BTech : Dissertation 4 - research project proposal Ncube N

BTECH : DISSERTATION 4 - RESEARCH PROJECT PROPOSAL

Name: Noah Ncube
Student number: 211145181
Date: 18 August 2014

1. Title: Analysis of fly ash composition used in partial

replacement of cement in concrete

2. Background to the problem

Fly ash (FA) or pulverized fuel ash (PFA) also known as fuel ash is a by-
product of coal combustion in thermal power stations. Its use in partial
replacement of cement in concrete has been accepted generally
worldwide. There is an exponential increase in the use of fly ash owing
to its triple benefits packaged as environmental sustainability,
economic and technical.

The production of electricity in South Africa is mainly dependent on

coal combustion from Eskom and Sasol, this process produces a
significant amount of fly ash. South Africa produces about 550 mega
tons per year of fly ash, and is the fourth fly ash generator globally
(Furter,2011).Cement being the most costly component of concrete,
partially replacing it with fly ash that could have ended up in landfills as
a waste material, has an overall economic benefit of lowering the
price of concrete

The cement industry generates about 5% of the anthropogenic carbon dioxide

emissions (Bapat ,2013).It is a well-known fact that one ton of pure cement

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produced, releases one ton of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, thus
enhancing global warming. The reduction of the greenhouse gases is an issue of
concern globally and locally. At global level the WBCSD (World Business Council
for Sustainable Development) requires the cement industry to reduce the
emission of carbon dioxide by 30% - 40% in 2020 and 50% in 2050 using 1990 as
the datum (Bapat,2013). In South Africa a carbon taxi is going to be introduced
probably by 2015 and an amount of R120 will be payable per ton of carbon
dioxide emitted by industrial activities (South Africa National Treasury 2013)The
utilization of fly ash in cement in South Africa has curbed the emission of over 6
million tons of greenhouse gases (Zulu&Allopi,2013).Utilization of fly ash also
enhances sustainability in that while lowering emissions of greenhouse gases it
also provides a solution to the fly ash disposal burdens to the environment .The
land that could have been occupied by disposing of fly ash can have other uses.

The successful use of any material in concrete can only be achieved

provided if its use has no negative effects to both the fresh and
hardened states of concrete. Researches have established with
consistency that the use of fly ash in concrete enhances both fresh and
hardened state properties of concrete. Technical benefits of using fly
ash include enhancement of workability, cohesiveness, pumpability and
reduction of segregation of fresh concrete. Fly ash also enhances
durability and the ultimate concrete strength of concrete in its
hardened state .However it has been established that fly ash retards
the early gain of concrete strength and also retards the setting time of
concrete.

There is a general consensus in literature that low calcium fly ashes

retard the setting time of concrete(Malhotra,1984).Both the initial and
final setting times are increased slightly. This has been considered a
barrier in the use of fly ash as this will also delay the execution of other
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construction works. However this can be an advantage in few cases

where longer setting periods are required. The setting time of fly ash
concrete is depends upon many factors which include the type and
proportion of fly ash used to replace cement, fineness and chemical
composition of fly ash, type and amount of cement, water to
cementitious material ratio, ambient and concrete temperature
.According to (Obla, 2010) delayed setting time and lower early
strength due to high dosages of fly ash have been objected by
contractors he proposes a solution to this is to embark on development
of fly ash specification standards based on performance, education and
more targeted research. Fly ash retards the rate of fly strength
development of concrete and increases the strength at later after 90
days (Owens,2009). The early strength is usually lower than Ordinary
Portland Cement Concrete (OPCC). The strength development of
concrete is dependent upon factors which include particular properties
of fly ash and cement and the proportions thereof .The fly ash used in
partial replacement of cement in concrete has been generally limited to
30%.

