Case Studies in Construction Materials 19 (2023) e02430

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Case Studies in Construction Materials

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Improving the engineering properties of sustainable recycled

aggregate concrete modified with metakaolin
Khaled Mohamed Elhadi a, Tariq Ali b, Muhammad Zeeshan Qureshi c,
Nadeem Anwar b, Osama Zaid b, *, Ali Majdi d, Muhammad Qaisar c, Adil khan e
a
Civil Engineering Department, College of Engineering, King Khalid University, Saudi Arabia
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Swedish College of Engineering and Technology, Wah 47070, Pakistan
c
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Engineering and Technology, Taxila, Pakistan
d
Department of Buildings and Construction Techniques Engineering, College of Engineering, Al-Mustaqbal University, 51001 Hillah, Babylon, Iraq
e
Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Faisalabad, Faisalabad, Pakistan

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This study investigates the potential of metakaolin as a mineral admixture to enhance the per­
Recycled Aggregate formance of concrete mixtures with varying proportions of recycled aggregates (RA). Sixteen
Metakaolin distinct concrete combinations were formulated by substituting natural aggregates (NA) with RA
Flexure Strength
at 0 %, 50 %, 75 %, and 100 % and incorporating metakaolin at 0 %, 5 %, 10 %, and 15 % as a
Water Absorption
Density
replacement for cement. Experimental investigations were conducted to evaluate the effects of
metakaolin (as a cement replacement) and RA (as a replacement for NA) on key concrete char­
acteristics, including density, water absorption, compressive and tensile strength, and acid
resistance. The results revealed that an increase in RA reduced mechanical properties, such as
compressive strength, tensile strength, and dry density. Additionally, RA-based concrete mixtures
exhibited higher water absorption and void volume than those with natural aggregates. However,
including metakaolin in RA-based concrete significantly reduced the void volume and water
absorption. The optimal proportion of metakaolin substitution was 15 %, resulting in the best
overall performance for RA-based concrete mixtures. Notably, the highest compressive and
splitting tensile strength (41.6 MPa and 4.3 MPa, respectively) were observed at 90 days in
mixtures with 0 % RA and 15 % metakaolin. Similarly, the highest hardened density and lowest
water absorption (2494.7 kg/m3 and 4.7 %, respectively) were recorded in samples with 0 % RA
and 15 % metakaolin. Furthermore, concrete mixes containing 15 % metakaolin and 50 % RA
demonstrated comparable qualities to conventional concrete, indicating that sustainable concrete
can be produced by utilizing a significant quantity of waste concrete (15 % metakaolin and 50 %
RA) without compromising strength criteria. This study sheds light on the potential of incorpo­
rating metakaolin and recycled aggregates as environmentally friendly alternatives in the con­
struction industry, contributing to sustainable and eco-conscious practices.

1. Introduction

In many parts of the world, structures are demolished and replaced due to changes in purpose, structural deterioration, traffic

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: Osama.zaid@scetwah.edu.pk (O. Zaid).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2023.e02430
Received 18 June 2023; Received in revised form 13 August 2023; Accepted 25 August 2023
Available online 26 August 2023
2214-5095/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
K.M. Elhadi et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 19 (2023) e02430

