Structures 33 (2021) 3461–3474

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Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/structures

Analysis of the properties of the self-compacting concrete mixed with tire

rubber waste based on design of experiments
Demarcus Werdine a, Guilherme Antonio Oliver c, Fabricio Alves de Almeida b,
Mirian de Lourdes Noronha c, Guilherme Ferreira Gomes, Ph.D. c, *
a
Physics and Chemistry Institute, Federal University of Itajubá (UNIFEI), Itajubá, Brazil
b
Institute of Industrial Engineering and Management, Federal University of Itajubá, Brazil
c
Mechanical Engineering Institute, Federal University of Itajubá (UNIFEI), Itajubá, Brazil

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The increase of high demand of technological innovation in building construction have increasingly the need
Self-compacting concrete materials that have special structural characteristics. Notably, the use of self-compacting concrete (SCC) has been
Tire rubber waste described by many researchers and engineers as a major revolution in concrete technology due to its fluidity and
Mechanical properties
viscosity characteristics, besides providing energy savings during its construction. Tire waste rubber (TWR) is
Design of experiments
one of the most important residues that cause serious environmental issues. Recycling TWR in the form of ag­
gregates as supplementary construction material is advantageous in many building fronts. To obtain an optimal
SCC manufacturing parameters, this research was based on the application of design of experiments. Several
mixtures, or designs, were prepared with different TRW proportions (10%, 30% and 50%). In addition, the effect
of the rubber grain size was also considered in the model in two different levels. The specimens were submitted
to quasi-static and dynamic tests in order to evaluate their structural performance. The considered responses
were the natural frequency, damping factor, compression strength and elastic modulus for different curing pe­
riods (7 and 28 days). Statistical results showed the significance of the rubber, grain and curing time for the
responses, especially for the strength and elastic modulus. The results of this paper could be a guideline for
engineers using SCC in building field.

popularity in the construction industry, as it provides a safer and more

1. Introduction
Self-compacting concrete (SCC) is a sophisticated high-performance
concrete described as the “most revolutionary step” in concrete tech­
nology in the past two decades due to its impact on economic and
environmental sustainability in the construction industry [1]. SCC was
first developed and defined in Japan in the 1980s. In Japan, SCC
development has been strongly focused on improving the process of
concreting complicated structures and developing concrete for
demanding situations.
SCC is known as a highly fluid concrete and has minimal resistance to
flow and is therefore able to consolidate under its own weight without
any vibration, which provides an improvement in the construction
environment [8–11].
SCC is a special type of material where vibration/compaction is
avoided by the addition of superplasticizer additives to mixtures in the
fresh state. This relatively new technology is gaining more and more
environmentally friendly way to produce concrete without compro­
mising its quality [12–14].
According to Grünewald [15], the development of SCC is a major
step towards efficiency and working conditions in construction sites and
in the prefabricated industry. This material has a better aesthetic finish
on the concrete surface, better characteristics in the hardened state and
concreting in shorter times, giving structures with greater durability.
The benefits of this type of concrete go beyond durability and
strength. SCC reduces noise pollution, since it does not use vibrators,
which also contributes to the reduction in electricity consumption;
minimizes the risk of accidents caused by the excess of people on the
slabs, as it requires less manpower; and reduces ergonomic problems in
workers, as they make less effort in launching and finishing. The use of
SCC directs civil construction to industrialized production, increasing
quality, durability, confidence in the structure and the safety of workers
[16].
For the production of SCC, CP V-ARI cement was used, with high

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: guilhermefergom@gmail.com (G.F. Gomes).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.istruc.2021.06.076
Received 21 December 2020; Received in revised form 16 June 2021; Accepted 22 June 2021
Available online 30 June 2021
2352-0124/© 2021 Institution of Structural Engineers. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
D. Werdine et al. Structures 33 (2021) 3461–3474