The proportion of fly ash used in the replacement of concrete plays a

pivotal role when considering the technical benefits to be realized in
the utilization of fly ash in concrete. Many properties of concrete are
affected by the proportion of fly ash used to replace cement. FA
content of 30% or more reduces thermal cracking significantly,
enhances resistance to chloride attack of reinforcement, improves
sulphate resistance of concrete and FA content greater than 20%
controls potential ASR for aggregate sensitive types((Owens,2009). The
fly ash proportion in concrete also affects the setting time and the
strength development of concrete. However the classification of the
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proportion and quality of fly ash suitable for use in concrete is set by
national standards.

A general review of the national standards actually shows differences in

the method of classification of fly ash usable in concrete. One standard
may deem one fly ash unusable whereas another standard may deem
the same fly ash usable for example a look at European fly ash standard
BSEN206 and a complementary UK standard BS8500.The BSEN206
standard has class C fly ash classified according to Loss on Ignition (LOI)
levels ranging from (4%-9%) whereas the BS8500 standard limits LOI
levels to 7%.(Ardani,2011).South African and Indian fly ashes are
predominantly low calcium yet India allows fly ash use in partial
replacement of cement to 35%Whereas South Africa allows 30%.Before
South African standards were established the American Standard
(ASTM C-618) was used in South Africa and allowed fly ash limits to
30%(Addis,1987).According to (Bumrongjaroen,2010) Technology
barriers to the increased fly ash use include the inadequacy of ASTM C-
618 specification because it only classifies fly ashes into two broad
categories based on the sum of their principal oxides and not
considering the reactivity and performance factors. South African fly
ash standards still use the same method of classification with a few
changes made.

The use of fly ash in concrete has posed many unanswered questions and this
might be barrier to effective utilization to realize the optimum fly ash benefits in
terms of technical, economic and environmental sustainability. Fly ash properties
also vary in properties from source to source meaning their performances are also
bound to vary. According to (Adriano et al., 1980) the variations are mainly due to
the composition of the parent coal, combustion conditions ,extraction methods
utilized, handling and storage as well as the climate. According to
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(Addis,1987)literature reviews done on fly ash done elsewhere in the world are
not necessarily relevant to local South African conditions .This project is to
investigate the optimum fly ash usable in partial replacement of cement in
concrete in South Africa. The main aim is to check the relevance of the current
percentage limitations.

3. The research problem

Investigation of the optimum fly ash composition usable in partial
replacement of cement in concrete mixes without compromising the
setting time and early gain of concrete strength.

4. Research question
Is the current fly ash limit in use the optimum usable in partial
replacement of cement in concrete?

5. Nomenclature

Subscripts/superscripts

Symbol Meaning (units)

Al2O3 Alumina
CaO Calcium Oxide
Fe2O3 Iron Oxide
SiO2 Silica
w/cm Water-to –cementitious material ratio

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6. Terms and concepts

Term Explanation
ASR Alkali Silica Reaction
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
BS British Standard
BSEN British Standard European Norm
CANMET Canada Centre for Mineral and Energy Technology
FA Fly ash
LOI Loss On Ignition
OPC Ordinary Portland Cement
OPCC Ordinary Portland Cement Concrete
PFA Pulverized Fly Ash
WBCSD World Business Council for Sustainable Development

7. Aims and objectives

The purpose of this project is to check the relevance of the fly ash
percentage limit for use in concrete and the possibility of finding
percentages that does have the slightest effects on both the early
strength gain of concrete and the setting time of concrete. In order to
achieve this, the following objectives will be met

 Determine if the current fly ash proportion in use is the optimum usable in
South Africa
 Determine the effect of fly ash on the setting time of concrete
 Determine the effect of fly ash on the early gain of concrete strength
(targeting 28 day strength).

8. Delineation
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The properties of concrete to be considered will be the setting time and

compressive strength of concrete only. Other properties like split
tensile strength and durability will not be considered.
The variability in terms of materials will not be on cement and stone
and sand variability.
The research will not be based upon use of admixtures and also High
Volume Fly Ash (HVFA) concrete. No chemical and physical tests will be
carried out for the fly ash.

9. Context of the research

This research lies under Materials Engineering (Cement and concrete
materials Engineering) which is a Civil Engineering sub-discipline.

