exerted [29].
3.3. Dynamic mechanical performance

It is well known that the mechanical performance of concrete structures under dynamic loads, such as seismic, impact and blast, are
dramatically different from those under static/quasi-static conditions. It is, therefore, essential to carry out the dynamic behaviour
analysis of concrete structures. However, very scare literature is available on above dynamic properties of dry concrete, and many of
published papers pay particular attention to the dynamic compressive behaviour of RCC mixtures under impact loads, as well as the
seismic responses of RCC gravity dams under earthquake loads [24,93,94,118–122]. The research team of Wang et al. [93,121,122]
investigated the compressive properties and constitutive model of RCC under impact load (SHPB with strain rate ε̇ up to 120 s− 1) with
consideration of vertical stratification and initial damage. Moreover, considering that the poor interlayer bonding would significantly
Fig. 10. (a) MOE variation and (b) its relationship with compressive strength of DCC paving blocks containing various contents of waste marble and types of
cement [117].
11
affect the mechanical and durability performance of RCC layered structures like dam and pavement, the stress wave travelling across
interlayers within RCC under SHPB impact loads was also analysed concretely [94]. Similar to conventional concrete, RCC was a strain
rate sensitive material, but the dynamic increase factor (DIF) of its compressive strength under different strain rates had a smaller
fluctuation owing to the densified microstructure and less water viscosity effect [121]. The derived empirical formulae of DIF for
prepared RCC with respect to the compressive strength are given below:
( )
DIFε̇ = 0.02669(logε̇) + 1.09872, 0.0001 s− 1 < ε̇ ≤ 30 s− 1 (1)
( )
DIFε̇ = 2.39591(logε̇)2 − 7.09013(logε̇) + 6.336, 30 s− 1
< ε̇ ≤ 80 s− 1
(2)
Under the combined action of viscous/inertia effect at high strain rates and variation in elastic modulus between mortar and
aggregate, RCC samples were broken into several large fragments at lower strain rates (ε̇ ≤ 40 s− 1 ) and pieces were crushed into
powders at higher strain rates (ε̇ ≥ 60 s− 1 ). The dynamic responses (strength and toughness) of RCC, along with the discrete degree of
these values all increased with strain rate, and the initial damage would result in a significant attenuation in the aforementioned
properties at a higher strain rate [93,122]. For instance, the decrease in dynamic compressive strength of damaged samples were
28.2% and 35.2% at the strain rates of 40 s− 1 and 120 s− 1, respectively. In the analysis of the stress wave propagation within RCC
interlayers under impact load, it was demonstrated that the existence of poor interlayers was able to effectively resist the propagation
of stress waves, and the attenuation degree of stress waves within concrete samples was much weaker at higher strain rates [94]. The
theoretical transmitted wave could well interpret the foregoing phenomenon. In terms of the seismic responses under earthquake
loads, Wieland et al. [118] carried out a qualitative assessment to investigate the behaviour of RCCD under strong earthquake and
pointed out that the dynamic stability of RCCD was reliable as cracks developed along the dam horizontal interfaces. Based on a spot
survey, the hazards and seismic responses of RCC arch dam (132 m) and concrete-faced rock-fill dam (156 m) following the Wenchuan
8.0 earthquake were exhaustively evaluated by Lin et al. [119]. Research findings indicated that even though the earthquake loading
suffered by RCCD was far greater than its design intensity of 7 and the extensive collapse was observed on both sides of the mountains,
the dam remained intact and was still safe after the mighty shaking without any visible cracking (Fig. 11(a and b)). The maintenance of
the arch resistant effect of RCCD was effectively ensured by the mutual anchoring between the abutment slopes and granite, as shown
in Fig. 11(c and d). In addition to field study, the finite-element method (FEM) was another effective means in exploring some specific
Fig. 11. Seismic response of RCC arch dam after Wenchuan earthquake: (a) downstream view; (b) upstream view; (c) left abutment and (d) right abutment [119].
12
details on the seismic performance of RCCD. For instance, Kartal et al. [24,120] investigated the earthquake responses of RCCD under
strong ground shaking via using FEM along with considering different reservoir lengths (0.5h–10h, h was the height of the dam). It was
reported that the horizontal displacement observably increased under hydrodynamic pressure, and the seismic properties were greatly
affected by the nonlinear responses as well as the dam reservoir length. Furthermore, Yazici et al. [107] explored the impact resistance
of PP fibre-reinforced RCC (0.25–0.75% fibre volume dosage) by performing low-velocity drop-weight tests on cylinder samples with a
height of 64 mm and a diameter of 150 mm. As expected, fibre-reinforced samples were able to resist more drop impacts (increased
from 134 to up to 141) and possessed better fracture toughness by virtue of the evidently improved matrix brittleness, even though
their mechanical properties decreased by approximately 20% in comparison with the plain concrete.
3.4. Smart/intelligent performance

