NAME : MUSHAMIRI GEORGE (R055049Q)

1ST SUPERVISER : ENG. MUZANGAZA

2ND SUPERVISER : MR SHUMBA

1. INTRODUCTION

This project involves the limit state design of a six storey office building; with
much emphasis being placed on establishing a structural scheme .Multi-storey
buildings have been widely used in most parts of the world for many reasons.
They can be used in areas where there is scarcity of land especially in Central
Business Districts to maximise land use. They can also be erected for
aesthetic reasons and sometimes for prestige.

The primary function of multi-storey structures is to support vertical loads,

but besides having adequate strength to support vertical loads they must
have adequate lateral stability in all directions against lateral forces such as
wind load and earthquake loads. The effect of lateral load on the design of
multi-storey storey structural systems generally depends on the height of the
building. As the height of the building is increased a point is reached at which
lateral sway due to lateral loads is significant hence consideration of stiffness
and not strength governs the design. The project is a 27m high office building
measuring 39m x 27m on plan.

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

A structure is an assemblage of elements such as slabs, column, beams,

cables, e.t.c connected in such away that when adequately supported by a
foundation they form a stiff unit capable of supporting loads. The basic
function of a structure is to support loads and transmit them from the
point of application to the foundation and ultimately to the ground. This
function must be fulfilled by taking into account the constrains imposed by
the client such as;

 Function
 Safety
 Economy of the construction and maintenance
 The common characteristics of structures are that they are built to
support loads.

2. 1 CLIENTAL REQUIREMENTS

• Design requirements must be derived from an analysis of the building

users and their needs.
• The purpose of the building and the activities to be carried out in each
of spaces within it must be analyzed.

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NAME : MUSHAMIRI GEORGE (R055049Q)
1ST SUPERVISER : ENG. MUZANGAZA
2ND SUPERVISER : MR SHUMBA
• This will affect such aspects of environment as floor to ceiling heights,
window heights, partition spacing, service provision and nature of floor
and wall surface.

2.2 FLOOR APPRAISAL

• A number of slab systems can be used depending on cost evaluations

or cliental requirements.

2.2.1 ADVANTAGES OF RIBBED AND HOLLOW BLOCK

FLOORS

• Reduction of weight achieved by removing part of the concrete below

the neutral axis.
 In case of hollow block floor it is made lighter by replacing concrete
below the neutral axis by lighter form of construction for example clay
tiles and light concrete.
 Ribbed and hollow block slab are economical in building where there
are long spans [6m] and light or moderate line loads. Not suitable for
structures having a heavy loading such as warehouses and garages.
 Near the surpports the hollow block is stopped off and slab is made
solid. This done to achieve greater shear strength.

2.2.2 ADVANTAGES OF FLAT SLABS

• Simplified formwork and reduced floor storey height make it more
economic.
• Windows can extend to the underside of the slab and there are no
beams to obstruct the light and circulation of air.
• The absents of corners gives greater fire resistance as there is less
danger of the concrete spalling and exposing reinforcement.

2.2.3 SOLID SLAB ON BEAMS

• The main disadvantage of this floor is the complicated formwork and

increased construction cost due to hiring of formwork.
• However it is less liable to failure by punching shear.
• Can be designed as one way or two way spanning slabs.
• Most contractors in Zimbabwe are familiar with this type of slab
construction

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NAME : MUSHAMIRI GEORGE (R055049Q)
1ST SUPERVISER : ENG. MUZANGAZA
2ND SUPERVISER : MR SHUMBA

2.3 FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE STRCTURES

• The forms of a concrete structure may cost more than the concrete or
the reinforcing steel, and in some instances they may cost more than
the concrete and the reinforcing steel altogether
 For this reason it is imperative to look for every practicable means to
reduce the cost of forms.

2.4 Methods of reducing cost of formwork

• Use the same size of columns from the foundation to the roof or the
same size for several stories.
 Space columns uniformly throughout the building insofar as possible,
retaining the position from floor to floor will result in economy.
 Specify the same widths of columns and column supported beams in
order to reduce or eliminate the cutting and setting of beam forms into
column forms.
 Specify beams of the same depth on each floor; choose a depth that
will permit use of standard size lumber without ripping, for beam sides.