10. Expected outcomes

The outcomes expected would be to establish the most favorable fly
ash percentage usable in replacing cement under local conditions. The
percentage usable is supposed not to affect the fresh and hardened
properties of concrete.

 Establishment of fly ash percentage that replaces cement in

concrete without compromising the setting time of concrete.
 The percentage of fly ash that does not greatly affect the early
gain of concrete strength.
 Ultimately this will establish if the current percentage of fly ash
used locally is the most favorable limit.

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11. Literature review

11.1 INTRODUCTION
Fly ash is a by-product of the coal combustion process in thermal power
stations.The realization that fly ash has pozzolanic properties has led to its use in
concrete (Kearsley & Wainwright,2003). There has been an increase in the use of
fly ash in concrete owing to its technical, economic and environmental
sustainability benefits. Considering the three benefits the use of fly ash is
dependent mainly on its technical benefits. However literature suggests that
there is still a need to understand properly how fly ash affects the behavior of
concrete both in its fresh and hardened state to enhance the optimization of its
use in concrete. Fly ash has been used in partial replacement of cement in
concrete. The percentage of cement that can be replaced in fly ash has been
limited to 30% in South Africa. This has a significant effect both on the setting
time and strength development of concrete. This research is to establish the
relevance of this limitation and to determine the optimum percentage of fly ash
usable in replacing cement. Consideration will be upon its technical effects mainly
setting time (fresh state property) and early strength gain of concrete (hardened
state property.

11.2 PROPORTIONING OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE

There is a general agreement worldwide that the percentage

replacement of cement by fly ash in fly ash concrete is 30%.In South
Africa it has been a common and accepted practice to blend Cement I
(CEM I) with 30% FA on site successfully for conventional structural
concrete(Owens,2009). According to (Kearsley &Wainwright, 2003) In
South Africa the maximum allowable percentage of fly ash usable for
replacing cement in concrete is normally limited to 30%. These findings
show that the local limit of fly ash proportion usable for cement
replacement agrees with the world’s generally limit. However these
limits are set and are directed by national standards and some

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countries have different limits. The Indian Standard for Portland

Pozzolan cement for example allows 15%-35% of fly ash for partial
replacement of cement in fly ash concrete(Bapat,2013). According (
Ardani,2010) specifying the amount of fly ash usable in concrete in
terms of percentages are unreliable and lack engineering judgment
and evaluation . This means that a particular look at these limit to check
their engineering relevance can bring more understanding to the effect
fly ash has on concrete, this also allows optimization of fly ash use in
concrete.

11.3 METHODS OF FLY ASH CLASSIFICATION

Fly classification plays an important role in determining the quality of fly ash
usable in concrete and has an ultimate effect of affecting the behavior of concrete
both in the fresh and hardened states .The classification of fly ash for use in
concrete varies according to national standards and this gives variations in the
quality of fly ash deemed to be usable in concrete by each country. The USA
standards classify fly ash based mainly on the sum of silica (SiO2), alumina (Al203)
and iron oxide (Fe203) and the calcium oxide (CaO) content (ASTM Standard C 618
- 08a). According to (Cain ,1994) the requirement was once suggested to be
removed during the development of the specification as it served only in defining
the material as fly ash. On the other hand the Canadian standard classification
system is mainly based on the limits of calcium oxide content and loss on ignition
(LOI) levels while the European fly ash standard (EN450) classifies fly ash mainly
based on LOI levels and fineness(Ardani:2010)The Japanese fly ash standard (JIS A
620) classifies fly ash based mainly on LOI levels and Blaine fineness whereas the
Indian Standard for Portland Pozzolan cement is mainly concerned with the
extraction, physical and chemical requirements for using fly ash in partial
replacement of cement in concrete(Bapat,2013).