direction and load, natural disasters, city rearrangement, etc. Households, commerce, industry, and construction generate 7–10 billion
tons of solid waste yearly [1]. In the last few years, the manufacturing and utilization of concrete have increased a lot because it has
numerous uses in constructing buildings and roads [2]. However, concrete is the most extensively utilized construction material, and
its usage increases daily [3,4]. Concrete is produced annually around 25 billion tons. Recycled aggregates reduce demolition and
construction debris and save natural resources, making them crucial to building sustainability [5]. Natural aggregates, which
contribute around 60–75 % of the volume of concrete, are used up in large quantities during the massive production of concrete, which
is harmful to the environment, as it causes the depletion of natural resources [6,7]. Several countries worldwide are currently dealing
with a shortage of natural aggregates. In addition, manufacturing concrete and aggregates generates toxic gases and dust, including
carbon dioxide, which contributes to environmental pollution [8,9]. From an environmental perspective, concrete production and
consumption, its ingredients, its relationship to the environment during its useful life, and the demolition and recycling of its materials
should be examined. Sustainable development returns are reducing natural aggregate and cement consumption in concrete industries.
Apart from that, each year around the world, an enormous quantity of construction and demolition waste (C&D) waste is made
when civil engineering buildings are demolished, repaired, or rebuilt. The most usual way to deal with this waste remains to put it in
landfills or empty lots. This means there aren’t enough places to put trash, so transport and disposal costs increase [10]. As a result,
several nations now recycle and utilize this waste concrete providing a substitute for aggregate from nature, which solves numerous
problems while reducing the amount of garbage deposited in landfills. Recycled coarse aggregates are small pieces of concrete made
from big pieces of unused concrete by crushing, sieving, and removing unwanted materials. Natural aggregate and aged mortar
dominate it [11]. Recycled aggregate concrete is replaced by natural aggregate (NCA) with recycled aggregate (RA). Numerous re­
searchers have demonstrated that RA suits various applications with moderate to light percentages [12–14]. Despite its environmental
and economic benefits, RA is rarely used in structural concrete production. The reason could be that RA hasn’t good properties. RA had
some inadequate qualities, such as poor grading, open structures, greater water absorption rate, and a lower density because the
mortar still stuck to its surface [15,16]. The feasibility of RA in structural concrete has been the subject of multiple studies. RA
quantity, water-to-binder proportion, and RA source concrete qualities are discovered to govern RAC (Recycled Aggregate Concrete)
behaviors [17,18]. Previous studies have shown that a 30 % RA concentration does not affect RAC splitting tensile and compressive
strength [19,20]. However, RAC characteristics decreased significantly with increasing RA content. There was a 20–30% decrease in
compressive strength in RAC composed of 100% RA [21]. There was a reduction of up to 23 % in compressive strength, 37% in
modulus of elasticity, and 45 % in flexural strength compared to NAC [22]. When RA completely replaced NA, RAC’s water absorption
increased by over 50 %. Similarly, RAC has significantly better long-term characteristics than NAC, including shrinkage and creep.
Some of the engineering properties will not be ’reduced’ by adding RA, such as freezing and thawing, Carbonation, chloride ion
penetration, and sulfate attack. The non-destructive evaluations indicated decreased values whenever NA was replaced with RA [23,
24].
Numerous studies have proven that RAC is inferior to NAC in terms of performance [25–27]. Over the past few decades, many
researchers have used various methods to address RA’s limitations. Removing linked mortars from the RA layer using methods such as
pre-soaking with different acids or treating via two-phase crushing and grinding mechanically may significantly improve the char­
acteristics of RAC [28–30]. Similar results were seen when the attached mortar was strengthened using other methods, such as
covering the top layer with cemented slurry, leading to a notable rise in RA quality. It was also discovered that adding nanoparticles to
RAC altered its characteristics. Accelerated carbonation procedures and carbon-conditioned RA have tremendously enhanced RAC’s
characteristics. In addition, the features of RAC were significantly improved by using a two-phase blending method or a triple blending
approach, both of which are variations of the usual mixing method. Using admixtures that reduce water and a slightly greater amount
of cement (12 %) were other successful methods of creating RAC with qualities like those of NAC in terms of strength. In addition,
partially replacing cement with mineral admixtures such as silica fume, metakaolin, nano-silica, and fly ash and cement replacement
improved RAC’s properties [31,32].
Since most of these techniques demand more effort and time, it is determined that using mineral admixtures to improve the
performance of RAC is a realistic option. Various studies have successfully employed metakaolin as an additive to or partial substi­
tution for cement to improve NAC’s mechanical and durability features. Metakaolin is usually an alumina-silicate material thermally
that has been activated by heat. It is made by heating kaolinitic clay between 650 and 800 ◦ C [33,34]. Compared to other manu­
factured pozzolans, also known as byproducts of fly ash and silica fume, metakaolin might be manufactured with high-quality stan­
dards to provide a uniform composition, increased purity, and enhanced pozzolanic reactivity whenever metakaolin is incorporated
into concrete and reacts with a substance called calcium hydroxide that is made from cement hydrates process. This changes the
structure of the concrete by making more C-S-H gel [35]. Due to its significant pozzolanic effect, added metakaolin in concrete has been
shown to make it much stronger, especially at early ages.
The incorporation of metakaolin in concrete serves to enhance its properties significantly. The fine particles of metakaolin
effectively fill the gaps between cement particles, resulting in a more compact cement matrix. This densification minimizes the chances
of water and oxygen leakage and protects chloride ion diffusion, sulfate, and acid attacks, thereby enhancing the overall durability of
the cement. Furthermore, various studies have demonstrated the beneficial impact of metakaolin on recycled aggregate concrete
[36–39]. By introducing metakaolin into RAC, the detrimental effects associated with recycled aggregates are effectively mitigated.
Simultaneously, the inclusion of metakaolin contributes to the overall improvement of the mechanical and durability characteristics of
the RAC material [22,40]. It was determined that adding 15 % metakaolin to RAC made with 50 % and 100 % improved qualities like
compressive strength, stiffness, and resistance to chloride penetration by 11 %, 18 %, and 33 %, respectively. When 10 % metakaolin
was added to RAC, it was found that the compression strength, workability, modulus of elasticity, and splitting tensile strength STS
properties were enhanced. In the same way, the effect of 10 % metakaolin on the compression strength and carbonation of RAC made

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K.M. Elhadi et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 19 (2023) e02430

by replacing NCA at 25–100 % RA was studied [41]. Also, a study showed that adding 20 % fly ash and 10 % metakaolin to 100 % RAC
improved the compressive strength and resistance to chloride penetration [42].

1.1. Research objectives and novelty

While considerable attention has been given to these components, studies focusing on metakaolin-based recycled aggregate con­
crete remain relatively scarce. Several crucial factors influence the properties of the end product, concrete when metakaolin is
involved, considering that RA possesses diverse characteristics related to its production and source material. As such, there exists a
critical need for further investigations to establish the full potential of metakaolin in developing environmentally friendly recycled
aggregate concrete. In the present study, ordinary Portland cement was partially replaced at varying percentages (5 %, 10 %, and 15 %
by weight) with metakaolin, while recycled aggregates were introduced at different levels (50 %, 75 %, and 100 % by weight).
Although the inclusion of metakaolin in recycled aggregate concrete holds promise, certain crucial aspects related to its flexural
strength, water absorption, rebound number, density, and overall durability remain unresolved. To make significant progress in this
field, it is imperative to conduct systematic investigations into the effects of varying metakaolin content and different proportions of
recycled aggregates, closely examining their combined influence on the concrete’s performance. Comprehensive testing and com­
parison with control concrete are warranted to achieve the goal of finding the optimal metakaolin dosage and identifying suitable RAC
mixtures for widespread application across diverse sectors. The study should encompass various variables to yield robust and reliable
conclusions. The study seeks to shed light on the most effective combinations of metakaolin and recycled aggregates through
meticulous analysis and experimentation, offering the potential to revolutionize concrete production in a more sustainable and eco-
friendly direction. This study contributes significantly to the advancement of metakaolin-based recycled aggregate concrete tech­
nology by addressing the existing research gap and providing essential insights.

