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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

Today, concrete is the most commonly used building material and

can be found everywhere, from offices to schools, roads to railways, and
dams to homes. It is difficult to think of another construction material that is
as adaptable as concrete and is the material of choice for applications
requiring strength, performance, durability, impermeability, fire resistance,
and abrasion resistance. This material versatility and mouldability, as well as
its high compressive strength and the discovery of reinforcing and
prestressing techniques that helped compensate for its low tensile strength,
have all contributed significantly to its widespread use. It is now so
inextricably linked to every human activity that it affects every human being
in his or her daily life. The lowest carbon footprint for a structure over its
lifecycle, unparalleled strength, durability, longevity, resilience, maximized
energy efficiency via thermal mass, and durability in any environment are the
benefits that any engineer aspires to attain in any concrete structure. All these
benefits are attained through a composite material composed of fine and
coarse aggregate bonded together with fluid cement that hardens over time,
known as concrete. Despite the multifaceted usage of concrete in today’s
world with high versatility, a number of challenges are still being faced that
probe the researchers to find an alternate mixture of concrete that can reform
the current phase of concrete construction. The factors that are ignored during
the process of producing efficient concrete are the next key problematic
elements, and hence admixtures should be used to ensure the achievement of
durable concrete that meets proper compaction and curing. Workability is the
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main criterion that affects the strength and durability of concrete

(Yun et al. 2006). A concrete is termed "workable" based on its homogenous
ability to be placed and its potential to get compacted without any separation
or bleeding (Selcuk and Ali 2010). Self-compacting concrete is one such
mixture which is a free-flowing mixture of concrete, that amalgamates itself
and makes it acceptable and appropriate for certain hard conditions where the
reinforcement seems to be an obstruction for the flow of concrete (Shahir et
al. 2008). Self-compacting concrete can also be called high-performance
concrete (Roberto et al. 2020), which results in enhanced tensile strength and
transverse rupture strength (Srinivasa and Saravana 2005) through the
integration of the aggregate components with the binder materials.

1.2 SELF COMPACTING CONCRETE

Self-compacting concrete, compared to other types, has great

viscidity and flowability. The labour-saving technique of SCC removes the
manner of manual compaction. In turn, it ensures safety and health at the
building site and its surroundings (Rakesh and Rao 2002). The archetype of
SCC was first evolved in 1988 to refine the durability of the concrete
composition, employing the fundamental components available. Okamura et
al. (1995) suggested a proportion to combine the SCC by adjusting the
water/powder ratio with the dosage of the superplasticizer where the
aggregates of coarse and fine contents are pre-determined. The guidelines for
the applications and composition of SCC have been endorsed by societies
such as Precast Consulting Services (PCI), American Concrete Institute
(ACI), European Federation of National Trade Associations (EFNARC), and
the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). EFNARC is the
most commonly used of the existing standards for SCC mix composition. To
identify the workability of SCC, three properties are taken into consideration.
They are the filling ability, the ability to flow, and its disobedience towards
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segregation (Augustin et al. 2008). The improved fluidity and the above-
mentioned appealing features of the SCC make construction and laying of the
concrete easier. It also excludes the noise pollution caused by the vibration of
concrete.

Rheology states that when combined with a sufficient amount of

superplasticizer (SP), a Viscosity-Enhancing Adjuvant (VEA) ensures
excellent balance and high distortion (Ravikumar et al. 2009). The shortage
of qualified manpower in Japan compelled them to devise a new model of
concrete that would work on it individually and that should be cost-effective
and eco-friendly too. Okamura et al. (2003) achieved one method for a
concrete structure to compact at its own weight and be robust, avoiding
vibration work, which can be filled into any shape with no voids. SCC is an
uncommon concrete that generated revolutions in the applications utilized in
concrete and was also dubbed HPC, or high-performance concrete. Due to its
consolidative processes, it was also named self-consolidation concrete (Aarthi
and Arunachalam 2018). SCC created new horizons in construction
technology where the construction process which was once impossible in
seismic regions is made possible since the gravity plays a vital part in making
SCC flow down and compact itself (Salih et al. 2006).