NB: If there are concrete beams and girders framing into the
columns, and if the cross-sectional dimensions of the beams are the
same for the higher floors, it is probable that the same or all the form
parts for the beams and girders can be reused at the higher floors,
provided the forms for the columns are retained and the spacing of the
columns are the same at higher floors

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NAME : MUSHAMIRI GEORGE (R055049Q)
1ST SUPERVISER : ENG. MUZANGAZA
2ND SUPERVISER : MR SHUMBA

2.5 STRUCTURAL FORMS

 Three types of units are employed to resist gravity and lateral loads.

1. Frames
2. Shear walls
3. Tubes
2.5.1 FRAMED STRUCTURES
 In these structures all vertical and lateral loads are
supported by rigid frames.
 Framed structures depend on the rigidity of their
connections for resisting forces.
 They are uneconomic beyond 10 stories.
This limitation has become more apparent with the practise of using light
weight building.

2.5.2 BRACED FRAMED STRUCTURES

 Framed structures where shear walls are provided the lateral stability
of the structure may be assumed to be provided by the shear walls.

2.5.3 SHEAR WALLS

 They are used in multi-storey structures to provide lateral stability to

flexible frames.
 Shear walls are either vertical cantilever deep beams or normal
cantilever beams depending on the height to width ratio of the wall.
 If H-W Less than 2.5 –cantilever deep beam.
 If H-W greater than 2.5 normal bean.
 Shear walls can be used alone to form shear wall structures or can be
used in conjunction with frames.

2.5.4 TUBES
• Framed tubes are formed by introducing closely spaced columns
(1-1.5m) with deep beams around the perimeter of the building.

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NAME : MUSHAMIRI GEORGE (R055049Q)
1ST SUPERVISER : ENG. MUZANGAZA
2ND SUPERVISER : MR SHUMBA
• It can be used up to 60 stories
• Beyond this height the framed tube becomes inappropriate and
engineers resort to using a tube in tube system.

2.6 BASEMENT

 To be designed to resist both vertical load and line loads from the
building above and horizontal imposed load due to earth and water
pressure.

 Basement floors should resist upward water pressure.

 Clay soils are not easy to predict the height of the underground water
as movement of water in fissured clays is extremey erratic.

 A safe assumption is that the water rises to the ground.

 Basement should be water proofed to exclude water and moisture from

the ground.

2.7 DETAILED STRUCTURAL DESIGN

The structural scheme developed by the architect is subjected to

detailed analysis using the principle of structural analysis and
mechanics. The resulting structural scheme must be consistent with
the engineer's basic aim of producing a structure which satisfies certain
criterion of safety, functionality and economy. The design process can
generally be broken down into;

1. Selection of the structural form to be used and the material out

of which the structure will be built.
2. Determination of loads that are expected to act on the structure
during its design life.
3. Calculation of the stresses and deformations that are produced
in individual members of the structure by the external loads.
4. Determination of the sizes of the individual members so that the
stresses and the deformations do not exceed the allowable
values.

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NAME : MUSHAMIRI GEORGE (R055049Q)
1ST SUPERVISER : ENG. MUZANGAZA
2ND SUPERVISER : MR SHUMBA

2.8 OUTPUT OF THE DESIGN PROCESS

This consists of the design calculation, plans and design specifications.

 Calculations: prepared for the exclusive purpose of providing

guidance to the design engineer in the decision making process.
 Design plans: set of drawings developed by the engineer in
sufficient detail to convey the design intend. They are used by
the contractor on site to construct the structure. The engineer is
therefore fully responsible for the preparation of the drawings.
 Specifications: they are prepared to support the design
drawings. They provide information on how the various
elements are to be erected and information on what material to
be used. Much of the information published in the specification
is supplied by SAZ.

2.9 AIMS OF THE STRUCTURAL DESIGN

The structural design must try to accomplish;

 Safety-the structure must not collapse in use.
 Economy-cost of construction must be kept low.
 Functionality-the structure must not deflect or vibrate excessively

2.9.1 Design philosophy

An essential part of the design is to take note of the random nature of

loading, the variability of the material strength and the effect that may occur
in construction in such a way that the possibility of the unserviceability or
failure of the structure during its design life is reduced to an acceptable level.
The design of any structure is based on the following framework;
Load effects<resistance of the structure (Q<R)

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NAME : MUSHAMIRI GEORGE (R055049Q)
1ST SUPERVISER : ENG. MUZANGAZA
2ND SUPERVISER : MR SHUMBA

2.9.1.2 Load effects

1.0 Moments 2.0 Shear

3.0 Deflection 4.0 Vibration
5.0 Corrosion 6.0 Fatigue
7.0 Damage by fire

2.9.1.3 Resistance

 Strength
 Durability
 Fire resistance
 Stiffness
 Corrosion resistance

2.10 Design methods

Three design methods meant to archive safe, functional structures have been
developed namely;