The South African fly ash covers the chemical and physical requirements of fly
ash. The LOI is one of the chemical requirements and is limited to 5% while the
fineness retained on the 45 micron sieve is one of the physical requirements and
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is limited to 12% (Kearsley &Wainwright,2003) A review of the standards even

considering the common fly ash classification characteristic among classification
systems show some discrepancies for example considering the maximum loss on
ignition (LOI) levels ,the Canadian standard has ( type F 8%,type CI 6% and type
CH 6), European (Category A 5% ,B 2%-7% and C 4%-9% ) Japanese (3% and 5%-
8% categories)and South African standards have 5%. According to (Rao:2010)
current specifications do not allow optimization of the combination of cement
and fly ash.(Rao:2010)suggests that optimization of fly ash use in concrete is
dependent on cement and fly ash properties and paving conditions and
concludes that laboratory tests are a powerful tool in determining the optimum
fly ash usable in fly ash concrete.

11.4 VARIABILITY OF FLY ASH

The variation of fly ash properties has an effect on the behavior of fly ash
concrete. Fly ashes from different sources exhibit different properties thus the
quality of fly ash also varies .Different fly ashes affect the concrete behavior
differently. According to(Attwell,2009)South African fly ash of superior quality
when compared to many fly ashes produced in the world. He concludes that fly
ash supplied from Ash resources that was used in the Gautrain project was the
most consistent in quality compared to all other materials that were supplied on
the project .According to(Addis,1987) the quality of South African pozzolanic fly
ash is far greater than could be used as a pozzolan so it is possible to be highly
selective when extracting material for pozzolanic purposes These ideas suggests
that South African fly ash should have superior performance in concrete when
compared to other fly ashes elsewhere in the world.

Fly ash properties vary significantly from source to source and from country to
country. According to (Das,2009) Fly ash is characteristically a variable material
owing to various factors of which include type and mineralogical composition of
coal, degree of coal pulverization,type of furnace ,oxidations conditions and
collection method, handling, and storage before utilization of the fly ash. He

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states that the variability of fly ash is a serious disadvantage and a main barrier in
the effective and wide scale utilization of fly ash in cement and concrete.

11.5 EFFECT OF FLY ASH ON SETTING TIME OF CONCRETE

There is a general consensus that the use of fly ash in concrete extends the
setting time of concrete. Extended setting time can be a disadvantage in
especially in cases where it delays the finishing operations. The extension is more
pronounced in low calcium fly ash than in high calcium fly ash. Literature
generally agrees that low calcium fly ash retard the setting time of cement
(Malhotra, 1984). He states that in experiments piloted at CANMET 2 out of 11 fly
ashes extended both the initial and final setting times. The retardation of the
setting time of concrete by fly ash is dependent upon a number of factors. The
setting behavior of fly ash concrete is influenced by ambient and concrete
temperature, cement type ,source, content, fineness, water content of the paste,
water soluble alkalis, use and dosage of other admixtures, the amount of fly ash,
fineness and chemical composition of fly ash (Plowman & Cabrera,1984). The
percentage by which cement is replaced by fly ash in concrete has a significant
effect on the setting behavior of fly ash concrete.(Addis,1987) states that cement
replacement by fly ash up to 15% show a slow extension of setting time as
compared with the equivalent OPC ,the setting time extension increases as fly ash
content is increased. He concluded that proper consideration of these factors in
mixture proportioning can result in an acceptable setting time.

11.6 EFFECT OF FLY ASH ON EARLY GAIN OF CONCRETE STRENGTH

The use of fly ash in concrete has effects of retarding the strength development of
concrete which is marked in early stages. According to (Owens,2009) fly ash
reduces slightly the rate of strength development and increases later age (90
days)strength of fly ash concrete.(Swammy,1983) also concluded that Fly ash
concrete mixes have always resulted in lower 28 day strength than the control
mixes and higher strength at 90 days and beyond.)He states that early gain of fly
ash concrete is less than that of OPC concrete and where early strength is
important fly ash is often limited to less than 30% Concrete strength at any age
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and rate are affected by the particular properties of fly ash, cement used and the
proportions used(Tikalsky,1996) The fly ash used in South Africa and in India is
low calcium fly ash, however South African fly ash is limited to 30% and in India to
35%.