Smart dry concrete is a multi-functional composite material that combines smart components on the basis of the original com
positions of normal concrete, endowing concrete material with characteristics of self-sensing/monitoring, self-adaption and self-
healing when subjected to external stimulation such as stress and temperature. The self-sensing/monitoring property can be
described via the relationships between the electrical resistant variation (△ρ/ρ0) and external force (F) or stress (σ ) and strain (ε) as
illustrated in Fig. 12, and its sensitivity is expressed by the parameters as the maximum amplitude of electrical resistance variation
(max(△ρ/ρ0)) as well as the force and stress/strain sensitivity coefficient ((△ρ/ρ0)/F, (△ρ/ρ0)/σ and (△ρ/ρ0)/ε) [123]. By
measuring the electrical resistance of concrete material under external stimulation, its internal real-time stress, strain, cracking and
damages can be monitored, rendering dry concrete to possess the potential application in the field of RCCD health monitoring and
RCCP traffic detection. As an illustration, Zhang et al. [124] designed a novel intelligent electrically conductive RCC containing carbon
black with the function of monitoring the temperature distribution, along with inhibiting the thermal cracking close to the
over-wintering layers of RCCD. It was indicated that the consolidation effect of this novel concrete material with poor workability
owing to the addition of carbon black could be evidently improved via using the roller compaction construction method, and the
temperature, supplied by safety voltage of 30 V, could raise by 14–16 ◦ C within 320 min, which was enough against an abrupt
temperature drop in the extremely cold regions (Fig. 13). For another instance, Han et al. [125] developed a carbon nanotube mixed
concrete pavement system with smart traffic detection, and two cases of pre-cast and cast-in-situ concrete sensors were contempo
raneously integrated into a road test device. Field research findings demonstrated that the developed intelligent pavement system
could precisely detect the passing speed (8–32 km/h) of different vehicles (truck and van) in two test environments (colder and warmer
temperatures of 3.5 and 23.0 ◦ C, respectively), and realize the detection of the real-time traffic flow with high efficiency and low
false-alarm rate. Moreover, in another research, they laid a small area of the self-sensing concrete incorporating the same nanomaterial
on the pavement and found that the composite concrete paving was able to exactly monitor the weight of different passing vehicles
without stopping [126]. In terms of the self-healing/repairing property, it is considered as an ability of dry concrete to repair or reduce
the micro/macro cracks, and it is beneficial for concrete material to be more durable and for structures to have a more reliable
serviceability [127]. Generally, the self-healing/repairing property of concrete material can be classified as two categories, namely
autogenous and autonomous healing. The former is commonly achieved by repairing the small cracks by virtue of the properties of the
material by nature, such as the carbonation of Ca(OH)2 and the continuous hydration of cementing materials. As for the latter, the
repairing of macroscopic cracks can be realized through the aspects of capsule-based method, induction energy method, microbial
method as well as embedding shape memory alloy (SMA) into concrete matrix. For example, the influence of carbon materials
(graphite nano-fibre, carbon fibre and carbon nanotube) on self-healing behaviour of hammer-compacted asphalt concrete was studied
by Yoo et al. [128]. Research finding manifested that the completely damaged concrete specimens were partially repaired attributed to
the carbon materials added and induction heating method. Incorporations of 0.5% carbon fibres along with graphite nano-fibres
exhibited the best repairing capability and resulted in approximately 40% recovery in original flexural strength.
Fig. 12. Typical sensing/monitoring behaviour of smart concrete under various loading [123].
13
Fig. 13. (a) Initial temperature distribution; (b) temperature distribution after heat generation and (c) physical appearance of RCC multilayer specimen [124].
4. Durability performance
4.1. Freeze-thaw resistance
In cold regions, the chief cause for the deterioration of concrete durability and mechanical behaviour is its insufficient freeze-thaw
(F-T) resistance. Similar to conventional concrete, F-T damage of dry concrete is mainly induced by the freezing of free water and
capillary water with large pore size [25]. The damage is normally manifested as the concrete surface scaling and an increase in the
number of internal microcracks [25,129]. Mass loss rate, dynamic elastic modulus and durability coefficient are therefore three
frequently-used indicators for evaluating the F-T resistance of dry concrete. Based on the analysis of previous sections, mineral and
industrial wastes are commonly used to substitute the partial cement and aggregate to reduce the hydration heat and raw material cost
of dry concrete. But meanwhile, the early strength and durability performance decline [48,54,130]. Therefore, it is vital to prevent the
concrete from freezing at an early age, especially for structures/components with higher frost resistance requirement. Aghabaglou
et al. [48] explored the influence of HVFA on F-T resistance of RCC by replacing partial cement or aggregate with FA. Test results
illustrated that the increasing FA substitution for cement (Series A1-A3, 20–60%) negatively affected the anti-frost durability of the
mixtures via contrasting the durability factor with critical values, while the dynamic elastic modulus was enhanced by 10–26% as
compared to control cases when aggregate was partially replaced (Series B1–B3, 20–60%), as exhibited in Fig. 14. Additionally, to
ensure that the pavements and paving blocks can be used normally after being frozen in winter, a large amount of de-icing salt so
lutions are often sprayed on their surface, which may cause serious F-T damage. Hence, investigations on the durability of dry concrete
in saline solutions as well as F-T environment are particularly important [55,58]. The F-T durability of DCC masonry products
(DCCMP) exposed to water and three saline solutions was evaluated by Chidiac et al. [10] using various mix design and manufacturing
parameters. The findings indicated that the specimens soaked in 3% NaCl solution presented the more severe F-T deterioration as
compared to 4% CaCl2 and MgCl2 solutions, and the mass loss after 100 cycles could reach 100%. Fig. 15 expresses the typical DCCMPs
with the best and worst F-T resistance after 100 cycles in 3% NaCl solution. It was clearly observed that the Mix W, where higher
moisture content as well as longer mixing and processing time were employed, possessed better F-T performance and structural
integrity as compared to Control Mix, even in 3% NaCl solution. Moreover, Embacher et al. [131] in their paper reported that the
Fig. 14. Durability factor after 300 cycles (left) and dynamic elastic modulus variation during freeze-thaw cycles (right) of various RCC mixtures [48].
14
deteriorated F-T durability of retaining walls in field conditions was closely related to the unreasonable mix proportion and the
addition of nondurable aggregate, and Ramezanianpour et al. [55] found that using the air entraining agent in RCC mixtures could
efficiently resist the salt scaling during F-T cycles though some of the mechanical properties might be reduced (Fig. 16).
4.2. Carbonation resistance

Carbonation of concrete, also known as concrete neutralization, is a chemical process in which CO2 in the air permeates into
concrete and reacts with Ca(OH)2, one of the major hydration products of the cement, to reduce the alkalinity of concrete matrix [17].
When dry concrete is reinforced with metal materials like steel cages and steel fibres, the poor carbonation resistance causes the Fe2O3
passivation membrane on the surface of reinforcements to be damaged, which induces the corrosion and weakens the adhesion to the
concrete matrix [132]. Debbarma et al. [17] evaluated the carbonation resistance of RCC with and without RAP aggregate by spraying
the phenolphthalein solution in diluted alcohol on the freshly broken samples. Results showed that the colour of the fracture surface of
both RCC samples turned to pink, indicating that CO2 did not penetrate into samples and they all had good carbonation performance.
Hashemi et al. [133] reported that the carbonation rate would slow down as the moisture content decreased with the presence of
superplasticizer. In addition, Oliveira et al. [134] carried out a field study on the carbonized development of a 33-year RCC ship lock,
and it was indicated that the carbonization was more serious in the locations exposed to the air all the year round, while the parts
immersed in water were much better. In general, the carbonation performance of concrete is directly related to the compactness of its
matrix. Thus, the characteristics of low water-binder ratio, compact microstructure and rapid setting rate contribute dry concrete to
better protecting against the invasion of harmful substances.
4.3. Permeability (water absorption, sorptivity and chloride diffusivity)

The ability of concrete structures and components to resist the intrusion of water or harmful substances in working environment
can be called its permeability. It is an extremely vital factor determining the durability of dry concrete when it is employed as gravity
dams, pavements, precast pipes and blocks. Among the studies that have been carried out [17,28,37,48,54], water absorption,
permeable voids, porosity, sorptivity, acid attack and chloride ion penetration are generally acted as the several main factors to
evaluate the permeability of dry concrete. In the analysis of the water absorption of RCCP mixing with shredded rubber particles,
researchers [36,42] found that increasing rubber content made the water absorption rate decreased due to the low-water-absorption
characteristic of rubber particles. Conversely, Mohammed et al. [106] reported that an increasing water absorption was observed when
replacing partial fine aggregate with crumb rubber, but above negative impact can be signally reduced after adding moderate content
of nano-silica. Another test results revealed that the mixture containing 3% coal waste ash (CWA) had an acceptable permeable void
content of approximately 4.7% and was assessed as “very low” chloride permeability. However, too much CWA would weaken this
effect [58]. Some transport properties including capillary water absorption (sorptivity) and chloride diffusivity of RCC mixed with
50–260 kg/m3 cement and FA (40–85% substitution) were assessed by Yerramala et al. [46]. It was illustrated that the porosity and
pore system greatly affected both the water absorption and sorptivity, and the mixtures with appropriate addition of cement and FA
(RCC3-RCC6, 150–260 kg/m3 cement content and 40–70% FA substitution) presented very low permeability and total charge below
1000 Coulombs, as shown in Fig. 17. DCC pipes in sewers are vulnerable exposed to the sulfuric acid environment, resulting in serious
deteriorations [37]. Peyvandi et al. [28] explored the sorptivity and acid resistance of DCC precast pipes with the addition of modified
graphite nanoplatelets (GP) and PVA fibres. Research findings illustrated that the moisture sorption of specimens cored from post-test
pipes was clearly higher than that of lab-prepared specimens, and PVA fibres had a little effect on the moisture sorption. Fig. 18
exhibits the loss in mass and flexural strength of the mixtures with different reinforcement systems after acid attack. As could be
observed that the acid resistance of DCC pipes was visibly improved via incorporating GP and PVA fibres and the flexural strength
Fig. 15. Typical damaged DCCMP specimens after 100 freeze-thaw cycles in 3% NaCl solution [10].
15
Fig. 16. Samples against salt scaling in 50 freeze-thaw cycles: (a) air-entrained and (b) non air-entrained [55].
reduction could be minimized by up to 85%. In addition, the replacement of cement by waste glass powder had a little impact on the
water absorption of DCC blocks, whereas it was signally increased when crushed clay brick or polyethylene polymer aggregate was
introduced [31,72].
4.4. Abrasion resistance