1. Allowable stress design method (elastic design method)

2. Plastic design method (load factor method)
3. Limit state design method

2.10.1The allowable stress design method

The yield strength of the material are divided by a factor of safety to provide
design stresses which are usually in the elastic range .A single factor of
safety is used in order to account for the random nature of loading ,defects
that occur during construction and the variability of the material properties.
The structures analysed using the elastic theory and working loads are used
in the process. Member sections are sized such that the permissible stresses
are not exceeded. The method is simple and straight forward but has its short
comings;

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NAME : MUSHAMIRI GEORGE (R055049Q)
1ST SUPERVISER : ENG. MUZANGAZA
2ND SUPERVISER : MR SHUMBA
 It is not readily applicable
to semi-plastic material
such as concrete.
 It is also not suitable when deformations are not proportional to loads

2.10.2 Plastic design method

This method is based on finding the loads that cause the structure to
collapse. The design resistance of the structure is found by dividing the
collapse load and the load factor. The load factor is meant to take into
account the random nature of loading, the variability in material properties
and the defect that may occur during construction. The elastic analysis of the
structure subjected to working load is executed and the loads.

2.10.3 The limit state method.

Addresses the deficiencies of the two methods mentioned above and it is

based on statistical principles.

Limit state is any condition that renders the structure unfit for use e.g.
rapture due to collapse of the structure, excessive deflections and vibration,
rapture due to fatigue. when using the limit state design method one as to
identify all the conditions that renders the structure unfit for use and has to
check that non of the identified limit state are not exceeded. Limit states can
be placed into categories i.e.

 Disasters; collapses
 Nuisances; vibration, deflections

Limit state design also makes use of the partial factors of safety of the
material. The design strength is found by dividing the characteristic material
strength by the partial factor of safety.

Partial safety factor takes into account

1. the possibility that a material that the material strength may fall below the
characteristic material strength.

2. Errors those are likely to be encountered in the determination of the

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NAME : MUSHAMIRI GEORGE (R055049Q)
1ST SUPERVISER : ENG. MUZANGAZA
2ND SUPERVISER : MR SHUMBA
material strength.

3. Errors made in the design by the assumptions by the engineer.

A characteristic load is a load which has the probability of 5 per- cent of being
exceeded.

3.0 LOADS

The basic function of the structure is to support the loads and the main
objective of structural design is to create a structure which can safely support
the loads applied during the design life of the structure. The identification and
determination of the loads is therefore an important part of the design
process. It is the engineer's duty to identify and quantify the loads that are
expected to act on the structure.

3.1 Classification of loads.

According to their duration and action, the loads can be classified as

temporary and permanent loads.

 Permanent loads- once applied act for the entire design life of the
structure. They are usually constant; in this category we have the
dead loads- the self weight of the structure and weight of the
finishes.

 Temporary loads- these are loads which do not always act on the
structure and they are characterized by change in magnitude and
direction. These loads are normally termed live loads.

Classification on the special arrangement of the loads.

 Concentrated load- act over a very small area as compared to

the overall dimension of the structure.

 Line loads - e.g. the weight of partitions, weight of pipelines.

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NAME : MUSHAMIRI GEORGE (R055049Q)
1ST SUPERVISER : ENG. MUZANGAZA
2ND SUPERVISER : MR SHUMBA
4.0 Codes of practice

They are historically successful building practices and communicates to the

practicing engineer those levels of safety considered acceptable to society.
They allow the designer with no specific previous knowledge to create an
acceptable structure. The codes normally used in this country are the British
Standards e.g. BS8110, BS59590, BS6399

5.0 Reinforced concrete materials

Reinforced concrete is a strong durable building material that can be formed

into many variable shapes and sizes ranging from a simple rectangular beam
to a curved dome shape. Its durability and versatility is achieved by
combining the best properties of concrete and steel.

Material properties

Steel concrete

Compressive strength good very good

Tensile strength Very good poor
Strength in shear good poor
Durability poor good
Fire resistance poor Very good

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NAME : MUSHAMIRI GEORGE (R055049Q)
1ST SUPERVISER : ENG. MUZANGAZA
2ND SUPERVISER : MR SHUMBA

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NAME : MUSHAMIRI GEORGE (R055049Q)
1ST SUPERVISER : ENG. MUZANGAZA
2ND SUPERVISER : MR SHUMBA

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