11.7 CONCLUSION
Environmental, technical and economic benefits have been realized owing to the
use of fly ash in partial replacement of cement in concrete. However there exist
some barriers towards the successful use of fly ash in concrete. Fly ash use
demands optimization to ensure all its benefits are realized. Successful use of fly
ash can be achieved if it does not have detrimental effects to both the fresh and
hardened states of concrete. The classification and proportioning of fly ash for
use in concrete is governed by national standards. There are differences in the
method of fly ash classification and yet there is a general agreement in the
proportion (the limit of fly ash usable in concrete).This poses a question as to
whether this general limit is the actual optimum percentage of fly ash usable in
partial replacement of concrete or whether the classification methods employed
are sound and consistent. Furthermore fly ash from different sources vary in
quality and also this can be a barrier towards the effective utilization of fly ash
thus careful mix designs guidelines are to be used .South African fly ash is
regarded as having superior in terms of its suitability for use in concrete and yet
the fly ash proportion is limited to the world‘s general limit. Fly ash extends the
setting time of concrete .The time of which is affected by factors which Include fly
ash composition and amount used, fineness and also the properties cement used
.Fly ash also retards the development of concrete strength in early stages. The
strength development is also a function of the properties of fly ash properties and
proportions used. The purpose of this project is to check the relevance of the fly
ash percentage limit for use in concrete and the possibility of finding percentages
that does have the slightest effects on both the early strength gain of concrete
and the setting time of concrete.

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12. Research design and methodology

The percentage of fly ash usable in partial replacement of cement plays
a pivotal role in the setting behavior and strength development of
concrete. The optimum fly ash usable in concrete should have the least
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effects in retarding setting time and delaying early gain of concrete

strength. This research is to analyze the current fly ash percentage limit
if it is the optimum limit usable.

12.1 Research design

Laboratory experiments are to be carried out. These are to be carried out at Cape
Peninsula University of Technology concrete laboratory. Particular attention will
be on analyzing the setting time of concrete and the early compressive strength
of concrete. Comparisons to be carried out between normal concrete and fly ash
concrete .Different fly ash proportions of fly ash will be used.

12.2 12.2 Research methodology

Concrete samples are to be produced with different fly ash percentages

to replace Portland cement. Hand mixing will be employed for making
concrete samples. Cement and fly ash will be added together at mixing.
Fly ash percentages to be used for replacing Portland cement are 25%,
30% and 35%. Fly ash from Ulula Ash and Ash Resources will be used. A
comparison will be carried out between normal concrete and fly ash
concrete for concrete grades 25 and 40.The setting time behavior is to
be investigated by carrying out initial and final concrete setting times.
Concrete mix designs to be provided from fly ash suppliers to ensure
typical industrial mix designs are used. Concrete samples will be cured
using normal industrial curing standards.

12.2.1 Data
The materials to be used for making concrete cubes and also the
equipment to carry out the tests will be required.
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12.2.2 Materials

Fly ash
Fly ash from the following companies: Ulula Ash and Ash resources.
Chemical and physical properties of fly ash according to SANS
specification
Cement
Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) Cement I
Stone
19mm stone
Sand

Cement, stone and sand will be from Lafarge. These materials are to
meet SANS requirement for use in concrete.

12.2.3 Mixture proportioning

Concrete mix design will from fly ash suppliers will be used for fly ash
concrete and also for the normal concrete.

12.2.4 “Research instruments” / equipment

Sample preparation equipment

Scale for weighing the materials
Concrete mixing apparatus
Reliable source of water
Concrete mixing containers.

Slump test equipment

Mould /slump cone
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Steel rod (16mm diameter),

Level metal plate (smooth and non-absorbent) and ruler

Compressive strength test equipment

Concrete cubes (each side 150mm)
Steel rod (for concrete compaction)
Concrete compression machines

Setting time test equipment

Pocket penetrometer
Concrete curing equipment
Concrete curing tank
Temperature measurement
Thermometer for checking the environmental and concrete curing temperature.