2. Methodology

2.1. Materials

2.1.1. Binder
This research used locally available cement as a binder. Metakaolin was collected from province KPK district Nowshera in Pakistan
(Coordinates: 33.7827674, 72.2002048). Metakaolin’s fineness (12,593 cm2/gm) was much higher than cement (3169 cm2/gm),
which explains its filler influence on concrete mixtures’ initial strength. When the clay had been obtained, it passed through the ball
mill apparatus and was crushed to fit 200 standard sieves (0.074 mm in diameter). The treated clay was packaged in polythene bags to
keep out external moisture and light. Table 1 describes cement and metakaolin’s chemical composition and physical properties.

2.1.2. Aggregates
Sand from the nearby Lawrencepur area served as the fine aggregate. ASTM C136–06 [43] prescribed a sieve analysis of the fine
aggregate. The results are shown in Fig. 1. It was determined that sand had a fineness modulus of 2.61. Specific gravity testing was
performed on the fine aggregate per ASTM C128–79 [43]; the measured result was 2.7. Margalla Crush, the best quality coarse
aggregate in Pakistan, was used in this study. Fig. 2 shows the sieve analysis results to ensure that the coarse aggregate met the re­
quirements of ASTM C136–06 [43]. Using ASTM C127–81 [43] as a standard, the coarse aggregate had a specific gravity of 2.68. After
24 h of testing, the water-absorption capacity of coarse aggregate was determined to be 0.8 %. The absorption of RA was 1.7 %. The
visual appearance of natural and recycled aggregates used in the present study is presented in Fig. 3.

Table 1
Physical and chemical properties of OPC and metakaolin.
Element Chemical Composition % ASTM C 618

Cement Metakaolin Class N requirements

(Al2O3) 9.87 59.7

(MgO) 1.62 0.52 5 maxes
(SiO2) 17.5 19.32
(K2O) 1.21 0.18
(Cao) 59.7 0.71
(SO3) 2.65 0.17
(Fe2O3) 3.35 0.81
(SiO2) þ (Fe2O3) þ (Al2O3) - 79.92 70 min
Physical Properties
Specific gravity 3.11 2.57
Initial setting time 50 min 60 min
Final setting time 255 min 310 min
particle size 19.8 µm 2–3 µm

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K.M. Elhadi et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 19 (2023) e02430

120

Cummulative Percentage Passing (%)

Upper Limit
100 Experimental Value
Lower Limit
80

60

40

20

0
0.1 1 10
Sieve Size (mm)
Fig. 1. Fine aggregate particle size distribution.

120
Cummulative Percentage Passing (%)

Upper Limit
100 Experimental Values

Lower Limit
80

60

40

20

0
1 10 100
Sieve Size (mm)

Fig. 2. Coarse aggregate and recycled aggregate particle size distribution.

2.2. Concrete Mixes Composition

In this study, 16 different kinds of concrete mixes were made. Thermo-mechanically activated Kaolin Clay (TAK) has been
employed to replace OPC by weight of 5 %,10 %, and 15 %. In addition to the binder replacement, the coarse aggregate was replaced

Fig. 3. The visual appearance of aggregates (natural + recycled).

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K.M. Elhadi et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 19 (2023) e02430

with different percentages (50 %,75 %, and 100 %) by weight. All the mixes were made with the same amount of water to cementitious
material, which was 0.55. In Table 2, the names and ingredients of each blend are listed. All the concrete mixes were mixed in a
motorized mixer that could hold 0.15 m3 and rotated 35 times per minute. First, for about 4 min, all the dry ingredients were mixed.
After that, water was added, and the concrete was mixed for the remaining 4 min. For each mix, the overall duration of blending was
set to 8 min. The mixed design detail used in this research is given in Table 2, while the mixed detail used for testing is in Table 3.

3. Result

3.1. Compressive strength

The concrete samples tested under compressive load to assess their compressive strength are presented in Fig. 4. Fig. 5 shows the
performance of concrete having different amounts of RA and the substitution of metakaolin at varying percentages at 14 days, 28 days,
and 90 days. According to the graph, there is a decrease in compressive strength with RA percentage regardless of curing age. Despite
metakaolin and RCA (Mix- A-R0M0), the compressive strength value for the control mix is 22.5 MPa after 14 days. This drops to 19,
18.1, and 15.7 MPa for concrete blends created with 50, 75, and 100 % replaced aggregates. As concrete mixtures cure, their strength
increases due to the hydration reaction [44]. The above concrete mixtures gain strength similarly at all curing ages. The concrete mixes
mentioned above exhibit a comparable pattern of development in strength across all curing ages. The compressive strength, irre­
spective of the metakaolin and recycled aggregate, increases about the curing days.
In contrast, the strength at 28 days is found to be decreased with the incorporation of the recycled aggregate (50 %, 75 %, and 100
%). The compressive strength of the control Mix-A(R0M0) is 28.8 MPa while adding 50%, 75%, and 100% RA within concrete results
in compressive strengths of 23.9, 23, and 19.1 MPa, respectively. The compressive strength of the concrete blends at 90 days decreases
as follows: from 30.9 MPa to 25.4 MPa, 23.9 MPa, and 20.9 MPa. The result shows that RA substitution percentage decreases concrete
blends’ compressive strength. The loose cracks remaining mortar on the RA surface cause this strength destruction. This porous mortar
reduces the characteristics of RA and the binding strength between aggregates and cement paste, creating a weak region at the point of
contact where collapse begins on loading [38]. The present study found a 9–20% drop in compressive strength, consistent with earlier
findings [38].
Fig. 5 shows metakaolin strengthens concrete mixtures using various RA amounts. According to the results, the 14 days strength is
improved with all the percentages of metakaolin incorporated (5 %, 10 %, and 15 %). In the control mix, the strength increased from
22.5 MPa to 24.3 MPa with the incorporation of 5 % metakaolin, while in the case of 10 %, the replacement of metakaolin shows an
increase from 22.5 MPa to 25.7 MPa. Similarly, the highest increase is recorded for the 15 % Metakaolin incorporation, which