Nomenclature σC Compression strength

Ec Static Modulus of Elasticity
SCC Self-compacting concrete Р Density
CP V-ARI Portland Cement V - High Initial Strength Ξ Damping Factor
DoE Design of Experiments Ω Natural frequency
TRW Tire Rubber Waste x1 Design variable: rubber ratio
SCC – REF Self-compacting concrete – Reference (0% rubber x2 Design variable: grain size
content) x3 Design variable: curing time
ABNT NBR Brazilian Association of Technical Standards y1 Mechanical response: natural frequency
ANOVA Analysis of Variance y2 Mechanical response: damping factor
EFNARC European Federation of National Associations y3 Mechanical response: compression strength
Representing for Concrete y4 Mechanical response: elastic modulus
IET Impulse Excitation Technique R2 Coefficient of determination
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials

reduces the duration of construction, which will be reflected in lower

Table 1
Test variables and respective levels.
Mixes Percentage of TRW Granulometry of TRW
1 10% G1 < 0.6 mm
2 4.8 mm > G2 ≥ 0.6 mm
3 30% G1 < 0.6 mm
4 4.8 mm > G2 ≥ 0.6 mm
5 50% G1 < 0.6 mm
6 4.8 mm > G2 ≥ 0.6 mm
initial strength and high fineness, which favors the production of more
fluid and cohesive mixtures; the fine aggregate used was medium nat­
ural sand, of quartz origin, for having a more rounded shape and smooth
texture, in order to reduce the probability of voids; the coarse aggregate
used was zero gravel of granitic origin, since it has a maximum char­
acteristic dimension of 9.5 mm, which allows better fluidity of the
mixture.
A concrete will only be considered self-compacting if three proper­
ties are achieved simultaneously: fluidity, cohesion necessary for the
mixture to flow intact between steel bars (or through ability) and
resistance to segregation [3].
SCC is characterized by its high fluidity, capable of making the ma­
terial fill the forms where it is applied, passing between the reinforce­
ment bars and consolidating only by the action of its own weight,
without presenting segregation and without the need for any type in­
ternal or external vibration [4]. It is not only due to noise reduction
during the construction phase, because of avoiding vibrations, but it also
construction costs [5].
Civil construction is responsible for between 15 and 50% of the
consumption of extracted natural resources. In Brazil, the consumption
of natural aggregates in the production of concrete and mortars alone is
220 million tons/year. With the need for new materials to replace these
aggregates, research is being carried out in order to replace part of the
aggregate with tire rubber, contributing to the preservation of natural
aggregates and offering a clean alternative way of recycling for tire
rubber and searching the sustainability of production processes [6,7].
The possibility of designing self-compacting rubberized concrete is of
great interest to achieve durable applications because this new material
can join the characteristics of SCC (high fluidity, high mechanical
resistance, low porosity, etc.) with the resistance of rubber.
Several studies have been carried out using rubber residue in making
concrete, looking for increasingly satisfactory results in the properties of
concrete in the hardened state. Holmes et al. (2014), observed that
granulometry and rubber content are factors that influence the charac­
teristics of concrete. Miller (2014) proved that more than 60% of rubber
substitution can increase the flexural strength of concrete, increasing its
energy absorption capacity.
According to Turatsinze and Garros (2008), the replacement of
natural coarse aggregates (4–10 mm) with coarse rubber aggregates of
similar dimensions induces a change in fresh properties. It has been
observed a great variation in the results of the studies due to the di­
versity in the granulometry and in the proportion of residue inserted in
the concrete. Thus, the use of statistical methods is considered signifi­
cant for a more adequate analysis of the influence of the concrete con­
struction parameters in the static and dynamic responses evaluated.

Fig. 1. Tire rubber waste for grain size (a) G1 < 0.6 mm and (b) 0.6 mm ≤ G2 < 4.8 mm.

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D. Werdine et al. Structures 33 (2021) 3461–3474

Fig. 2. Self-compacting concrete manufacturing (a) and final specimen (b).