Abrasion resistance is another main indicator of the durability behaviour of dry concrete when it is utilized as the pavement surface
layer and paving blocks or in the location of the overflow surface of dam structures [40,72,106,135]. Moreover, the impact abrasion
damage of airport runways and dam overflow surfaces should also be seriously considered on account of repeated aircrafts take
off/landing and high-speed cutting wear of sandstones. Several experiments investigating how M-sand, FA and GGBS influenced RCC
abrasion resistance were carried out by Rao et al. [39,40], adopting surface and Cantabro abrasion test methods. It was demonstrated
that the abrasion of RCC with the incorporation of FA and GGBS was strongly related to the strengths irrespective of FA and GGBS
content, and both two abrasion tests were proved to be effective and suitable in evaluating the abrasion performance of RCC. A closer
proportional relationship between abrasion resistance and compressive strength was observed. This view was supported by the
research team of Adamu et al. [18,106] who had studied the abrasion property of RCC containing HVFA, crumb rubber and nano-silica.
They also mentioned that the increasing replacement ratio of crumb rubber caused an increment in Cantabro loss percentage
(M0C0N-M30C0N, 0–30% substitution), but the incorporation of nano-silica within 0–3% (C0N–C3N) could improve the abrasion
resistance of rubberized RCC as shown in Fig. 19, owing to its enhanced bonding effect between rubber particles and cement matrix. In
the same situation, Sukontasukkul et al. [4] noted that the DCC blocks containing rubber aggregate exhibited poorer abrasion per
formance as compared to reference blocks. Moreover, Peyvandi et al. [27] performed abrasion tests on specimens obtained from DCC
nano-composite pipes and concluded that the incorporation of GP and PVA fibres both evidently improved the anti-abrasive property
of pipe components, and the hybridization of these two materials contributed to a better effect.
4.5. Fatigue characteristic

As stated in Section 4.4., dry concrete is always subjected to cyclic and continuous traffic loads during its lifespan when it is used for
pavements and paving blocks. In addition to the possible abrasion loss in mass and strength, pavements (surface layer and base course)
and blocks are prone to experience fatigue failure due to declined flexural performance, resulting in high maintenance cost, long time-
consuming and harm to driving safety. Data from literatures [19,63,136] have shown that the fatigue behaviour of dry concrete is
Fig. 17. Permeability (left) and chloride penetration (right) values of studied RCC mixtures [46].
16
Fig. 18. Acid resistance of DCC specimens with different reinforcement systems [28].
Fig. 19. Cantabro loss of HVFA-RCC containing various contents of crumb rubber and nano-silica [18].
generally affected by several factors, such as type and dosage of ASCMs, type and gradation of aggregate, and magnitude and frequency
of periodic loads. For example, crumb rubber, nano-silica and HVFA were added to mixtures to investigate their impacts on RCC
fatigue performance [63]. Test results showed that the replacement of 20% fine aggregate using crumb rubber and the addition of
nano-silica could enhance both flexural strength and fatigue life of RCC mixtures, but HVFA would decrease above properties.
Moreover, the introduction of fibres is a proven means that can markedly improve the fatigue and crack resistance of dry concrete even
though it is not very common in actual pavement applications [82,87]. For instance, fibre-reinforced RCC with recycled and industrial
steel fibres exhibited prominent fatigue resistance owing to their combined contribution to restraining the cracks propagation and
absorbing deformation energy. In the thickness design of RCCP, the increase in endured stress level rendered it possible to reduce the
pavement thickness by up to 26% [87]. In addition, accelerated pavement testing (APT) using heavy-traffic load simulation apparatus
was carried out on full-scale RCCP sections to measure the fatigue endurance life of thin-surface pavements [137]. Fatigue cracks were
observed appeared and extended within the longitudinal direction of the edge or centre of the tire tracks, and the final fatigue failure
was more severe in thicker sections due to the combined effect of the subgrade support and plate thickness (Fig. 20).
4.6. Creep and shrinkage

In the durability analysis of concrete structures/units, the volume change (creep and shrinkage), which is of much concern as
compared to other durability indexes, is a considerable factor affecting the long-term durability of concrete. Under constant or
continuous stress, the slow growth in deformation is defined as the creep of concrete, which is commonly composed of three time-
varying states, namely rapid deformation, stable creep and accelerated creep. By definition, therefore, special concern should be
caught on the creep effect induced by the gravity of the structure itself to ensure the engineering and operational safety of the mass
concrete [138,139]. It has conclusively been indicated that the creep behaviour is clearly influenced and changed by several variables,
such as the category of cementitious material, aggregate gradation, curing regime and loading period [140]. For instance, in the
research team of Adamu et al. [62] who conducted the creep and shrinkage study of RCCP containing HVFA, crumb rubber and
nano-silica, they pointed out that the use of crumb rubber (10% substitution for fine aggregate) and FA (50% substitution of cement)
led to an increase in creep strain (from 337.6 to 485.9 and 667.4 μm at 365 days) and creep coefficient (from 0.55 to 1.14 and 1.89 at
365 days) as compared to the control case. But nano-silica could weaken the above negative effect by up to 63.7%. Yilmaz et al. [141]
carried out a case study to investigate the effects of creep on the structural response and damage assessment of RCCD located on Big
Melen Stream. It was found that the dam began to crack after it was constructed to 87 m above mean sea level. The vertical
displacement of the dam reached the level between 3.4 and 5.3 cm with 26 m completion left, and it finally increased approximately
50% at the end of the construction owing to the creep effect, which further demonstrated the importance of creep property for the
safety and stability of the mass concrete structures. Additionally, considering that the investigation on creep behaviour is
time-consuming, it is also a feasible method to assess RCCD creep damage by developing a creep damage analysis model [142].
17
Fig. 20. Cracking damage of thin- (left) and thick-section (right) RCCP at the end of APT [137].
Another significant reason for the volume change of concrete is the shrinkage, which is also the main source of the majority of non-
load cracks in concrete [25,62]. Generally, the total shrinkage value is primarily determined by the dry shrinkage, autogenous
shrinkage and temperature shrinkage. It is prominent when dry concrete is applied to practical applications with a higher
surface-thickness ratio like pavements, pipes and blocks, where water loss of their surfaces will be accelerated, especially in the
environment with strong wind or hot weather [23]. Although in some cases the shrinkage will not cause visible initial cracks within
RCCP, the width of surface-opening cracks can be extended up to five times as large as the original cracking size of 0.5 mm under
continuous vehicle loads [143]. In an investigation regarding the dry shrinkage, Saluja et al. [22] found that the prepared RCC yielded
about 50% lesser shrinkage strain in comparison with the conventional concrete. Moreover, shrinkage strain of 372 and 302 μ mm/mm
was respectively obtained for RCC mixtures containing crushed gravel (CG) and limestone (LS) aggregate at 270-day drying, and it
further increased up to 471 μ mm/mm after 20–60% of cement was substituted by GGBS (CG20E-CG60E), as illustrated in Fig. 21. Naik
et al. [102] also concluded the negative impact on the drying shrinkage of DCC bricks via using coal-combustion bottom ash and used
foundry sand to substitute partial natural sand. However, some researchers [21,74] had diverse findings in regard to the effect of
alternative materials on the shrinkage of dry concrete. Mixtures mixed with moderate FA content (30% substitution for cement)
possessed decreased drying shrinkage value of about 0.00027 mm at 28 days which presented better anti-cracking performance of
RCCD, while DCC mixes prepared with CRT glass powder as the 100% replacement of recycled sand could reduce the drying shrinkage
by more than 56%. Furthermore, the addtion of superplasticizer had also been identified as a non-negligible factor affecting the
shrinkage property of dry concrete, whose the short-term total shrinkage was diminished and the autogenous shrinkage value was
lower than dry shrinkage [144].
5. Summary and discussion