Table 2
Composition of concrete mixes.
Mix Mix ID Natural Cement (kg/ Kaolin Clay Fine aggregate RCA (kg/ Coarse Aggregate W/ Slump
No Aggregate (%) m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) m3) (kg/m3) C (mm)

1 Mix-A(R0M0) 100 400 0 600 0 1200 0.55 120

2 Mix-A(R0M5) 100 380 20 600 0 1200 0.55 116
3 Mix-A 100 360 40 600 0 1200 0.55 113
(R0M10)
4 Mix-A 100 340 60 600 0 1200 0.55 112
(R0M15)
5 Mix-B 50 400 0 600 600 600 0.55 95
(R50M0)
6 Mix-B 50 380 20 600 600 600 0.55 92
(R50M5)
7 Mix-B 50 360 40 600 600 600 0.55 90
(R50M10)
8 Mix-B 50 340 60 600 600 600 0.55 87
(R50M15)
9 Mix-C 25 400 0 600 900 300 0.55 85
(R75M0)
10 Mix-C 25 380 20 600 900 300 0.55 81
(R75M5)
11 Mix-C 25 360 40 600 900 300 0.55 78
(R75M10)
12 Mix-C 25 340 60 600 900 300 0.55 75
(R75M15)
13 Mix-D 0 400 0 600 1200 0 0.55 73
(R100M0)
14 Mix-D 0 380 20 600 1200 0 0.55 70
(R100M5)
15 Mix-D 0 360 40 600 1200 0 0.55 68
(R100M10)
16 Mix-D 0 340 60 600 1200 0 0.55 66
(R100M15)

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K.M. Elhadi et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 19 (2023) e02430

Table 3
Details of each specimen for testing.
Test details Specimen Details Age (days) Total for 1 mix Total for 13 mixes

14 28 56 90

Compressive strength Cylinders(mm) 3 3 - 3 9 117

(150 × 300)
Split tensile Strength Cylinders (mm) 3 3 - 3 9 117
(150 × 300)
Acid attack Cylinders (mm) - 2 2 2 6 78
(150 × 300)
Water Absorption Cylinders (mm) - 2 2 2 6 78
(100 × 150) -
Grand Total 390

Fig. 4. The sample under compressive load.

50.0
Compressive Strength (MPa)

45.0 14-Days 28-Days 90-Days

40.0
35.0
30.0
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
Mix-C(R75M0)

Mix-C(R75M5)
Mix-A(R0M10)

Mix-A(R0M15)

Mix-D(R100M10)

Mix-D(R100M15)
Mix-B(R50M0)

Mix-B(R50M5)

Mix-C(R75M10)

Mix-C(R75M15)

Mix-D(R100M0)

Mix-D(R100M5)
Mix-A(R0M0)

Mix-A(R0M5)

Mix-B(R50M10)

Mix-B(R50M15)

Mix [A] Mix [B] Mix [C] Mix [D]

Fig. 5. Compressive strength of mixtures.

increased from 22.5 MPa to 25.9 MPa. The experiment shows that NAC mixes with up to 15 % metakaolin have higher compressive
strength regardless of curing age. Previous literature demonstrated similar strength growth [13]. As mentioned before, RCA per­
centages lower concrete compressive strength. RAC can be strengthened by adding metakaolin. The addition of 50 % RA revealed a
decrease but the incorporation of metakaolin has improved the strength by 50 % and replaced aggregate concrete up to a significant
amount. According to the results, the 14 days strength is improved with all the percentages of metakaolin incorporated (5 %, 10 %, and
15 %). In the control mix with 50 % RA, the strength was found to be 19 MPa, which increases to 20.6 MPa with the incorporation of 5

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K.M. Elhadi et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 19 (2023) e02430

% metakaolin, while in the case of 10 % replacement of metakaolin shows the increase from 19 MPa to 21.2 MPa. Similarly, the highest
increase is recorded for the 15 % Metakaolin incorporation, which increased from 19 MPa to 22 MPa. In the control mix with 75 % RA,
the strength was found to be 18.1 MPa, which increases to 19.5 MPa with the incorporation of 5 % metakaolin, while in the case of 10
% replacement of metakaolin shows the increase from 18.1 MPa to 20. 6 MPa. Similarly, the highest increase is recorded for the 15 %
Metakaolin incorporation, which increased from 18.1 MPa to 21 MPa. Furthermore, the same trend was found for the 100 %
RA-incorporated concrete. In the control mix with 100 % RA, the strength was found to be 15.7 MPa, which increases to 16.8 MPa with
the incorporation of 5 % metakaolin, while in the case of 10 % replacement of metakaolin shows the increase from 15.7 MPa to 17.
9 MPa. Similarly, the highest increase is recorded for the 15 % Metakaolin incorporation, which increased from 15.7 MPa to 18.5 MPa.
The experimental result shows that optimal strength development occurs with the incorporation of metakaolin (15 %), regardless of
the type of concrete and curing age. Similar findings are available in previous studies, which concluded that 20 % metakaolin
replacement could reduce the compressive strength due to clinker dilution [45,46]. Due to its low lime concentration (0.03 %),
metakaolin granules cannot hydrate and form cement. Similarly, Singh and Singh [25] reported 8.18 % and 8.16 % enhancements
[25]. Since this study is based on more RA and Metakaolin, the strength increase is higher than in earlier investigations. Further,
concrete mixes made with different amounts of RA and metakaolin gain compressive strength faster at 14 and 28 days than at 90 days.
Early pozzolanic reactivity of metakaolin refines pores and limits further reaction. At early hydration ages, metakaolin blended
concrete gains strength from its filler effect. In prior research, NAC with 10–15% metakaolin increased early-age strength [47].