separately, to later perform the mixing of these two elements by setting

Table 2 the optimal volume of paste.
Test variables and respective levels. From the SCC-REF line, the natural sand in volume was partially
Control factors Symbol Levels replaced by the tire rubber residue, in the proportions and gran­
ulometries as shown in Table 1. The G1 granulometry is the one whose
Low (− 1) Middle (0) High (+1)
grains are between 0.6 mm and 4.8 mm and the G2 granulometry is the
Rubber Content (%) x1 10 30 50
one whose grains are smaller than 0.6 mm.
Rubber Granulometry (mm) x2 0.6 – 4.8
Curing Time (days) x3 7 – 28
To provide a certain number of fines that would promote the vis­
cosity and cohesion required to SCC in the fresh state, we opted, in this
research, for active silica and marble powder. As an additive, the
To the best of the authors’ knowledge, there are no (or very few) superplasticizer ADI-SUPER H25® was used. It is a high-tech additive,
studies in the literature investigating, statistically, the influence of formulated based on polymers of modified carboxylic ethers, which act
rubber waste from tires, in different percentages and granulometries, on on the cement particles with a very high dispersing effect, from which
the mechanical and dynamic properties of self-compacting concrete. highly fluid concretes are obtained with an extremely low water/cement
Due to its characteristics of dosage, production and execution, the use of ratio, long maintenance and high initial and final mechanical strengths.
self-compacting concrete, by itself, is already a great gain for the civil In this research we used the tire rubber waste (TRW) residue from un­
construction sector. This benefit is even greater when the concrete is serviceable tires, of different sizes, from the used tire retreading industry
mixed with tire rubber residue. The presence of the polymer, in addition obtained by mechanical scraping process, as shown in Fig. 1.
to providing advantages in some concrete properties, contributes to the The specimens were made according to ABNT NBR 5738: 2018, using
preservation of the replaced natural aggregate and to a sustainable metallic cylinders with 10 cm in diameter and 20 cm in height greased
destination of the waste. with mineral oil, as shown in Fig. 2. According to the requirements of the
This manuscript is organized as follows: Section 2 the methodolog­ mentioned standard, the specimens, after molding and deformation,
ical procedure is presented. Section 3 presents the main results and were submitted to the curing process inside the humid chamber until
discussion about the vibration and compression tests results of the SCC reaching the ages of the tests (7 and 28 days) and submitted to the axial
specimens as well the factorial results obtained from design of experi­ compression tests and modulus of elastic.
ments (DoE). Finally, Section 4 draws the conclusions.

2. Experimental methodology 2.2. Design of experiments – Full factorial analysis

2.1. Concrete manufacturing
SCC-REF is the acronym given to concrete made without any type of
residue. The dosage method adopted in this work to produce the SCC-
REF was based on the guidelines proposed by Gomes [21], verifying
its validity through the physical and mechanical properties of the
concrete.
This methodology proposes to obtain SCC of high compressive
strength (over 40 MPa at 28 days) by optimizing the composition of the
paste (cement, water, and superplasticizers) and the granular skeleton
Experimental design is a critically important tool in the scientific and
engineering world for improving the product realization process. The
application of experimental design technique early in process develop­
ment can result in improved process yields reduced variability and
closer conformance to nominal or target requirements; reduced devel­
opment time and reduced overall costs. Some applications of experi­
mental design in engineering design include: evaluation and comparison
of basic design configurations; evaluation of material alternatives; se­
lection of design parameters so that the product will work well under a
wide variety of field conditions, that is, so that the product is robust;

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Table 3
Modal and statics responses considering a full factorial design.
Continuous variables Categorial variable Experiments

Rubber Content (%) Granulometry* (mm) Curing Time (days) Natural Frequency (Hz) Damping Factor (− ) Compression Strength (MPa) Elastic Modulus (GPa)

10 G1 7 3.50 0.04110 36.567 30.014

10 G1 28 3.25 0.01758 48.790 33.645
10 G2 7 3.25 0.01508 46.734 30.243
10 G2 28 3.25 0.03968 48.504 34.507
10 G1 7 3.50 0.01276 37.134 30.482
10 G1 28 3.00 0.03283 45.563 22.028
10 G2 7 3.50 0.02333 48.555 31.257
10 G2 28 3.25 0.01132 50.713 36.118
10 G1 7 3.50 0.01575 39.426 30.545
10 G1 28 3.25 0.02231 45.703 34.160
10 G2 7 3.25 0,03443 46.225 30.374
10 G2 28 3.25 0.04446 52.496 33.916
30 G1 7 3.50 0.01901 17.927 13.949
30 G1 28 3.25 0.04167 21.499 15.668
30 G2 7 3.50 0.02071 16.157 25.673
30 G2 28 3.25 0.06388 27.788 27.800
30 G1 7 3.50 0.02681 18.920 14.548
30 G1 28 3.25 0.02264 21.626 17.374
30 G2 7 3.50 0.02467 16.151 23.386
30 G2 28 3.50 0.10412 27.273 27.289
30 G1 7 3.50 0.02025 17.590 12.359
30 G1 28 3.25 0.01612 20.308 15.268
30 G2 7 3.50 0.02313 12.707 25.131
30 G2 28 3.00 0.08498 30.481 26.501
50 G1 7 3.50 0.02722 5.666 5.378
50 G1 28 3.25 0.04174 9.978 9.992
50 G2 7 3.25 0.03009 11.115 12.486
50 G2 28 3.25 0.03788 10.632 14.971
50 G1 7 3.50 0.02677 4.730 6.348
50 G1 28 3.25 0.03827 7.124 7.935
50 G2 7 3.50 0.02377 9.978 9.183
50 G2 28 3.25 0.08002 12.274 16.087
50 G1 7 3.50 0.02964 6.366 6.388
50 G1 28 3.50 0.05250 11.115 8.433
50 G2 7 3.25 0.03187 7.124 7.483
50 G2 28 3.25 0.06539 3.801 14.938

*G1: Granulometry < 0.6 mm; G2: 0.6 mm ≤ Granulometry ≤ 4.8 mm.