By collating a large number of published literature, this paper reviewed the raw material, preparation technique, static/dynamic
mechanical behaviour, smart and durability performance of dry concrete in detail. Based on the summaries and discussions above, the
conclusions can be drawn as follows:
Fig. 21. Effect of CG/LS aggregate (left) and GGBS content (right) on development of RCC shrinkage strain [22].
18
1) As compared to conventional self-compacting concrete, dry concrete has basically the same material composition but lower
water-binder ratio and cementitious material content. Based on different casting and fabrication methods, RCC and DCC are two
most representative mixtures of dry concrete.
2) Preparation technique takes a dominant part in the properties of dry concrete. The commonly used fabrication method for DCC
precast units is mechanical consolidation and vibration, and that for RCC dams (RCCD) and pavements (RCCP) is roller
compaction with vibratory drums and rollers. For RCC samples, compaction with vibrating table and hammer is widely used
laboratory preparation methods in accordance with ASTM standards.
3) Thermal stress and resulting surface cracks result in serious damage as well as unguaranteed serviceability and durability of
RCCD structure. Adjusting the cement ratio, increasing the supplementary cementitious material content, and employing
appropriate curing regime are of great help in controlling and reducing the temperature cracking.
4) Although the moisture content of dry concrete is relatively low, proper consistency and good workability are essential to
achieve a sufficient distribution of the paste throughout mixtures and minimize the compaction energy during preparation.
Vebe time is the common indicator used to characterize the consistency of dry concrete since its slump value is closed to zero.
5) The type and content of alternative materials, aggregate gradation and fibre are the most vital factors affecting the mechanical
properties of dry concrete. Some industrial by-products are feasible to be extensively added to dry concrete mixtures of normal
pavements and masonry products where the strength is not the primary concern. Moreover, the bending behaviour and fracture
toughness of dry concrete can be evidently improved by introducing rubber particles and most types of fibres.
6) Most of the factors affecting the compressive strength may cause a fluctuation of the modulus of elasticity of dry concrete. The
use of waste aggregate replacing natural aggregate causes a decrease in modulus of elasticity in different levels due to the weak
bonding between slurries and waste aggregate. The effect of fibres on elastic modulus of dry concrete is inconclusive since the
fibre reinforcement is not fully activated.
7) Dry concrete is a strain rate sensitive material with a smaller fluctuation of dynamic increase factor (DIF) under different strain
rates. Based on a spot survey, RCCD remained intact and was extremely safe without any visible cracking even though the
seismic loading suffered by dams was far greater than the specification design limit.
8) Smart dry concrete possesses the characteristics of self-sensing/monitoring, self-healing and self-adaption when subjected to
external stimulation. Although the intelligent research of dry concrete is still in its infancy, the temperature sensing and crack
self-repairing capacities that have been studied are greatly beneficial and significant for ensuring the structural and traffic safety
of dams and pavements.
9) Durability analysis is more crucial for dry concrete in some cases because the structures may be damaged caused by the
durability deterioration rather than the strength loss. Several factors including water-binder ratio, type and content of
cementitious materials, aggregate type and gradation, compaction degree and curing age evidently affect dry concrete
durability.
10) Freeze-thaw resistance and permeability are particular important for almost all dry concrete products, especially in cold re
gions. In the design of RCCP and DCC paving blocks, special attention should be paid to their abrasion and fatigue performance.
Volume change including creep and shrinkage is considerable when dry concrete is applied to gravity dams as well as pave
ments, pipes and blocks with a higher surface-thickness ratio.
Based on the review and summaries, some issues and suggestions are elaborated for further research:
1) The current research on the mechanical properties and durability of dry concrete is basically carried out on specimens prepared in
the laboratory. However, some concrete mixtures with good performance under laboratory conditions may not be desirable in
practical engineering applications, especially from the durability prospective. It is thus necessary to carry out more performance
studies for actual applications, and the raw material composition and structural configuration are needed to be optimized.
2) Dry concrete is utilized in the construction of various concrete structures and the fabrication of precast units due to several ad
vantages. However, its strength (especially the early strength) and durability are not desirable because of the use of coarse
aggregate and a large amount of alternative materials. Thus, dry concrete combining traditional advantages with high strength,
excellent durability and smart technologies is necessary to be developed to expand it to more application fields. In addition, new
ASCMs with early pozzolanic reactivity and appropriate curing regime (temperature) are needed to be explored and studied.
3) With the development of the research on fibre-reinforced concrete, different types and shapes of fibres are introduced to dry
concrete to improve its various properties. As expected, owing to the special appearance of its mixture, the distribution of fibres is
much different from that in self-compacting concrete, and steel fibres may be distorted under vibration and mechanical
compaction. Efforts should be made to explore the fibre-reinforced mechanism and the effect of fibre deformation on dry concrete
performance.
4) The smart research of dry concrete is still in its infancy, i.e., in the stage of theoretical analysis and experimental exploration. At
present, the main methods for realizing the intelligentization of concrete are based on self-compacting concrete, and whether they
are equally feasible for dry concrete with lower moisture content and completely different preparation methods need in-depth
research. Additionally, in consideration of the extensive use of dry concrete roof tiles in Australia, the development of smart
photovoltaic tiles with partial properties of solar panels is also an important research topic in the future.
Declaration of competing interest