(a)
Mix-A(R0M0)
Mix-D(R100M15) Mix-A(R0M5)
14-Days
Mix-D(R100M10) Mix-A(R0M10)

Mix-D(R100M5) Mix-A(R0M15)
28-Days

Mix-D(R100M0) Mix-B(R50M0)

90-Days
Mix-C(R75M15) Mix-B(R50M5)

Mix-C(R75M10) Mix-B(R50M10)
CON(28-Days)
Mix-C(R75M5) Mix-B(R50M15)
Mix-C(R75M0)

(b)
5.0
4.5
y = 0.1036x + 0.168
4.0
Tensile Strength (MPa)

R² = 0.9637
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0
Compressive Strength (MPa)
Fig. 6. (a). Graphical radar chart of samples under compressive strength. (b). Regression analysis between compressive and tensile strength.

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K.M. Elhadi et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 19 (2023) e02430

Similarly, the graphical radar chart shown in Fig. 6(a) reveals that control Mix-A (R0M0) is taken as a reference, increasing to 16.8
% for 5 % metakaolin Clay. In comparison, the increase for 10 % metakaolin is 22.4 %. Similarly, it is also evident from the graph that
the increase of 15% in metakaolin is the highest, which is 29 %. According to the graph, the 28 days strength is improved with all the
percentages of metakaolin incorporated (5 %, 10 %, and 15 %). In the control mix with 50% RCA, the strength was found to be
23.9 MPa, which increases to 27.1 MPa with the incorporation of 5 % metakaolin, while in the case of 10 % replacement of metakaolin
shows the increase from 23.9 MPa to 29.7 MPa. Similarly, the highest increase is recorded for the 15 % Metakaolin incorporation,
which increased from 23.9 MPa to 30.8 MPa. In the control mix with 75 % RCA, the strength was found to be 23 MPa, which increases
to 26.9 MPa with 5 % metakaolin, while 10 % metakaolin replacement shows an increase from 23 MPa to 28. 6 MPa. Similarly, the
highest increase is recorded for the 15 % Metakaolin incorporation, which increased from 23 MPa to 29. 7 MPa. Furthermore, the same
trend was found for the 100 % RCA-incorporated concrete. In the control mix with 100 % RA, the strength was found to be 19.1 MPa,
which increases to 22.1 MPa with the incorporation of 5 % metakaolin, while in the case of 10 % replacement of metakaolin shows the
increase from 19.1 MPa to 24.5 MPa. Similarly, the highest increase is recorded for the 15 % Metakaolin incorporation, which
increased from 19.12 MPa to 25.2 MPa. The result observations also conform with the past studies [19,36,39,48].
The compressive strength of a composite is a function of the density, volumetric percentage of recycled aggregate, sand, cement,
and water. The variation in any of the constituents results in the variation of compressive strength, which is the indirect measurement
of all other characteristics. The relation between the compressive strength and tensile strength of the concrete having recycled
aggregate and metakaolin is presented in Fig. 6(b). A strong correlation was observed in Fig. 6(b), and the regression coefficient value
was approaching unity (96.37 %), which verifies the accuracy of the statistical analysis.

3.2. Split tensile strength

The split tensile strength was measured for different replacements of metakaolin along with the different percentages of recycled

(a) 5.0
4.5 14-Days 28-Days 90-Days
4.0
Tensile Strength (MPa)

3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
Mix-B(R50M0)

Mix-B(R50M5)

Mix-D(R100M15)
Mix-A(R0M10)

Mix-A(R0M15)

Mix-C(R75M0)

Mix-C(R75M5)

Mix-D(R100M10)
Mix-A(R0M0)

Mix-A(R0M5)

Mix-C(R75M10)

Mix-C(R75M15)

Mix-D(R100M0)

Mix-D(R100M5)
Mix-B(R50M10)

Mix-B(R50M15)

Mix [A] Mix [B] Mix [C] Mix [D]

(b)
Mix-A(R0M0)
Mix-D(R100M15) Mix-A(R0M5) 14-Days
Mix-D(R100M10) Mix-A(R0M10)

Mix-D(R100M5) Mix-A(R0M15) 28-Days

Mix-D(R100M0) Mix-B(R50M0)
90-Days
Mix-C(R75M15) Mix-B(R50M5)

Mix-C(R75M10) Mix-B(R50M10)
CON(28-Days)
Mix-C(R75M5) Mix-B(R50M15)
Mix-C(R75M0)

Fig. 7. (a). Split tensile strength of samples. (b). Graphical radar chart of samples under split tensile strength.

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K.M. Elhadi et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 19 (2023) e02430

aggregate RA. Fig. 7(a) shows the performance of concrete with different amounts of RA and the substitution of metakaolin at varying
percentages at 14 days, 28 days, and 90 days. According to the graph, there is a decrease in strength (tensile) with RCA % regardless of
curing age. Despite metakaolin and RA (Mix-A-R0M0), the tensile strength value for the control mix is 2.44 MPa after 14 days. This

(a)

(b) 14.0 14-Days 28-Days 90-Days

12.0

10.0
Water Absorption (%)

8.0

6.0

4.0

2.0

0.0
Mix-C(R75M0)

Mix-C(R75M5)
Mix-A(R0M10)

Mix-A(R0M15)

Mix-D(R100M10)

Mix-D(R100M15)
Mix-B(R50M0)

Mix-B(R50M5)

Mix-C(R75M10)

Mix-C(R75M15)
Mix-A(R0M0)

Mix-A(R0M5)

Mix-B(R50M10)

Mix-B(R50M15)

Mix-D(R100M0)

Mix-D(R100M5)

Mix [A] Mix [B] Mix [C] Mix [D]

(c)
45.0
Compressive Strength (MPa)

40.0 y = -2.8533x + 50.356

R² = 0.8711
35.0

30.0

25.0

20.0

15.0

10.0

5.0

0.0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0

Water Absorption (%)

Fig. 8. (a). Concrete samples in water tank for water absorption test. (b). Water absorption of all samples. (c). Regression Analysis between water
absorption and compressive strength.