Fig. 3. Compression test setup for self-compacting concrete.

determination of key product design parameters that impact product
performance and formulation of new products.
The DoE approach provides a way to reveal which factors influence
an experiment’s response. In the present study, the key idea for using
this methodology is to find an ideal solution for making the SCC with
TRW.
According to Mohan (2004), this methodology is based on two
techniques: methodology of mixture design and response surface in
which the primary approach to the general problem is to optimize the
mixture whose properties depend on the proportions of the component
materials. In these techniques, instead of selecting a starting point, a set
of combinations, covering a chosen range of proportions for each

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D. Werdine et al.
Fig. 4. Modal testing setup considering free vibration analysis.
component, is configured according to the established statistical
procedure.
Wolinski (2019) states that the DoE methodology allows a significant
reduction in the number of calculations results necessary to achieve the
assumed accuracy in determining the response surface. The design of
experiments, according to Park (2019), is a statistical approach widely
used in engineering applications, since the approach tries to present
predictive knowledge about complex and multivariable problems with
few numbers of attempts.
According to Aranda et al. [20], Experiment Planning is a technique
used to plan experiments, that is, to define which data, in what quantity
and under what conditions should be collected during a given experi­
ment, basically seeking to satisfy two major objectives: the possible
statistical precision in the answer and the lowest cost. Currently, this
technique has been used on a large scale.
Aranda et al. [20] also states that through this technique, researchers
can determine the variables that have the greatest influence on the
performance of a given process, resulting in (i) reduction of process
variation and better agreement between the obtained nominal values
and the desired values; (ii) reduced process time; (iii) reduction in
operating costs and (iv) improvement in process yield.
In order to adequately contemplate the experimental aspect, it was
decided to use the DoE strategy. Initially, preliminary tests were carried
out to define the main parameters and also the limits (lower and upper)
of these. Based on these tests, the factors and levels that will be used in
the DoE were defined, described in Table 2. It is important to note that
the control characteristics of the experiment are consistent with the
literature.
After this definition, a general full factorial design (GFFD) can be
formulated, presenting factors with different levels. Thus, there are two
variables at two levels (Curing Time and Rubber Granulometry), one
categorical and the other continuous, respectively. In addition, a vari­
able was defined at three levels (Rubber Content), also continuous. From
this definition, the GFFD was generated with three replicates, where the
experimental matrix is described in Table 3. It is important to note that
the experiments were carried out at random, avoiding bias in
measurement.
2.3. Experimental setup
2.3.1. Compression Testing
The compression test was performed following ABNT NBR 5739:
2007 which specifies that cylindrical concrete specimens must be mol­
ded according to ABNT NBR 5739 [22]. After molding, the specimens
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Structures 33 (2021) 3461–3474
were submitted to the curing process inside the humid chamber until
reaching the test ages (7 and 28 days).
The test, shown by the Fig. 3, was performed on the SCC specimens
with and without the addition of TRW. Four cylindrical specimens of 10
cm in diameter and 20 cm in height were tested for each concrete mix
developed. To perform the tests, a WAW-1000 model brand TIME
Testing Machines was used, with a load capacity of 1000 tons, installed
at the Civil Construction Materials Laboratory of the Federal University
of Itajubá.
2.3.2. Modal Testing
For the performance of this non-destructive test, three cylindrical
specimens 10 cm × 20 cm, of each line, were used at 7 and 28 days.
Based on ASTM E1876 [24] the specimens were submitted to the Im­
pulse Excitation Technique. Initially, the lengths, diameters, and masses
of the specimens were recorded and, subsequently, they were supported
on adjustable support.
The vibration test was divided into two stages, the first being the free
vibration test, which thus obtains the natural frequencies and the
damping factors of the specimens. To obtain the results, it was necessary
to carry out a quality experimental arrangement. The experimental
arrangement was divided into two parts: a first one for the analysis of
free vibration, without the presence of external forces. This essay was
fundamental for the acquisition and characterization of the modal
behavior of the evaluated concrete structures. The entire experimental
apparatus shown in Fig. 4.
The boundary condition used to perform this test was free-free,
which constitutes that both sides of the specimen are free to vibration
(no constraint). Through an impact hammer connected to a signal
acquisition plate, the impulse was applied, dynamically exciting the
beam. With that, the beam starts to move, and the micro accelerometer
(weight less than 5 g, thus, no influence on the mas) captures the signal
of this movement.
The equipment configurations were with the following parameters
force equal to 21.08 mV/N (input) and speed = 8.00 mV/(mm/s)
(output). Trigger Source was Analog Input, Run Mode was Auto Arm
every frame, Pre/Post Points (− /+) were − 3(− 1023, +65,535), Pre/
Post Trigger Time was − 2.34 ms and the levels in % and V were both 0.
For the analysis, the number of Lines and Points was, respectively,
12,800 and 32768, while the Frequency was 500 Hz and ΔT was 781.3
µs. The Adopted Acquisition Time was 26 s and the Resolution was
0.015 Hz/point.
D. Werdine et al.
Fig. 5. Mechanical responses considering different manufacturing configurations for self-compacting concretes (legend:
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Analysis of variance (ANOVA)
From the DoE analysis, the ANOVA strategy was applied to verify