In the 1990s, SCC reached India and gained significant advances.

SCC has been employed in special projects, and it has recently become
customary to utilize it for the construction of home accommodation and
commercial buildings (Rahul and Rizwan 2020). Fly ash used in the cement
and concrete industries for 50% of their total use, can be calculated to be
more than 30 MT (Binu et al. 2008). Self-compacting concrete has a major
need for ultimate fineness that may range below 0.1 mm. Cement in
conventional concrete is between 300 and 400 kg/m3. About 75 million tonnes
of the total productivity used for fly ash is employed by self-compacting
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concrete mixtures as its filler (Bouzoubaa and Lachemi 2001). SCC can be
used in precast applications as well as on-site poured concrete. The pre-
manufactured SCC can be readily delivered to the required areas. SCC can be
employed in congested situations by spearing or pumping the mixture into the
structure into either horizontal or vertical stirrups (Wenzhong et al. 2001).
Certain variables, like the proportions and design of the structure and the
concealment of the reinforcement, are taken into consideration, which defines
the requirements of SCC (Gokulnath et al. 2019). Regarding the composition
of SCC, the materials may approximate that of normally vibrated concrete,
which comprises water, cement, supplements, and other admixtures
(Rajamane and Annie, 2005). Nonetheless, the high-pulverized material is a
lubricant for the concrete ingredients and promotes the consistency of the
concrete and its duty as a viscosity agent. An SCC mix should be carefully
designed to stabilize the deformability. The three basic viewpoints of creating
SCC are restricting the content of aggregates, decreasing the ratio of water to
powder, and adding superplasticizers (Mustafa et al. 2006). The ongoing
development of cement also leads to specific environmental challenges. The
manufacture of cement can produce a noteworthy quantity of greenhouse
gases (CO2) per tonne. The ‘World Commission on Development’ defines
sustainability as "requirements of the present being addressed without any
sacrifice to the future generation ability to meet their needs" to ensure
happiness and the expansion of human development (Aarthi and Arunachalam
2018). The rapid expansion also increases the urbanization that leads to both
building and wrecking activities that result in increased construction and
demolition waste (C & D).

1.3 SCM IN SELF COMPACTING CONCRETE

The need of the current scenario is the replacement of pricey

materials with unconventional, profitable, and eco-friendly resources for
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construction. The novel construction materials can be any industrial or agro-

waste that should be safely disposed of without interfering with the
environment. Supplementary Cementitious Materials (SCM) in various forms
have an estimated generation of 100 million tons a year from diverse
industrial processes, and their authenticity is pertinence in the various
frameworks of the project (Selvarajoo et al. 2020). Consumption of SCM for
concrete is established and extensive in the industry and is also economical. It
also ensures the firm and desensitized quality of the concrete (Junwei et al.
2020). It also elucidates the repository and dumping difficulties of the ash. Fly
ash has become an exceptional additive for cement, nearly 15–30 percent.
CANMET, the Canadian Centre for Mineral and Energy Technology, has
created a proper substitute for cement. Under eco-friendly conditions, SCM
concrete incorporating supplemental cementitious material is acceptable to
replace more than fifty percent of the cement content in a block of concrete
(Thomas et al. 1999). According to British standards, SCC is concrete that
uses its own weight to fill the provided areas while remaining free to flow and
compress without voids or having a homogeneous flow. The classification of
the qualities of SCC is based on the following terms:

1. Ability to flow

2. Ability to pass

3. High resistance towards separation or segregation.

SCC without any vibration attains equal distribution, complete

compaction, decreased voids, smooth flow in crowded places, and the
exclusion of surplus water without bleeding or segregation. SCC is commonly
regarded as having a high rank in hardening, which aids towards its perfection
(Raghu et al. 2009). SCC has the ability to employ its weight without any
mechanical vibrations to fill in the required space and has the feature of
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travelling through increased space successfully (Domone et al. 2007). SCC

ensures a better blend of the constituents in its mixture, be they powdered
materials or coarse granules (Seshadri and Srinivasa 2007). SCC proves to be
more promising than any other concrete to be routinely vibrated and also
offers complete safety and encourages the labourers to keep away from hard
activities, making it favourable for the well-being of labourers as well as the
surroundings (Mustafa et al. 2006).