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K.M. Elhadi et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 19 (2023) e02430

drops to 2.29, 1.8, and 1.7 MPa for concrete blends created with 50, 75, and 100 % replaced aggregates. As concrete mixtures cure,
their strength increases due to the hydration reaction [49]. The above concrete mixtures gain tensile strength similarly at all curing
ages. The concrete mixes mentioned above exhibit a comparable pattern of development in strength across all curing ages. The tensile
strength, irrespective of the metakaolin and recycled aggregate, increases about the curing days. In contrast, the strength at 28 days is
decreased by incorporating the recycled aggregate (50 %, 75 %, and 100 %). The tensile strength of the control Mix-A(R0M0) is
3.25 MPa, while adding 50,75, and 100 % RCA within concrete results in tensile strengths of 2.53, 2.63, and 2.3 MPa, respectively. The
tensile strength of the concrete blends at 90 days decreases as follows: from 3.42 MPa to 2.78 MPa, 2.71 MPa, and 2.6 MPa. The test
outcome follows and conforms to past research [40,50,51].
The radar chart in Fig. 7(b) compares the compressive strength of different concrete mixes to the reference mix, Mix-A (R0M0).
Adding metakaolin at various percentages (5 %, 10 %, and 15 %) consistently improves the 28-day strength across all concrete mixes.
For instance, with 50 % RA, the strength increases from 2.5 MPa to 3 MPa with 5 % metakaolin, 3.2 MPa with 10 % metakaolin, and
3.3 MPa with 15 % metakaolin. Similarly, with 75 % RA, the strength increases from 2.6 MPa to 2.7 MPa with 5 % metakaolin,
2.9 MPa with 10% metakaolin, and 3.4 MPa with 15 % metakaolin. The same trend continues for 100 % RA, where the strength
increases from 2.3 MPa to 2.5 MPa with 5 % metakaolin, 2.6 MPa with 10 % metakaolin, and 3.1 MPa with 15 % metakaolin. These
results demonstrate that higher metakaolin content leads to greater improvements in compressive strength, indicating its beneficial
role as supplementary material in enhancing the strength of concrete with various levels of recycled aggregates.

3.3. Water Absorption

Water absorption is a parameter of great importance in concrete as it gives indirect information about the porosity and compactness
of the concrete. Thus, the measurement of water absorption in the case of structural concrete is a crucial parameter. Fig. 8(a) presents
the concrete samples placed in the water tank for the absorption test. Fig. 8(b) shows the water absorption test result for all 16 mixes
with different metakaolin and RA percentages after 28 days of curing. RAC mixes absorb more water than standard concrete. Control
concrete absorbs 10.2 %, while 50 %, 75 %, and 100 % RAC mixes absorb 11.4 % and 12.1 %, and 12.6 %. The concrete mixes with 50
%, 75 %, and 100 % RA had 12 %,18 %, and 23 % higher water absorption than the control concrete after 14 days of curing. This water
absorption pattern has been seen previously [52–54]. Due to the adhesion of highly porous mortar on RCA’s surface, RAC mixes have
higher water absorption values. RAC absorbs more water when dipped in water because RA increases osmosis pressure inside the
concrete [55]. RA’s pores and micro-fractures increased porosity and water absorption through capillary action [56]. RA employed in
this study shows that compared to natural aggregates, its water absorption is more which is the reason for the loss in strength. Its value
for natural aggregate is 0.79 %, while in the case of RA, it is 4.2 %.
Metakaolin reduces water absorption in all concrete mixtures, as seen in Fig. 8(b). Figure illustrates that in the case of the control
concrete, after 14 days of curing, the water absorption drops from 10.2 % to 9.2 %,8.8 %, and 8.2 % for the incorporation of 5 %,10 %,
and 15 % metakaolin, respectively. In terms of percentage, this increase for control mixes [Mix-A (R0M5, R0M10, R0M15)] with 5 %,
10 %, and 15 % metakaolin is decreased by 10 %, 14 %, and 20 %, respectively, in comparison to standard mix Mix-A (R0M0). In the
control mix with 50 % RA, the water absorption was 11.4 %, which decreased to 10.4 % with the incorporation of 5 % metakaolin. The
10 % metakaolin replacement decreases from 11.4 % to 10 %. Similarly, the highest decrease is recorded for the 15% Metakaolin
incorporation, resulting in drop-in water absorption from 11.4 % to 9.4 %. In the control mix with 75 % RA, the water absorption was
12.1 %, which decreased to 11.1 % with the incorporation of 5 % metakaolin. The 10 % metakaolin replacement decreases from 12.1 %

3000.0
14-Days 28-Days 90-Days
2500.0

2000.0
Density (Kg/m3)

1500.0

1000.0

500.0

0.0
Mix-B(R50M0)

Mix-B(R50M5)
Mix-A(R0M10)

Mix-C(R75M0)

Mix-C(R75M5)

Mix-C(R75M10)

Mix-C(R75M15)

Mix-D(R100M0)

Mix-D(R100M5)

Mix-D(R100M10)

Mix-D(R100M15)
Mix-A(R0M0)

Mix-A(R0M5)

Mix-A(R0M15)

Mix-B(R50M10)

Mix-B(R50M15)

Mix [A] Mix [B] Mix [C] Mix [D]

Fig. 9. The density of all concrete mixtures.