All the equipment above is available at Cape Peninsula University Laboratory

except the pocket penetrometer.
Concrete tests descriptions
Concrete samples Grade 25 Grade 40
Normal concrete cubes 3 cubes 3 cubes
25 % FA 3 cubes 3 cubes
30% FA 3 cubes 3 cubes
35% FA 3 cubes 3 cubes
The normal concrete cubes (6 in number) will be as control for both Ulula Ash and
Ash Resources. Thus a total number of 6 control cubes + 18(Ulula ash cubes) and
18 Ash Resources cubes gives a total of 42 concrete cubes.

12.2.5 Analysis / presentation of results

The initial setting time and final setting time of concrete will be measured for
normal concrete .A comparison will be carried between the initial setting and final
setting time of concrete for all the fly ash percentages to establish the

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relationship between the proportion of fly ash in concrete and its effect on setting
time.
A comparison of concrete strength after 28 days will be carried out for normal
concrete cubes and all the fly ash concrete sample to determine the relationship
between the proportion of fly ash in concrete and the concrete strength (after 28
days).

13. References
Addis,B.J.(red.).1987. Symposium Practical guidelines on the selection of Portland
cement,mgbs,fly ash and silica fume in concrete. Midrand: Portland Cement
Institute.

Adriano, D. C., Page, A. L., Elseewi, A. A., Chang, A. C. & Straughan, I. 1980.
Utilization and disposal of fly ash and other coal residues in terrestrial
ecosystems: A review. Journal of Environmental Quality, 9, 333-344.

Ardani,P.E.2011.An Innovative Pavement Research Foundation Airport Concrete

Pavement Technology Program. Research Report for proportioning fly ash as
cementitious Material in Airfield Pavement Concrete Mixtures. Report IPRF-01-G-
002-06-2

ASTM Standard C 618 - 08a, “Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or
Calcined
Natural Pozzolan for Use in Concrete,” ASTM International, West Conshohocken,
PA, 2008

Attwell,C.2009.Interview with Master Builders Association Representative.

http://www.masterbuilders.co.za/news/2009/November/classified_fly_ash_contr
ibutes_to_world_class_gautrain_concrete.htm

Bapat, J.D.2013. Mineral Admixtures in Cement and Concrete. New york :CRC
Press.

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Bumrongjaroen,W.2010 Steps Needed in the Research & Development of New

Specifications for the Proper Inclusion of Fly Ash into Concrete Mixes for highway
Pavements and other Transportation structures. In Fly ash workshop of
September 2010,Turner –Fairbank Highway Research Centre Virginia USA,29-30
September 2010.

Das, A.2009.Strength characterization for fly ash composite material. Btech

thesis, National Institute of Technology, Rourkela.

Furter,E..2011.Coal fly ash hold Africa opportunities.sheqafrica.com/fly ash

conference[5 March 2014]

Kearsley, E.P. & Wainwright,P.J.2003.The effect of fly ash properties on concrete

strength .Journal of the South African Institution of Civil Engineering,45(1):19-
24,Paper 536

Obla, K.2010. Steps needed in the Research & Development of New Specifications
for the Proper Inclusion of Fly Ash into Concrete Mixes for highway Pavements
and other Transportation structures. In Fly ash workshop of September 2010,
Turner –Fairbank Highway Research Centre Virginia USA, 29-30 September 2010.

Owens. (red.).2009. Fulton’s concrete technology.9th ed.Midrand: Cement &

Concrete Institute

South Africa National Treasury. 2013. 2013 Budget Speech. Pretoria: Government
Printer
Swammy, R.N.1983.New Concrete Materials (Concrete Technology and
Design).Glasgow: Surrey University Press.

Zulu, S. & Allopi, D.2014.Influence of high content fly ash on concrete durability.
International Journal of Engineering and Innovation, 7(3):150-155, January.

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