1.4 COPPER SLAG IN SELF COMPACTING CONCRETE

Copper slag is a by-product of the copper production process.

Copper slag is produced in the equivalent of 2.2 tonnes each tonne of copper
produced. The global copper industry is anticipated to produce over
24.6 million tonnes of slag. Despite the fact that copper slag is frequently
utilised in the sandblasting business and the manufacture of abrasive tools, the
majority of it is discarded without being reused or recycled (Gorai et al.2003).
Copper slag possesses mechanical and chemical qualities that allow it to be
used as a partial substitute for Portland cement or as an equivalent to concrete
aggregate. Copper slag, for example, has great soundness, abrasion resistance,
and stability, making it a good choice for aggregate applications. Due to its
low CaO content, copper slag also has pozzolanic characteristics. It can
display cementitious properties when activated with NaOH and can be used as
a partial or full replacement for Portland cement. The use of copper slag as a
raw material offers the dual benefit of avoiding disposal costs while also
lowering the cost of the concrete. The use of copper slag as fine substitute in
the concrete industry has the potential to reduce disposal costs while also
helping to safeguard the environment.

Previous research works have authorized the use of many extra

cementitious materials, such as fly ash, as substitutes for cement. Fly ash in
place of cement and crushed fuel ash is extensively utilized to replace the
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cement (Pipat et al. 2005). Using fly ash, however, diminished the former
strength of the mixture as an effect of equivalent moderate hydration whereas
the addition of fly ash also increased the performance of the concrete
(Praveen et al. 2004). The utilization of fly ash assists in disposing off the
after-effect products reduces utilization of cement by resisting the sulphate
and the reaction of alkali and silica by making the concrete less pervious. It is
also an efficient SCC (Xiao and Han 2010). Another pozzolanic ingredient
used in high-performance concrete is metakaolin, which hardens the concrete
to get rid of bleeding and separation (Mandeep et al. 2018). The reduction of
bleeding is comparable as the free water plugs the pores of the mixture, and
the water content of the mixture also does not alter the outer surface area.
These sorts of admixtures are cost-efficient and also improve the durability
and resilience of self-compacting concrete. The concrete commonly includes
many siliceous minerals in its mixture, such as amorphous non-crystalline
silicon and calcined form of clay mineral (kaolinite) to regulate the negative
effect of cement in concrete by the synthesis of calcium hydroxide (CH). Self-
compacting concrete with these admixtures yields lower CH due to the
pozzolanic response of the components in these combinations. From the
survey of the previous literature works, there have not been many studies on
the partial escalation of SCC using industrial waste as aggregate in concrete.
Hardly any investigations were discussed into the employment of nano
metakaolin and copper slag in self-healing SCC. Also, the lack of proper
guidelines is to be observed for the use of these industrial wastes in concrete.
However the vitalizing property of SCM in concrete has been visible through
a number of investigations on normal cement concrete, and this thesis is about
expounding the idea of self-compacting concrete using copper slag and nano
metakaolin as one of the powder components in its mixture.
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1.5 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

 To study the behaviour of SCC by combining self-curing and

expanding admixture with a superplasticizer when the cement
and fine aggregates are replaced at the same time.

 To determine whether the developed SCC mixes satisfy

EFNARC guidelines with the appropriate superplasticizer
dosage and optimize the proportions for high strength and
durability,

 To evaluate the ability of nano metakaolin to act as

supplementary cementitious material and copper slag as fine
aggregate replacement in self-curing SCC and to justify their
contribution to strength enhancement,

 To determine the effects of self-curing and expanding agents

on SCC performance, as well as their synergistic
contribution, by performing a variety of tests on self-curing
SCC with expansive mixes in various combinations in order
to achieve their qualities at a fresh and hardened stage.

 To evaluate the durability and microstructure of SCC mixes

by allowing water and other permeable hostile substances to
diffuse through the concrete, thereby establishing confidence
in the developed SC-SCC mixes.