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K.M. Elhadi et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 19 (2023) e02430

to 10.7 %. Similarly, the highest decrease is recorded for the 15 % Metakaolin incorporation, resulting in drop-in water absorption
from 12.1 % to 10.1 %. Furthermore, the same trend was found for the 100 % RA-incorporated concrete. In the control mix with 100 %
RA, the water absorption was 12.6 % which decreased to 11.5 % with the incorporation of 5 % metakaolin. The 10 % metakaolin
replacement drops from 12.6 % to 11.1 %. Similarly, the highest decrease in water absorption is recorded for the 15 % Metakaolin
incorporation, which causes a decrease from 12.6 % to 10.5 %.
The water absorption measurement is a critical parameter in structural concrete, directly linked to the concrete’s compressive
strength. Fig. 8(c) demonstrates an inverse relationship between water absorption and compressive strength, indicating that higher
strength leads to lower water absorption. This research study finds that metakaolin’s pozzolanic reaction generates insoluble hydration
products that block concrete pores, reducing water absorption. Finer metakaolin particles further decrease pore size, enhancing
concrete’s water resistance [20]. The results show that incorporating 15 % metakaolin in RAC and NAC significantly reduces water
absorption. Consequently, concrete with high water absorption exhibits comparatively lower compressive strength. Water absorption
and compressive strength are significantly correlated (R2 = 87 %).

3.4. Density

Fig. 9 depicts the effects of RA and metakaolin on the density of the final product (concrete) after a curing period of 28 days.
Standard concrete has a density of 2408 kg/m3. It is found from the results that the dry density considerably decreases with the in­
crease of RA content. The density of the control mix Mix-A(R0M0) is found to be 2411.5 kg/m3, which reduce to 2312 kg/m3 for the
concrete having 50 % RA, with the increase of the RA to 75 %; the value of the density drops to 2261 kg/m3 similarly for 100 % RCA
the value of the dry density is found to be 2238.5 kg/m3. Control concrete [Mix-A(R0M0)] density is 2411.5 kg/m3, while 50 %,75 %,
and 100 % RAC mixes density were found to be 4.1 %,6.2 %, and 7.2 % lower than the control mix, respectively, at 28 days. According
to the results, the 28 days density is improved with all the percentages of metakaolin incorporated (5 %, 10 %, and 15 %). In control
mix with 50 % RA, the density was found to be 2312 kg/m3, which increases to 2320.2 kg/m3 with the incorporation of 5 % meta­
kaolin, while in the case of 10 % replacement of metakaolin shows the increase from 2312 kg/m3 to 2343 kg/m3. Similarly, the highest
increase is recorded for the 15 % Metakaolin incorporation, which increased from 2312 kg/m3 to 2368.1 kg/m3. In the control mix
with 75 % RCA, the density was found to be 2261 kg/m3, which increases to 2279.7 kg/m3 with the incorporation of 5% metakaolin,
while in the case of 10 % replacement of metakaolin shows the increase from 2261 kg/m3 to 2307.1 kg/m3. Similarly, the highest
increase is recorded for the 15 % Metakaolin incorporation, which increased from 2261 kg/m3 to 2318.8 kg/m3. Furthermore, the
same trend was found for the 100 % RA-incorporated concrete. In control mix with 100 % RA, the density was found to be 2238.5 kg/
m3, which increases to 2266.9 kg/m3 with the incorporation of 5 % metakaolin, while in the case of 10 % replacement of metakaolin
shows the increase from 2238.5 kg/m3 to 2288.9 kg/m3. Similarly, the highest increase is recorded for the 15 % Metakaolin incor­
poration, which resulted in the increase in density from 2238.5 kg/m3 to 2294.1 kg/m3.
Dry density is a critical factor influenced by various constituents in concrete, such as sand, water-cement ratio, coarse aggregate,
binder material, and supplementary components. As commonly observed, higher density leads to greater strength in concrete. Finer
particles within the concrete matrix contribute to a waterproof and denser composite, enhancing its strength. Results reveal that
incorporating 15 % metakaolin in recycled and natural aggregate concrete results in the highest density. This is attributed to the
pozzolanic reaction of metakaolin, which generates additional hydration products, leading to a dense and compact concrete structure
[57]. Furthermore, the smaller metakaolin particles reduce the pore structure of the concrete mix, ultimately increasing its density.
This finding underscores the significance of metakaolin as a valuable supplementary material in producing high-density and strong
concrete.