whether the experimental factors are statistically compatible in the
arrangement, in addition to analyzing an interaction between the factors
with respect to the response of interest.
There were three test variables analyzed: a categorical variable
which is the cure time (7 and 28 days); and two continuous variables,
rubber content and granulometry.
Four tests were used to analyze the influence of the variables: natural
frequency, damping factor, compression strength and static elastic
modulus. The list of these variables, of the tests and respective values, is
shown in Table 3.
Complementary to Table 3, Fig. 5 shows a graphic result of the four
structural responses (static and modal) evaluated in this study. It can be
seen that the modal responses (Fig. 5a and b) have little variability
depending on the experimental search space, especially for the natural
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Structures 33 (2021) 3461–3474
7 and 28 days of curing time).
frequency (flat surfaces). In other hands, it could be seen a substantial
change in the damping factor due to the curing time (28 days).
On the other hand, considering the static responses (Fig. 5c and d), it
is clear that the responses have a linear trend with the decision variables.
In addition, the curing time factor was a contributing factor to the in­
crease in compressive strength and in the increase of concrete stiffness.
Appendix A shows the results of the modal test in terms of time and
frequency responses.
Fig. 6 show the main effects graphs corresponding to each test. It can
be seen from Fig. 6a that the average natural frequency of concretes with
10% rubber content (average is equal to 3.31 Hz) is the lowest and is
below the total average of the data (3.35 Hz). Concretes with 30% and
50% rubber content show results above the total average, and concretes
with 30% rubber content show the highest average (3.38 Hz).
It is also observed that the mean of the group with the lowest TRW
granulometry (less than 0.6 mm) has a natural frequency value above
the total average and above the average of the group with the highest
TRW granulometry.
Regarding the curing time, the average natural frequency was higher
D. Werdine et al.
Fig. 6. Main effects of the manufacturing variables on the static and modal responses.
in the 7-day healing group. Fig. 6b, shows that for the damping factor,
there was a greater influence of the variables, however, still very small.
The lower the rubber content, there is also a greater influence on the
damping factor. The particle sizes of the rubber also had no statistical
significant influence, however, the lower this variable, the lower the
damping factor. As in the natural frequency, the curing time is also the
variable with the greatest influence on the damping factor, and the
greater the number of days, the greater the damping factor.
According to Fig. 6c, the rubber content was the variable that most
influenced the axial compression strength of concretes. The mean of the
group with 10% of TRW showed greater resistance to compression while
the group with 50% had the lowest value. Regarding granulometry and
curing time, the average of the groups was close to the total average (25
MPa), this means that these factors do not have a significant influence on
the resistance to axial compression.
Analyzing Fig. 6d, it is concluded that the group with 10% of TRW
has a higher average in the static elastic module, while the group with
30% and 50%, and presents averages equal and less than the total
average, respectively. These results are compatible with the results of
the damping factor, that is, while the static modulus reduces with
increasing TRW content, the damping factor increases.
The greater the granulometry of the rubber and the curing time, an
average is observed in the groups above the total average.
3.2. General full factorial results
Pareto chart results show the absolute values of the standardized
effects from the highest to the lowest effect. The graph also has a
reference line to indicate which effects are statistically significant, that
is, the bars that cross the reference line are statistically significant. The
reference line for statistical significance depends on the level of
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Structures 33 (2021) 3461–3474
significance (indicated by α), which in this study used 95% confidence,
that is, α = 0.05.
Fig. 6a shows the significant relevance of the process factors in the
natural frequency response. It is observed that only factor C (cure time),
was statistically significant for this modal response, a fact that was not
observed for the other factors, not even in the combination between
them. Comparing these results with those obtained previously (Fig. 7a),
it is concluded that they are compatible, that is, the natural frequency
for factors A (Rubber content) and B (Rubber granulometry) also it
varied very little.
About the damping factor (Fig. 7b), all factors and the combination
between them were statistically significant, that is, they crossed the
reference line (1.711). It is observed that the curing time is the most
significant factor and the combination between the content (factor A)
and the granulometry of the rubber (factor B), is less significant. These
results also confirm those already shown in Fig. 7b.
It can be seen from Fig. 7c that, except for the combination between
the granulometry of the rubber and the curing time, all factors, and the
combinations between them are significant for the results of compres­
sion strength. The rubber content is, in this case, the most significant
factor, that is, the amount of rubber has a great influence on the axial
compression strength of the concrete.
According to Fig. 7d, the most significant factors for the result of the
static elasticity modulus are, in decreasing order, the content (factor A)
and the size of the rubber (factor B), the combination between them
(factor AB), and the curing time (factor C). The main effects graph for
the static elasticity module, represented by Fig. 6d, also presents these
results.
(Intentionally left blank)
The p-value is defined as the probability of observing a test statistic
value greater than or equal to that found. Traditionally, the cut-off value
D. Werdine et al. Structures 33 (2021) 3461–3474