We wish to confirm that there are no known conflicts of interest associated with this publication and there has been no significant
19
financial support for this work that could have influenced its outcome.
We confirm that the manuscript has been read and approved by all named authors and that there are no other persons who satisfied
the criteria for authorship but are not listed. We further confirm that the order of authors listed in the manuscript has been approved by
all of us.
We confirm that we have given due consideration to the protection of intellectual property associated with this work and that there
are no impediments to publication, including the timing of publication, with respect to intellectual property. In doing so we confirm
that we have followed the regulations of our institutions concerning intellectual property.
We understand that the Corresponding Author is the sole contact for the Editorial process (including Editorial Manager and direct
communications with the office). He is responsible for communicating with the other authors about progress, submissions of revisions
and final approval of proofs. We confirm that we have provided a current, correct email address which is accessible by the Corre
sponding Author and which has been configured to accept email from Chengqing.wu@uts.edu.au.
Acknowledgement
The research presented in this paper is financially supported by the Australian Research Council under ARC Discovery Project
DP160104661.
References
[1] ACI 211.2. Guide for Selecting Proportions for No-Slump Concrete, American Concrete Institute, 2002.
[2] T.-C. Ling, Effects of compaction method and rubber content on the properties of concrete paving blocks, Construct. Build. Mater. 28 (1) (2012) 164–175.
[3] A. Aghaeipour, M. Madhkhan, Mechanical properties and durability of roller compacted concrete pavement (RCCP)–a review, Road Mater. Pavement Des.
(2019) 1–24.
[4] P. Sukontasukkul, C. Chaikaew, Properties of concrete pedestrian block mixed with crumb rubber, Construct. Build. Mater. 20 (7) (2006) 450–457.
[5] J. Marchand, H. Hornain, S. Diamond, M. Pigeon, H. Guiraud, The microstructure of dry concrete products, Cement Concr. Res. 26 (3) (1996) 427–438.
[6] C. Chhorn, S.J. Hong, S.W. Lee, Relationship between compressive and tensile strengths of roller-compacted concrete, J. Traffic Transport. Eng. 5 (3) (2018)
215–223.
[7] M. Li, X. Guo, J. Shi, Z. Zhu, Seepage and stress analysis of anti-seepage structures constructed with different concrete materials in an RCC gravity dam, Water
Sci. Eng. 8 (4) (2015) 326–334.
[8] H. Rooholamini, A. Hassani, M.R.M. Aliha, Evaluating the effect of macro-synthetic fibre on the mechanical properties of roller-compacted concrete pavement
using response surface methodology, Construct. Build. Mater. 159 (2018) 517–529.
[9] S. Zhang, Z. Ghouleh, Z. He, L. Hu, Y. Shao, Use of municipal solid waste incineration bottom ash as a supplementary cementitious material in dry-cast
concrete, Construct. Build. Mater. 266 (2021) 120890.
[10] S. Chidiac, H. Zibara, Dry-cast concrete masonry products: properties and durability, Can. J. Civ. Eng. 34 (11) (2007) 1413–1423.
[11] F. Pacheco-Torgal, P.B. Lourenco, J. Labrincha, P. Chindaprasirt, S. Kumar, Eco-efficient Masonry Bricks and Blocks: Design, Properties and Durability,
Woodhead Publishing, 2014.
[12] S. Hesami, A. Modarres, M. Soltaninejad, H. Madani, Mechanical properties of roller compacted concrete pavement containing coal waste and limestone
powder as partial replacements of cement, Construct. Build. Mater. 111 (2016) 625–636.
[13] L. Yang, J.J. Shi, Experimental study on the impact of rainfall on RCC construction, J. Construct. Eng. Manag. 136 (5) (2010) 477–483.
[14] Y. Hong, C. Du, S. Jiang, Design Theory and Practice of High RCC Gravity Dam under Complex Conditions, Science Press, Beijing, 2014 (in Chinese).
[15] J. Ouyang, X. Chen, Z. Huangfu, C. Lu, D. Huang, Y. Li, Application of distributed temperature sensing for cracking control of mass concrete, Construct. Build.
Mater. 197 (10) (2019) 778–791.
[16] J. Noorzaei, K. Bayagoob, W. Thanoon, M. Jaafar, Thermal and stress analysis of Kinta RCC dam, Eng. Struct. 28 (13) (2006) 1795–1802.
[17] S. Debbarma, G. Ransinchung, S. Singh, Feasibility of roller compacted concrete pavement containing different fractions of reclaimed asphalt pavement,
Construct. Build. Mater. 199 (2019) 508–525.
[18] M. Adamu, B.S. Mohammed, M.S. Liew, Mechanical properties and performance of high volume fly ash roller compacted concrete containing crumb rubber
and nano silica, Construct. Build. Mater. 171 (2018) 521–538.
[19] A. Modarres, Z. Hosseini, Mechanical properties of roller compacted concrete containing rice husk ash with original and recycled asphalt pavement material,
Mater. Des. 64 (2014) 227–236.
[20] G. Topličić-Ćurčić, D. Grdić, N. Ristić, Z. Grdić, Properties, materials and durability of rolled compacted concrete for pavements, Zaštita mater. 56 (3) (2015)
345–353.
[21] Chan-Gi, Park, Jong-Whan, Yoon, Wan-Young, Kim, Jong-Pil, and Won. Mechanical and durability performance of roller-compacted concrete with fly ash for
dam applications. International Journal of Concrete Structures and Materials, 2007, 1(1):57-61.
[22] S. Saluja, K. Kaur, S. Goyal, B. Bhattacharjee, Assessing the effect of GGBS content and aggregate characteristics on drying shrinkage of roller compacted
concrete, Construct. Build. Mater. 201 (2019) 72–80.
[23] M. Deghfel, A. Meddah, M. Beddar, M.A. Chikouche, Experimental study on the effect of hot climate on the performance of roller-compacted concrete
pavement, Innov. Infrastruct. Sol. 4 (2019) 54.1–54.12.
[24] M. Kartal, M. Contadakis, Three-dimensional earthquake analysis of roller-compacted concrete dams, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. 12 (7) (2012) 2369–2388.
[25] D. Harrington, F. Abdo, W. Adaska, C.V. Hazaree, H. Ceylan, F. Bektas, Guide for Roller-Compacted Concrete Pavements, 2010.
[26] V. Widoanindyawati, M.M.A. Pratama, The influence of compression applied during production to the compression strength of dry concrete: an experimental
study, Procedia Eng. 95 (2014) 465–472.
[27] A. Peyvandi, P. Soroushian, Structural performance of dry-cast concrete nanocomposite pipes, Mater. Struct. 48 (1–2) (2015) 461–470.
[28] A. Peyvandi, P. Soroushian, A.M. Balachandra, K. Sobolev, Enhancement of the durability characteristics of concrete nanocomposite pipes with modified
graphite nanoplatelets, Construct. Build. Mater. 47 (2013) 111–117.
[29] N. Mohamed, A.M. Soliman, M.L. Nehdi, Full-scale pipes using dry-cast steel fibre-reinforced concrete, Construct. Build. Mater. 72 (2014) 411–422.
[30] Y. Park, A. Abolmaali, M. Mohammadagha, S. Lee, Structural performance of dry-cast rubberized concrete pipes with steel and synthetic fibers, Construct.
Build. Mater. 77 (2015) 218–226.
[31] S. Chidiac, S. Mihaljevic, Performance of dry cast concrete blocks containing waste glass powder or polyethylene aggregates, Cement Concr. Compos. 33 (8)
(2011) 855–863.
[32] R.L. Amhudo, T. Tavio, I.G.P. Raka, Comparison of compressive and tensile strengths of dry-cast concrete with ordinary portland and portland pozzolana
cements, Civil Eng. J. 4 (8) (2018) 1760–1771.
[33] W. Ernest Willis, An introduction to dry-cast concrete, The Aberdeen Group, 1969.
[34] T. Uygunoğlu, I.B. Topcu, O. Gencel, W. Brostow, The effect of fly ash content and types of aggregates on the properties of pre-fabricated concrete interlocking
blocks (PCIBs), Construct. Build. Mater. 30 (2012) 180–187.
20
[35] M. Chi, R. Huang, Effect of circulating fluidized bed combustion ash on the properties of roller compacted concrete, Cement Concr. Compos. 45 (2014)
148–156.
[36] M. Fakhri, K.F. Saberi, The effect of waste rubber particles and silica fume on the mechanical properties of roller compacted concrete pavement, J. Clean. Prod.
129 (2016) 521–530.
[37] M. Najimi, J. Sobhani, A. Pourkhorshidi, A comprehensive study on no-slump concrete: from laboratory towards manufactory, Construct. Build. Mater. 30
(2012) 529–536.
[38] S.K. Rao, P. Sravana, T.C. Rao, Experimental studies in ultrasonic pulse velocity of roller compacted concrete pavement containing fly ash and M-sand, Int. J.
Pave. Res. Technol. 9 (4) (2016) 289–301.
[39] S.K. Rao, P. Sravana, T.C. Rao, Investigating the effect of M-sand on abrasion resistance of fly ash roller compacted concrete (FRCC), Construct. Build. Mater.
118 (2016) 352–363.
[40] S.K. Rao, P. Sravana, T.C. Rao, Abrasion resistance and mechanical properties of roller compacted concrete with GGBS, Construct. Build. Mater. 114 (2016)
925–933.
[41] A. Lopez-Uceda, F. Agrela, M. Cabrera, J. Ayuso, M. López, Mechanical performance of roller compacted concrete with recycled concrete aggregates, Road
Mater. Pavement Des. 19 (1) (2018) 36–55.
[42] A. Meddah, M. Beddar, A. Bali, Use of shredded rubber tire aggregates for roller compacted concrete pavement, J. Clean. Prod. 72 (2014) 187–192.
[43] J.-M. Lessard, A. Omran, A. Tagnit-Hamou, R. Gagne, Feasibility of using biomass fly and bottom ashes in dry-cast concrete production, Construct. Build.
Mater. 132 (2017) 565–577.
[44] S. Liu, Q. Li, M. Rao, L. Wang, Properties and microstructure of roller compacted concrete with high volume low quality fly ash, Mater. Sci. 23 (3) (2017)