3.5. Acid attack resistance

Cement paste contains calcium hydroxide, when reacted with an acid, produces a highly calcium-soluble salt. It’s because of this
that acid attacks occur. Calcium salts that dissolve in water are easily extracted from cement paste, weakening the paste’s overall
structure. Nitric acid, hydrochloric acid, acetic acid, and sulfuric acid are powerful acids that may cause severe damage. Concrete
buildings subjected to acidic wastewater from numerous companies are likely to fail. Therefore, reducing the overall quantity of
Calcium Hydroxide in concrete is crucial. In this research, different concrete mixtures containing different percentages of metakaolin
and recycled aggregate were subjected to an H2SO4 attack. Calcium sulfate is produced when CH and H2SO4 combine. Internal pressure
weakens the concrete’s microstructure, reducing density and tensile strength. The samples were cured for 28 days and placed in the 5%
H2SO4 solution for three months. The results of strength loss are shown in Fig. 10. According to a past study [40], the specimen’s
porosity, inner pore geometry, and absorption considerably affect concrete durability; adding cementitious material may enhance the
concrete’s pore structure, making it impervious. Concrete construction’s mechanical, physical, and chemical properties determine its
durability [41]. The results show that the acid resistance considerably decreases with increased RA content. The control mixes Mix-A
(R0M0) strength is 28.8 MPa, which reduces to 26.5 MPa and 24.7 MPa after curing in the acid environment for one month and three
months, respectively. In comparison, the strength for the concrete having 50% RA [Mix-B(R50M0)] is found to be 23.9 MPa, which
reduce to 21.3 MPa and 19.4 MPa after curing in the acid environment for one month and three months, respectively, similarly, the
strength for the concrete having 75% RA [Mix-C(R75M0)] is found to be 23 MPa which reduce to 20.2 MPa and 18 MPa after curing in
an acid environment for one month and three months respectively; however, the strength for the concrete having 100% RA [Mix-D
(R100M0)] is found to be 19.1 MPa which reduce to 15.9 MPa and 13.5 MPa after curing in an acid environment for one month
and three months respectively.

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K.M. Elhadi et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 19 (2023) e02430

Fig. 10. Residual Compressive Strength of all mixtures after acid attack test.

4. Sustainability aspect of this study

Using recycled aggregates as partial or complete replacements for natural coarse aggregates plays a crucial role in reducing the
environmental impact of concrete production. By incorporating recycled materials from construction and demolition waste, you have
effectively diverted these materials from landfills, promoting a circular economy and reducing the strain on natural resources. This
approach helps minimize the need for additional extraction of virgin aggregates [58], which often involves energy-intensive processes
and can lead to habitat destruction and landscape alteration. By incorporating recycled aggregates, your research directly contributes
to waste reduction, resource conservation, and more sustainable use of materials [59,60].
In addition to recycled aggregates, including thermally activated metakaolin as a supplementary cementitious material further
enhances your study’s environmental and sustainable aspects. By partially replacing cement with metakaolin, you have effectively
reduced the demand for Portland cement, known for its significant carbon dioxide emissions during production [61]. This reduction in
cement content leads to a considerable decrease in greenhouse gas emissions, thereby mitigating the carbon footprint of the concrete
industry [62]. Using metakaolin as a pozzolanic material also improves the performance and durability of the concrete. Its reactivity
with the calcium hydroxide produced during cement hydration increases strength, reduces permeability and enhances long-term
durability. This, in turn, contributes to the longevity and resilience of structures, reducing the need for maintenance and repair
over time [63–65].
By integrating recycled aggregates and thermally activated metakaolin into the concrete mix, your research presents a sustainable
construction approach. It addresses the pressing environmental concerns of waste generation and carbon emissions and enhances the
concrete’s overall performance and durability. This approach aligns with the principles of sustainable development by promoting
responsible resource use, waste reduction, and a minimized environmental footprint [66–69]. Moreover, your research is an important
contribution to the ongoing efforts toward creating a more sustainable and resilient built environment.

5. Conclusions

The following conclusions are obtained from this research work.

1. The experimental compressive strength results show that as the percentage of RA increases, compressive strength declines
regardless of curing age. However, adding metakaolin (5 %, 10 %, and 15 %) increased strength regardless of regenerated aggregate
RA replacement amounts.
2. 15% metakaolin was optimal for improving compressive strength irrespective of aggregate type. Mix-A, Mix-B, Mix-C, and Mix-D,
along with the 15% metakaolin, showed 29 %, 24.1 %, 23.2 %, and 21.3 % increase in compressive concerning their control mix,
respectively.
3. 15% metakaolin was optimal for improving tensile strength, as 4.3 MPa strength was observed at 90 days.
4. The results show that the water absorption decrease respectively with all the increasing percentage of metakaolin. On the other
hand, the increase in the RA amount was directly related to the increase in water absorption; for all the mixes, minimum absorption
was recorded as having 15% metakaolin as a replacement for cement.

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K.M. Elhadi et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 19 (2023) e02430

5. In connection to the acid resistance, the role of the metakaolin is highly appreciable; furthermore, 15 % is found to be the optimum
value, irrespective of the RA content and age, after three months in an acidic environment.
6. It was found that Mix-A, Mix-B, Mix-C, and Mix-D, along with the 15% metakaolin, showed 38 %, 33 %, 32 %, and 30 % higher
strength than their respective control mixes.
7. The results indicate a significant decrease in dry density with increasing RA content. The control mix, Mix-A(R0M0), has a density
of 2411.5 kg/m3, which reduces to 2312 kg/m3 for 50 % RA, 2261 kg/m3 for 75 % RA, and 2238.5 kg/m3 for 100 % RA. Compared
to the control mix at 28 days, the densities of 50 %, 75 %, and 100 % RA mixes were 4.1 %, 6.2 %, and 7.2 % lower, respectively.

This study demonstrates that adding 15 % metakaolin to concrete mixtures can significantly enhance compressive and tensile
strength, reduce water absorption, improve acid resistance, and increase overall durability. The optimal metakaolin proportion for
enhancing compressive strength is 15 %. Additionally, metakaolin helps counteract the negative effects of increased recycled
aggregate content on concrete strength. These findings have important implications for producing eco-friendly, high-performance
concrete in various construction applications.

Ethical Approval

All authors approve that the research was performed under all the ethical norms.

Declaration of Competing Interest

We wish to confirm that there are no known conflicts of interest associated with this publication and there has been no significant
financial support for this work that could have influenced its outcome.

Data availability

Data will be made available on request.

Acknowledgment

The authors extend their appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific Research at King Khalid University for funding this work
through the large research group under grant number RGP 2/365/44.

Consent to Publish

All authors consent to publish this paper.

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