Fig. 7. Pareto of standardized effects (legend: A = rubber ratio, B = grain size and C = Curing time). A gray bar represents a term not in the model.

The R2 is a statistical measure of how close the data is to the adjusted

Table 4 regression line. In this part of the study, considering the statistical
ANOVA p-value results for the three modal responses. approach, a factorial arrangement was made for planning the experi­
Factor Compression Strength (σ) Elastic Modulus (Ec) ments. The factorial arrangement leads to obtaining a linear regression
equation as a function of the decision variables of the model.
Rubber 0.000 0.000
Granulometry 0.000 0.000 Observing the results of R2pred presented in Table 5, it is concluded
Curing Time 0.000 0.000 that, the linear model for the natural frequency and damping factor
Rubber × Granulometry 0.009 0.000 explains, respectively, only 41.36% and 65.91% of the data variability
Rubber × Curing Time 0.002 – around its average. In other words, it can be concluded that 43.36% of
Granulometry × Curing Time 0.880 –
the variation of the natural frequency is linearly related to the rubber
content, granulometry and curing time. The remaining 56.64% of the
variation is the result of other factors not considered in this study. This is
Table 5 probably explained by the fact that these responses are not as significant
Results of the R2 considering the response variables for self-compacting and/or do not exhibit linear behavior.
concrete. On the other hand, for static responses, 97.18% and 95.56% of the
Responses R2 R2 adj R2 pred variation in axial compression and static elastic modulus, respectively,
Compression Strength (σc) 99.06 98.73 98.13
are linearly related to the rubber content and granulometry, and to the
Elastic Modulus (Ec) 95.67 94.76 93.09 curing time. This fact is explained by the significant influence that these
factors have on the responses.
The results of the quality of the regression adjustment (R2adj) are
for rejecting the null hypothesis (no statistical difference between 96.59% and 64.64% for the compression strength and elastic modulus,
groups) is 0.05, which means that when there is no difference, such an respectively. Equations (1) and (2) show the final results for the meta­
extreme value for the test statistic is expected in less than 5% of the time model obtained from the test specimens where the variables x1, x2 and x3
[25]. represents the rubber ratio, grain size and curing time factors, respec­
In this work, the response variable is the results of the tests per­ tively. Equations (1) and (2) represent the best possible fit of the model
formed and the term is the variables involved (rubber content and according to the adopted factorial design. In this model, the
granulometry, curing time). manufacturing variables (x1, x2, x3), as well as their interactions (x1x2,
Table 4 shows that some p-values obtained were less than 0.05, x1x3, x2x3) constitute and translate the ability to generate responses from
which means that, in these cases, we can reject the null hypothesis, that a mathematical model.
is, there is a statistically significant difference between the tests per­
formed, the variables and the combinations between them. The proba­
bility is almost zero that the test results will not be influenced if there is
any change in the variables.