273–279.
[45] J.-M. Lessard, A. Omran, A. Tagnit-Hamou, R. Gagne, Feasibility of using biomass fly and bottom ashes to produce RCC and PCC, J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 29 (4)
(2016), 04016267.
[46] A. Yerramala, K.G. Babu, Transport properties of high volume fly ash roller compacted concrete, Cement Concr. Compos. 33 (10) (2011) 1057–1062.
[47] M.I. Abu-Khashaba, I. Adam, A. El-Ashaal, Investigating the possibility of constructing low cost roller compacted concrete dam, Alex. Eng. J. 53 (1) (2014)
131–142.
[48] A. Mardani-Aghabaglou, , Andiç-Çakir Ö, K. Ramyar, Freeze-thaw resistance and transport properties of high-volume fly ash roller compacted concrete
designed by maximum density method, Cement Concr. Compos. 37 (2013) 259–266.
[49] S. Jacobsen, High Volume Fly Ash RCC for Dams/mixture Optimization and Mechanical Properties, vol. 202, Special Publication, 2001, pp. 331–348.
[50] S. Vivek, R.S. Narayanan, G. Dhinakaran, Comparative study on flexural behaviour of RCC beam and SCC ternary beams with mineral admixtures, Construct.
Build. Mater. 152 (2017) 57–64.
[51] L. Shen, Q. Li, W. Ge, S. Xu, The mechanical property and frost resistance of roller compacted concrete by mixing silica fume and limestone powder:
experimental study, Construct. Build. Mater. 239 (2020) 117882.
[52] A. Mehta, D.K. Ashish, Silica fume and waste glass in cement concrete production: a review, J. Build. Eng. (2019) 100888.
[53] A. Modarres, S. Hesami, M. Soltaninejad, H. Madani, Application of coal waste in sustainable roller compacted concrete pavement-environmental and
technical assessment, Int. J. Pavement Eng. 19 (8) (2018) 748–761.
[54] A.M. Ashteyat, Y.S.A. Rjoub, Y. Murad, S. Asaad, Mechanical and durability behaviour of roller-compacted concrete containing white cement by pass dust and
polypropylene fibre, Europ. J. Environ. Civil Eng. (12) (2019) 1–18.
[55] A.A. Ramezanianpour, A. Mohammadi, E.R. Dehkordi, Q.B. Chenar, Mechanical properties and durability of roller compacted concrete pavements in cold
regions, Construct. Build. Mater. 146 (2017) 260–266.
[56] S. Ghahari, A. Mohammadi, A. Ramezanianpour, Performance assessment of natural pozzolan roller compacted concrete pavements, Case Stud. Constr. Mater.
7 (2017) 82–90.
[57] A. Omran, D. Harbec, A. Tagnit-Hamou, R. Gagne, Production of roller-compacted concrete using glass powder: field study, Construct. Build. Mater. 133
(2017) 450–458.
[58] S.A.M. Rad, A. Modarres, Durability properties of non-air entrained roller compacted concrete pavement containing coal waste ash in presence of de-icing
salts, Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 137 (2017) 48–59.
[59] D. Panesar, S. Chidiac, Ultrasonic pulse velocity for determining the early age properties of dry-cast concrete containing ground granulated blast-furnace slag,
Can. J. Civ. Eng. 34 (5) (2007) 682–685.
[60] Y. Liu, Y. Zhuge, C.W. Chow, A. Keegan, J. Ma, C. Hall, D. Li, P.N. Pham, J. Huang, W. Duan, Cementitious composites containing alum sludge ash: an
investigation of microstructural features by an advanced nanoindentation technology, Construct. Build. Mater. 299 (2021) 124286.
[61] Y. Liu, Y. Zhuge, C.W.K. Chow, A. Keegan, P.N. Pham, D. Li, J.-A. Oh, R. Siddique, The potential use of drinking water sludge ash as supplementary
cementitious material in the manufacture of concrete blocks, Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 168 (2021) 105291.
[62] M. Adamu, B.S. Mohammed, M.S. Liew, Effect of crumb rubber and nano silica on the creep and drying shrinkage of roller compacted concrete pavement, Int.
J. Geomate 15 (47) (2018) 58–65.
[63] M. Adamu, B.S. Mohammed, N. Shafiq, M. Shahir Liew, Effect of crumb rubber and nano silica on the fatigue performance of roller compacted concrete
pavement, Cogent Engi. 5 (1) (2018) 1436027.
[64] M. Adamu, B.S. Mohammed, N. Shafiq, Nano silica modified roller compacted rubbercrete-An overview, in: Engineering Challenges for Sustainable Future,
2016, pp. 483–487. ROUTLEDGE in association with GSE Research.
[65] M. Jebli, F. Jamin, E. Malachanne, E. Garcia-Diaz, M.S. El Youssoufi, Experimental characterization of mechanical properties of the cement-aggregate interface
in concrete, Construct. Build. Mater. 161 (2018) 16–25.
[66] E. Anastasiou, A. Liapis, I. Papayianni, Comparative life cycle assessment of concrete road pavements using industrial by-products as alternative materials,
Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 101 (2015) 1–8.
[67] Y. Ninomiya, Y. Kuroiwa, N. Takao, A study on concrete paving with limestone aggregate and limestone powder, Cement Sci. Concrete Technol. 67 (1) (2013)
266–273.
[68] S.K. Rao, P. Sravana, T.C. Rao, Experimental Investigation on pozzolanic effect of fly ash in roller compacted concrete pavement using manufactured Sand as
fine aggregate, Int. J. Appl. Eng. Res. 10 (8) (2015) 20669–20682.
[69] I. Boussetta, S. El Euch Khay, J. Neji, Experimental testing and modelling of roller compacted concrete incorporating RAP waste as aggregates, Europ. J.
Environ. Civil Eng. (2018) 1–15.
[70] M. Fakhri, E. Amoosoltani, The effect of reclaimed asphalt pavement and crumb rubber on mechanical properties of roller compacted concrete pavement,
[71] F. Debieb, L. Courard, S. Kenai, R. Degeimbre, Roller compacted concrete with contaminated recycled aggregates, Construct. Build. Mater. 23 (11) (2009)
3382–3387.
[72] C.S. Poon, D. Chan, Paving blocks made with recycled concrete aggregate and crushed clay brick, Construct. Build. Mater. 20 (8) (2006) 569–577.
[73] M.N.-T. Lam, S. Jaritngam, D.-H. Le, Roller-compacted concrete pavement made of Electric Arc Furnace slag aggregate: mix design and mechanical properties,
[74] T.-C. Ling, C.-S. Poon, Use of recycled CRT funnel glass as fine aggregate in dry-mixed concrete paving blocks, J. Clean. Prod. 68 (2014) 209–215.
[75] M. Adamu, B.S. Mohammed, N. Shafiq, Flexural performance of nano silica modified roller compacted rubbercrete, Int. J. Adv. Appl. Sci. 4 (9) (2017) 6–18.
[76] A. Meddah, H. Bensaci, M. Beddar, A. Bali, Study of the effects of mechanical and chemical treatment of rubber on the performance of rubberized roller-
compacted concrete pavement, Innov. Infrastruct. Sol. 2 (1) (2017) 17.
[77] B.S. Mohammed, K.M.A. Hossain, J.T.E. Swee, G. Wong, M. Abdullahi, Properties of crumb rubber hollow concrete block, J. Clean. Prod. 23 (1) (2012) 57–67.
21
[78] M. Madhkhan, R. Azizkhani, M.T. Harchegani, Effects of pozzolans together with steel and polypropylene fibers on mechanical properties of RCC pavements,
Construct. Build. Mater. 26 (1) (2012) 102–112.
[79] J.N. Karadelis, Y. Lin, Flexural strengths and fibre efficiency of steel-fibre-reinforced, roller-compacted, polymer modified concrete, Construct. Build. Mater. 93
(2015) 498–505.
[80] C. Hazaree, H. Ceylan, K. Wang, Influences of mixture composition on properties and freeze–thaw resistance of RCC, Construct. Build. Mater. 25 (1) (2011)
313–319.
[81] Y. Lin, J.N. Karadelis, Y. Xu, A new mix design method for steel fibre-reinforced, roller compacted and polymer modified bonded concrete overlays, Construct.
Build. Mater. 48 (2013) 333–341.
[82] P.K. Kolase, A.K. Desai, Experimental study on monotonic and fatigue behaviour of polypropylene fibre-reinforced roller-compacted concrete with fly ash,
Road Mater. Pavement Des. 20 (5) (2019) 1096–1113.
[83] Z. Algin, S. Gerginci, Freeze-thaw resistance and water permeability properties of roller compacted concrete produced with macro synthetic fibre, Construct.
Build. Mater. 234 (2020) 117382.
[84] S. Yildizel, O. Timur, A. Ozturk, Abrasion resistance and mechanical properties of waste-glass-fiber-reinforced roller-compacted concrete, Mech. Compos.
Mater. 54 (2) (2018) 251–256.
[85] M. Haghnejad, A. Modarres, Effect of freeze-thaw cycles on the response of roller compacted concrete pavement reinforced by recycled polypropylene fibre
under monotonic and cyclic loadings, Road Mater. Pavement Des. (2020) 1–17.
[86] K. Sobhan, M. Mashnad, Roller-compacted fiber concrete pavement foundation with recycled aggregate and waste plastics, Transport. Res. Rec. 1775 (1)
(2001) 53–63.
[87] A.G. Graeff, K. Pilakoutas, K. Neocleous, M.V.N.N. Peres, Fatigue resistance and cracking mechanism of concrete pavements reinforced with recycled steel
fibres recovered from post-consumer tyres, Eng. Struct. 45 (DEC) (2012) 385–395.
[88] H. Rooholamini, A. Hassani, M. Aliha, Fracture properties of hybrid fibre-reinforced roller-compacted concrete in mode I with consideration of possible kinked
crack, Construct. Build. Mater. 187 (2018) 248–256.
[89] H.A. Mohammed, Design and Evaluation of Two-Layer Roller Compacted Concrete (Doctoral Dissertation), University of Nottingham, 2018.
[90] ASTM C1176/1176M. Standard practice for making roller-compacted concrete in cylinder molds using a vibrating table.
[91] ASTM C1435/C1435M. Standard practice for molding roller-compacted concrete in cylinder molds using a vibrating hammer.
[92] C. Chhorn, S.-W. Lee, Consistency control of roller-compacted concrete for pavement, KSCE J. Civ. Eng. 21 (5) (2017) 1757–1763.