1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PRESENT RESEARCH WORK

Curing is vital for the improvement of strength and attainment of

stability of concrete. One of the biggest issues faced by the building industry
during the concrete placing and hardening process is curing. The choice of the
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optimum method of curing is vital for any concrete. In locations where water
shortages are a major problem, the use of water for curing creates issues for
construction workers. The acquisition of maximum strength in concrete is
feasible only when it is subjected to regular curing. In instances where regular
curing is not possible, a new methodology for curing can be established by
using acceptable external admixtures or agents. The self-curing agents may
effectively hold moisture, thus working as an internal curing agent. The
sustainability of regions with water scarcity can be achieved by utilizing self-
curing ingredients in concrete. Though studies focused on using expansive
and self-curing agents separately in concrete, the use of both self-curing and
expansive agents in the improvement of the performance of the self-
compacting mixture containing SCM remained unexplored. The novelty of
the present study lies in the fundamentals of examining the effect of SCC
comprising mineral admixtures employing different internal curing agents and
expansion agents.

1.7 ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS

The organization of the thesis is done into nine different chapters.

Chapter 1 introduces the main concepts of self-compacting

concrete and its utilization in the current construction industry. The main
objective of the study and the scope within which the study was performed
are also presented in the chapter.

Chapter 2 includes the main observations from the recent research

conducted throughout the world on self-compacting concrete and its
advancements in the last few decades. This chapter also enlists the main
findings from the literature and the summarization of the key concepts from
the surveys of the literature.
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Chapter 3 enlists the materials that are used in self-compacting

concrete production. The type of cement used and the quality of aggregates
used in the study are presented. The type of admixture used to improve the
fluidity is also included in the section. The proportion of the concrete mixes
produced and the designation of the specimen mixes are also presented in the
section.

Chapter 4 forms the methodology section, which encompasses the

wide range of experiments that are conducted to visualize the fresh, hardened,
and durability characteristics of the self-compacting concrete under the effect
of varying dosages of self-curing agents and expansive agents.

A clear explanation of the results obtained from the various

experiments and the data obtained from each test is also presented in four
different chapters.

Chapter 5 explains the fresh state test results obtained by the

utilization of the copper slag and nano metakaolin on the SCC, thereby
arriving at an optimum proportion of superplasticizer to be used for the testing
of the mechanical performance of the SCC. The optimum proportion of the
superplasticizer and water binder is measured using slump flow, V-funnel, J-
ring, and L-box. Similarly, the superplasticizer dosage required for the
concrete series that contains expansive and self-curing agents is also
presented in this chapter. The significant findings from the fresh state studies
are also presented.

Chapter 6 explains the mechanical test results obtained by the

utilization of copper slag and nano metakaolin on SCC, thereby arriving at an
optimum proportion concerning the mechanical performance. Similarly, the
mechanical strength result of the concrete series that contains expansive and
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self-curing agents is also presented in this chapter. The section also lists the
significant findings from the experimental studies. The synergistic effect of
expansive agents and self-curing agents in nano metakaolin SCC with copper
slag as fine aggregate is further confirmed with a regression analysis. An
empirical analysis was carried out with the available data. Eventually,
mathematical expressions were arrived at from which the predicted strength
parameter of self-curing SCC was derived. The predicted values help to avoid
a lot of time and material used for sample preparation and assessment.

Chapter 7 explains the durability properties of expansive agents in

nano metakaolin SCC with copper slag as a fine aggregate. The effect of
expansive agents on the durability properties of nano metakaolin SCC with
copper slag as fine aggregate is also presented in this chapter.

Chapter 8 includes microstructure studies to investigate the

changes occurring in the SCC matrix due to the replacement of cement by
nano metakaolin and sand by copper slag. Since the expansive agents and
self-curing agents are together with the material replacements, a complex
mechanism is obtained, which requires a thorough understanding through
micro-level studies. The findings from the SEM and XRD analyses are
presented along with the EDS spectrum in this chapter.

Chapter 9 forms the conclusion part of the study, wherein the

summary of the entire thesis part is carried out with the summary of the
experiment section. This part also enlists some future study thoughts to be
executed as a continuation study.