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D. Werdine et al.
Fig. 8. Images of self-compacting concrete (SCC) reference concrete without rubber addition.
3.3. Microstructural analysis
In order to contribute to the results of the physical and mechanical
tests of the various self-compacting concrete traces developed, the mi­
crostructures were evaluated. Topological analyzes were performed
using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) on all lines developed to
assess the transition zone between the aggregates and the cement paste,
in addition to observing the location of cracks and voids present in the
matrix.
Fig. 8 shows the morphology of the reference SCC (0% rubber), that
is, concrete without the addition of rubber. The detachment in the
transition zone between the coarse aggregate and the cement matrix is
quite evident, which contributed to the appearance of cracks. The im­
ages were obtained by secondary electron mode.
Fig. 9a and b show the microstructure of the self-compacting con­
crete with 10% rubber with G1 size. It is possible to observe a surface
with some voids and, due to the low adhesion between rubber and
concrete, the detachment (transition zone) between the parts is clearly
perceived. In Fig. 9c–f, with 30% and 50% rubber, respectively, and with
G1 particle size, the cement paste matrix presents a significant increase
in voids proportional to the rubber content, a fact that it contributes to
the reduction of the mechanical resistance of the concretes, facilitating
the appearance and propagation of cracks.
According to Angelin et al. [26], the presence of voids is directly
related to the air bubbles adhered to the rubber surface that are dragged
during the mixing of the concrete, making the matrix extremely fragile.
This is the most fragile area of the concrete and, since the rubber has low
resistance, the polymer can be considered as a void in the concrete,
reducing its mechanical resistance and facilitating the propagation of
cracks and ruptures. It is possible to verify the increase in the quantity of
pores and hydration crystals, the transition zone between the rubber
residue and the cementitious matrix is very evident.
σ C = 40.99 − − 0.7552 x1 + 2.870 x2 + 0.5001 x3 − − 0.0299 x1 x2 − − 0.00539x1 x3 − − 0.0561x2 x3
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Structures 33 (2021) 3461–3474
(Intentionally left blank).
In concretes with 10%, 30% and 50% rubber with G2 granulometry,
Fig. 10a shows Fig. 10c in addition to the large number of voids, the
transition zones and the total detachment of the rubber with the cement
matrix. This fact occurs due to the greater granulometry of the rubber
and the non-adherence between the parts.
As a matter of the fact, it is possible to verify that, with increasing
levels of incorporation of rubber residues in the mixtures, there is an
increase in the number and size of the pores, micro-cracks, resulting in a
less compact structure and a marked transition zone. This evidence
justifies the decrease in resistance to compression and traction in
bending.
3.4. Optimal manufacturing conditions
The model obtained in Section 3.2 has the great advantage of being a
guideline for designers, without necessarily requiring the manufacture
of self-compacting concrete materials. The mathematical model ob­
tained was able to generate responses with remarkable precision (R2). In
addition to all the factorial analysis, the analysis of variance still exhibits
a level of sensitivity of the responses as a function of the manufacturing
parameters (decision variables).
As already discussed in previous section, the full factorial design will
result a linear response Equation Y = f(X) as shown in Eq. (1).
Y = β0 + β1 x1 + β2 x2 + β3 x3 + β12 x1 x2 + β13 x1 x3 + β23 x2 x3 + β123 x1 x2 x3 + ε
(1)
where β0 is the overall mean, while β1, β2 and β3 are the effect co­
efficients for the main effects of factors A (rubber), B (grain) and C
(curing time), respectively. β12, β13 and β23 are the effect coefficients for
the AB, AC and BC interactions, while β123 represents the ABC interac­
tion. The coefficients β were obtained from ANOVA results in Section 3.2
(2)
D. Werdine et al.
Fig. 9. Self-compacting concrete microstructure with different rubber content and G1 grain size.
In short, it can be said that the model evaluated in this study has a
linear relationship to the decision variables and the evaluated responses,
σC (Eq. (2)) and Ec (Eq. (3)).
Ec = 33.80 − − x1 + 0.174 x2 + 0.0304 x3 + 0.0425x2 x3 (3)
Figs. 11 and 12 show the result of linear regression for the factorial
adjustment of the compressive stress responses (Fig. 11) and elastic
modulus (Fig. 12). As previously mentioned in Fig. 5, these responses
initially presented a very strong linear relationship. This relationship
was then verified by the quality of the adjustment (Table 5) reaching
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Structures 33 (2021) 3461–3474
values in the order of 99%. For both mechanical responses, there is a
slight increase in responses depending on the factor x3 (cure time).
Fig. A1. Fig. A2.
Establishing some desirable conditions of maximization or minimi­
zation for the statistically significant dependent variables, the DoE
methodology was used to obtain which values for the rubber content and
granulometry and the curing time correspond to the desired conditions.
According to Table 6, in order to obtain an SCC with a maximum
value of the static elasticity modulus, under the conditions presented in
this work, a 10% TRW content with a grain size between 0.6 mm and 4.8
mm should be used and a curing time of 28 days, and therefore, the
expected result for the static modulus of elasticity will be 38.84 GPa. To
D. Werdine et al. Structures 33 (2021) 3461–3474