[93] S. Zhang, X. Wang, C. Wang, R. Song, H. Huo, Compressive behavior and constitutive model for roller compacted concrete under impact loading: considering
vertical stratification, Construct. Build. Mater. 151 (2017) 428–440.
[94] X. Wang, S. Zhang, C. Wang, C. Shang, K. Cao, P. Wei, Investigation into stress wave propagation across interlayers existing in roller compacted concrete (RCC)
under impact loadings, Construct. Build. Mater. 193 (2018) 13–22.
[95] B. Li, Z. Wang, Y. Jiang, Z. Zhu, Temperature control and crack prevention during construction in steep slope dams and stilling basins in high-altitude areas,
Adv. Mech. Eng. 10 (1) (2018) 1–15.
[96] X. Zhang, S. Li, Y. Li, Y. Ge, H. Li, Effect of superficial insulation on roller-compacted concrete dams in cold regions, Adv. Eng. Software 42 (11) (2011)
939–943.
[97] M. Jaafar, K. Bayagoob, J. Noorzaei, W.A. Thanoon, Development of finite element computer code for thermal analysis of roller compacted concrete dams,
Adv. Eng. Software 38 (11–12) (2007) 886–895.
[98] ASTM C1170/C1170M. Standard test method for determining consistency and density of roller-compacted concrete using a vibrating table.
[99] C.-H. Huang, S.-K. Lin, C.-S. Chang, H.-J. Chen, Mix proportions and mechanical properties of concrete containing very high-volume of Class F fly ash,
[100] A. Mardani-Aghabaglou, K. Ramyar, Mechanical properties of high-volume fly ash roller compacted concrete designed by maximum density method,
[101] C.D. Atiş, Strength properties of high-volume fly ash roller compacted and workable concrete, and influence of curing condition, Cement Concr. Res. 35 (6)
(2005) 1112–1121.
[102] T.R. Naik, R.N. Kraus, Y-m Chun, B.W. Ramme, S.S. Singh, Properties of field manufactured cast-concrete products utilizing recycled materials, J. Mater. Civ.
Eng. 15 (4) (2003) 400–407.
[103] S.K. Rao, P. Sravana, T.C. Rao, Investigation on pozzolanic effect of fly ash in roller compacted concrete pavement, IRACST-Eng. Sci. Technol.: Int. J. 5 (2)
(2015) 202–206.
[104] C. Settari, F. Debieb, E.H. Kadri, O. Boukendakdji, Assessing the effects of recycled asphalt pavement materials on the performance of roller compacted
[105] H. Rooholamini, R. Sedghi, B. Ghobadipour, M. Adresi, Effect of electric arc furnace steel slag on the mechanical and fracture properties of roller-compacted
[106] B.S. Mohammed, M. Adamu, Mechanical performance of roller compacted concrete pavement containing crumb rubber and nano silica, Construct. Build.
Mater. 159 (2018) 234–251.
[107] Yazici Ş, A. Mardani-Aghabaglou, M. Tuyan, A.A. Üte, Mechanical properties and impact resistance of roller-compacted concrete containing polypropylene
fibre, Mag. Concr. Res. 67 (16) (2015) 867–875.
[108] J. LaHucik, S. Dahal, J. Roesler, A.N. Amirkhanian, Mechanical properties of roller-compacted concrete with macro-fibers, Construct. Build. Mater. 135 (2017)
440–446.
[109] A. Wilson, A. Abolmaali, Performance of synthetic fiber-reinforced concrete pipes, J. Pipeline Syst. Eng. Pract. 5 (3) (2014), 04014002.
[110] R. Shao, C. Wu, J. Li, Z. Liu, Development of sustainable steel fibre-reinforced dry ultra-high performance concrete (DUHPC), J. Clean. Prod. 337 (2022)
130507.
[111] H. Angelakopoulos, P. Papastergiou, K. Pilakoutas, Fibrous roller-compacted concrete with recycled materials–feasibility study, Mag. Concr. Res. 67 (15)
(2015) 801–811.
[112] G. Liu, W. Lu, Y. Lou, W. Pan, Z. Wang, Interlayer shear strength of roller compacted concrete (RCC) with various interlayer treatments, Construct. Build.
Mater. 166 (2018) 647–656.
[113] X. Zhu, Z. Guo, W. Yang, B. Cheng, Effects of double expansion agents on the properties of interlayer in roller-compacted concrete, Construct. Build. Mater. 262
(2020) 120909.
[114] M. Madhkhan, A. Arasteh, Evaluation of bond strength in roller compacted concrete under various normal pressures, WIT Trans. Built Environ. 85 (2006)
269–277.
[115] D. Liu, Z. Li, J. Liu, Experimental study on real-time control of roller compacted concrete dam compaction quality using unit compaction energy indices,
[116] B.S. Thomas, R.C. Gupta, A comprehensive review on the applications of waste tire rubber in cement concrete, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 54 (2016)
1323–1333.
[117] O. Gencel, C. Ozel, F. Koksal, E. Erdogmus, G. Martínez-Barrera, W. Brostow, Properties of concrete paving blocks made with waste marble, J. Clean. Prod. 21
(1) (2012) 62–70.
[118] M. Wieland, R.P. Brenner, Earthquake aspects of roller compacted concrete and concrete-face rockfill dams, in: Proc. 13th World Conf. On Earthquake
Engineering, Vancouver, Canada, 2004.
[119] P. Lin, B. Huang, Q. Li, R. Wang, Hazard and seismic reinforcement analysis for typical large dams following the Wenchuan earthquake, Eng. Geol. 194 (2015)
86–97.
22
[120] M.E. Kartal, M. Cavusli, A.B. Sunbul, Assessing seismic response of a 2D roller-compacted concrete dam under variable reservoir lengths, Arabian J. Geosci. 10
(22) (2017) 488.
[121] C. Wang, W. Chen, H. Hao, S. Zhang, R. Song, X. Wang, Experimental investigations of dynamic compressive properties of roller compacted concrete (RCC),
[122] X. Wang, S. Zhang, C. Wang, F. Liu, R. Song, P. Wei, Initial damage effect on dynamic compressive behaviors of roller compacted concrete (RCC) under impact
loadings, Construct. Build. Mater. 186 (2018) 388–399.
[123] B. Han, S. Ding, X. Yu, Intrinsic self-sensing concrete and structures: a review, Measurement 59 (2015) 110–128.
[124] M. Zhang, M. Li, J. Zhang, D. Liu, Y. Hu, Q. Ren, D. Tian, Experimental study on electro-thermal and compaction properties of electrically conductive roller-
compacted concrete overwintering layer in high RCC dams, Construct. Build. Mater. 263 (2020) 120248.
[125] B. Han, K. Zhang, T. Burnham, E. Kwon, X. Yu, Integration and road tests of a self-sensing CNT concrete pavement system for traffic detection, Smart Mater.
Struct. 22 (1) (2012), 015020.
[126] B. Han, X. Yu, E. Kwon, A self-sensing carbon nanotube/cement composite for traffic monitoring, Nanotechnology 20 (44) (2009) 445501.
[127] B. Han, Y. Wang, S. Dong, L. Zhang, S. Ding, X. Yu, J. Ou, Smart concretes and structures: a review, J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct. 26 (11) (2015) 1303–1345.
[128] D.-Y. Yoo, S. Kim, M.-J. Kim, D. Kim, H.-O. Shin, Self-healing capability of asphalt concrete with carbon-based materials, J. Mater. Res. Technol. 8 (1) (2019)
827–839.
[129] K.H. Khayat, N.A. Libre, Roller Compacted Concrete: Field Evaluation and Mixture Optimization, Missouri University of Science and Technology. Center for
Transportation Infrastructure and Safety, 2014.
[130] R. Siddique, T.R. Naik, Properties of concrete containing scrap-tire rubber–an overview, Waste Manag. 24 (6) (2004) 563–569.
[131] R.A. Embacher, A.E. Schultz, M.B. Snyder, Condition and Durability of Segmental Concrete Block Retaining Walls along Roadways in Minnesota, University of
Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn, 2001.
[132] V. Marcos-Meson, A. Michel, A. Solgaard, G. Fischer, C. Edvardsen, T.L. Skovhus, Corrosion resistance of steel fibre reinforced concrete-A literature review,
Cement Concr. Res. 103 (2018) 1–20.
[133] M. Hashemi, P. Shafigh, I. Asadi, A. Mahpour, A. Samadian, The effect of superplasticizer admixture on the engineering characteristics of roller-compacted
concrete pavement, Int. J. Pavement Eng. (2020) 1–16.
[134] T.V. Oliveira, A.A. Nogueira, Analysis of development of carbonation and surface wear of the concrete: a case study in Ship Lock 1 of the transposition system
of Tucuruí dam, J. Build. Pathol. Rehabilit. 1 (1) (2016) 17.
[135] W.S. Adaska, Roller-compacted concrete (RCC), in: Significance of Tests and Properties of Concrete and Concrete-making Materials, ASTM International, 2006.
[136] K. Sobhan, L. Gonzalez, D. Reddy, Durability of a pavement foundation made from recycled aggregate concrete subjected to cyclic wet–dry exposure and
fatigue loading, Mater. Struct. 49 (6) (2016) 2271–2284.
[137] Z. Wu, M. Mahdi, T.D. Rupnow, Accelerated pavement testing of thin RCC over soil cement pavements, Int. J. Pave. Res. Technol. 9 (3) (2016) 159–168.
[138] Sergio, Botassi, dos, Luiz Santos, Carlos, Pinto, , da, Silva, Filho, Early-age creep of mass concrete: effects of chemical and mineral admixtures, ACI Mater. J.
109 (5) (2012) 537.
[139] L. Berga, J.M. Buil, C. Jofré, S. Chonggang, in: RCC Dams-Roller Compacted Concrete Dams: Proceedings of the IV International Symposium on Roller
Compacted Concrete Dams (2 Vol Set), CRC Press, Madrid, 2003.
[140] W. Hansen, Early age creep and stress relaxation tests, RILEM REPORT (2003) 257–266.
[141] D. Yılmaz, M.E. Kartal, Structural response and damage evaluation of Melen RCC Dam considering creep effects, Arabian J. Geosci. 14 (23) (2021) 1–20.
[142] B. Wei, Z. Xu, H. Liu, Analytic model of creep damage of interfaces for RCCD, Procedia Earth and Planet. Sci. 5 (2012) 341–345.
[143] N. Jafarifar, K. Pilakoutas, T. Bennett, The effect of shrinkage cracks on the load bearing capacity of steel-fibre-reinforced roller-compacted-concrete
pavements, Mater. Struct. 49 (6) (2016) 2329–2347.
[144] N. Gholami, A. Modarres, Shrinkage behaviour of superplasticised RCCP and its relationship with internal temperature, Int. J. Pavement Eng. (2016) 1–12.
23

A Comprehensive Review On Dry Concrete - Application, Raw Material, Preparation, Mechanical, Smart and Durability Performance

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

A Comprehensive Review On Dry Concrete - Application, Raw Material, Preparation, Mechanical, Smart and Durability Performance

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Journal of Building Engineering 55 (2022) 104676

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Building Engineering

A comprehensive review on dry concrete: Application, raw

2. Raw materials and preparation methods

2.1.1. Cementitious material

2.1.3. Chemical additives and fibre

2.2. Preparation method

3. Performance and properties

3.1.2. Consistency and unit weight

3.2. Static mechanical properties

Aghabaglou et al. FA (20%, 40%, 60%) Cement 20–60%↓ 20–60%↓ 20–60%↓

Rooholamini et al. [8] Twisted PP (0.25, 0.5) Not significant 0.25–0.5%↑ –

Notes: “PP” denotes polypropylene and “-” denotes unstudied.

3.2.2. Modulus of elasticity

3.3. Dynamic mechanical performance

3.4. Smart/intelligent performance

4.2. Carbonation resistance

4.3. Permeability (water absorption, sorptivity and chloride diffusivity)

4.4. Abrasion resistance

4.5. Fatigue characteristic

4.6. Creep and shrinkage

5. Summary and discussion

Declaration of competing interest

You might also like