Fig. 10. Self-compacting concrete microstructure with different rubber content and G2 grain size.

Fig. 11. Full factorial regression results for compression Strength considering curing time of (a) 7 days and (b) 28 days.

obtain a minimum value of the modulus of elasticity (6.03 GPa), the
TRW content should be 50% and particle size less than 0.6 mm and cure
time 7 days.
About compression strength, the maximum value should be obtained
using 10% TRW with a particle size between 0.6 mm and 4.8 mm and
(G2) and a curing time of 28 days when making the SCC. In this case, the
compression strength assume the value of 50.57 MPa. For the minimum
value of axial compression stress, the mixture must be carried out with
50% TRW with a particle size less than 0.6 mm and a curing time of 7
days, obtaining a value equal to 5.58 MPa.

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D. Werdine et al. Structures 33 (2021) 3461–3474

Fig. 12. Full factorial regression results for elastic modulus considering curing time of (a) 7 days and (b) 28 days.

Fig. A1. Acceleration time response for the whole 36 experiments set considering different manufacturing parameters.

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D. Werdine et al. Structures 33 (2021) 3461–3474

Fig. A2. Frequency response function (FRF) for the whole 36 experiments set considering different manufacturing parameters.

the concrete (7 and 28 days). The analysis were performed through

Table 6
fundamental tests by technical standards, both in the fresh and hardened
Optimal manufacturing configurations.
state of the concrete.
Condition Objective Rubber Granulometry Curing Predicted The first test performed for concrete in the hardened state was that of
content Time response
(%) (days)
axial compression. As it does not contain TRW, the SCC-ref presented a
high resistance of 56.911 MPa at 7 days, which met the 40 MP estab­
Maximization Max (Ec) 10 G2 28 38.8470
lished by Gomes at 28 days. All other traits, with TRW, also showed
GPa
Minimize Min(Ec) 50 G1 7 6.0380 greater resistance to 28 days of concrete curing. It was also observed that
GPa the more rubber with greater granulometry incorporated into the con­
Maximization Max(σc) 10 G2 28 50.5710 crete, the lower the compressive strength found.
MPa The elasticity modulus decreased when compared to the SCC-ref both
Minimize Min(σc) 50 G1 7 5.5873
MPa
at 7 and 28 days, and this is explained by the fact that the rubber,
incorporated into the concrete, is more deformable than the replaced
sand.
4. Conclusion The statistical analysis of this study was based on the DoE method­
ology and played an important role in this work. It was possible to
In this study, the influence of the TRW inserted in the composition of observe which established factors (rubber content and granulometry
self-compacting concrete, in partial replacement of sand, was analyzed, and curing time) and combinations between them were statistically
varying the content (10%, 30% and 50%) and the rubber granulometry significant. Compression strength and static modulus of elasticity are
(G1 < 0.6 mm and 4.8 mm > G2 > 0.6 mm) as well as the curing time of variables greatly influenced by the established factors. The p-values

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D. Werdine et al.
obtained were, in most cases, less than 0.05 except for the interaction
between the rubber content and the granulometry, between the rubber
content and the curing time and between the granulometry and the
curing time. Regarding the determination coefficient (R2), for axial
compression and for the damping factor the values obtained were 97.18
and 95.56, respectively.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support from
the Brazilian agency CNPq (150117/2021-3) and FAPEMIG (Fundação
de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais – Grant APQ-00385-
18).
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