ARISTOTLE THE POLITICS ‘TRANSLATED BY T, A. SINCLAIR, REVISED AND REPRESENTED BY TREVOR j. SAUNDERS PENGUIN BOOKSPENGUIN 200KS TO THE MEMORY OF Plato y be Pega Gos AL SINCLAIR eg Boot 2 Weg Lan Lon 9 57% End Penguin Books USA ne, 35 Hato Set Now Yr, New Yor 001, USA npn ook Asafa Lng, Vr Aus ‘een oss Cardi Aer Ave, Teron Onterny Cnaa SV 382 npn Book (2) LD 10 Wake Read, Ako Jo. New Zn PeguaBooks Ld Reiter: Hamondoorh Mls, ‘Te vaton by A Sire pub 12 Revie tion 5 Ren with ee gap 992 sioweee ‘The 92 antin opr he seo Site 962 "Revita oprah Teer. Saad, 8 ‘trained outing y Cn | Sethi tance pin nnn tenis | Emaar rear, Senger eeteerorerare Taniciwmaneeeaenens Enigmas antes, hee rae dceaanconrents ix Citizenship and Age-Groups x The Food Supply and the Division of the ‘Territory xi The Siting and Defence of the City xii The Siting of Markets, Temples and ‘Communal Refectories ‘Happiness as the Aim of the Constitution xiv Education for Citizenship xy ‘The Proper Education for Cultured Leisure i Sex, Marriage and Eugenics xvii The Main Periods of Education; Censorship i Education as a Public Concern, Hi Controvery about the Aims of Education Leisure Distinguished from Play; Education in Muse (1) iv The Limits of Physical Training '¥ Education in Music (2) vi Gentlemen versus Players vii Melodies and Modes in Education Greck-English English-Greek a a4 “7 at ay 426 450 49 aon 496 502 TRANSLATOR'S INTRODUCTION BY T.A.SINCLAIR Anisrorts was born in 584 mc: at Stageira in Chaledice ‘which was part ofthe dominion of the kings of Macedon, He Wot the so of & physica who tended the fy of ng ‘myntas. Later the throne was occupied by Philip, wo spent iis fe augmenting the power snd tersitoty of Macedon and tnaking fe dominant among Greck state, whereas prion to his reign I had ain somewhat on the fringe, At te age of about Seventeen Aristotle went to: Athens and became a student in the famous Academy of Plato. Here he staied mathematic, tties and polite, and we do not know what ele besides, He femained there, teacher bu sll a learner, for twenty years ‘Atthis period he must have written those works which Plat rch ealled Platonic, Salogves on ethical and. politcal cub jst which were moch admired in antiquity for ther syle rt whieh are now lose. After the death of Plato in 346 he fete the Academy, posibly disappointed tat he badaot been thosen to succeed him st hend. In any cate it wor quite me that he left The Academy offered litle scope for te rapiiy extending intellectual interes. Wich a few companions he tzossed the Aegean Sea to Asla Minor and settled at Assos {it the Tsoad Here he continued hi scientific studies, eopece ally in marine biology. 1 doubtful whether he wrote any- thing’ at this period, bue the experience had ‘profound ‘edt on his general ovtook on the physical word and his view of man’s place in it; Man was fn animal, but he was thoy Stal that could te decribed os 'polta,capble ‘of and! designed by mata for, life ina pola Te was at thik Peto of hi ie alco that he married hs twit she too os £ lacdonian, In 945 he returned to his nadve land whither hhe had been invited to each King Philips young con, the fawure Aleeander the Grest He di this for bout two eas, ‘but whae he taught him and what effec either had wpor the other remain ebscure We know very iui about the next, 13TRANSLATOR'S INTRODUCTION four or five years but by 396 nc he was in Athens with family Politically much had happened at Athens during his ten year’ absence, ‘The eloquence of Demosthenes had not been Suticient to stir up effective resistance to the increasing ene Croachment of Aristotle's own King Philip. After winning the Battle of Chaeronea in 398 Philip had grouped mort of the Greck states into a kind of federation firmly under the con- tuo of Macedon, Preparations were set af00t for an invasion of ‘Asia, but Philip was asrassinated in gg6 and i was Alexander who led the expedition. At Athens opinion about Philip had Jong been divided, Macedonian supporters were fairly numer- ‘ous among the wealthier upper classes and among these ‘Aristotle had friends; he also had the useful backing of the Macedonian Antipater whom Alexander left in charge. So he hhad no diffeulty in realizing his ambition of establishing at ‘Athens a philosophical school of hie own. He was a foreigner, not 2 citizen, and so could not legally own property there: bbut arrangements were made for a lease, and his school, the Lyceuen, seth its adjoining Walk (Peripatos), was successtlly launched. “Thus the mest important and productive period of Aristotle's life, chat of his second sojourn at Athens, coincides ‘with the period when Alexander was conquering the Eastern world ~ f fact which no-one could gues from reading hie works. The news of Alexander's death in 423 was a signal for 2 revival of antieMacedonian feeling at Athens, and Aristotle judged it prudent to retive to Euboea, where he died in the following year at the age of about sixty-two. ‘At the Lyceum, Aristotle had a staff of lecturers to assist hhim. These included the botanist Theophrastus, author of Characters. a man whose learning must have been as diver ‘fed ae that of Aristotle. Perhaps like the Regents in Scottish Universities in the eighteenth century, the stall were expected to teach a variety of subjects, theoretical and practical, and their surviving writings are a rellection of what they taught. Bot the distinction between theareuke and fraktike was not atall the same as between theory and practice. They were two Separate branches of knowledge, not two different ways of ‘Sealing with knowledge, “The formen. regarded. at truly philosophical and cruly scientific, was based on thedria. obser: tation plins contemplation. This branch included theology, ‘metaphysics, astronomy. mathematic, biology, botany, meteor 4 TRANSLATOR'S INTRODUCTION logy: and on these subjects Ariotte lectured and wrote ‘xetsively.‘To the prates branch belong the works entitled fihic. Peis, Kevorc. and Porte. OF course these sub- ject po Tew thin the “scienife™ group. mist be based on follecing. and. sudying the avaiable data. But the data, ising a they do out of human endeavour, are of a diferent and lew stable kind. Morcover these sciences have a practical Baim and the students were expected. to become. tn some iasrepraone I hig and Plt for example Goes not fice to learn what things are; they must Rnd out ‘also what can be done abor theme 7 ‘There was 2 story current in antiquity that after Aristotle’ death his unpublished works (¢hat nos of the Avitole that tve have) were hidden in calla in Scepsis in the ‘Tread and Femained there wiiknown till the frst century nc. The story Fe probably «mere bur there is no doubt that Bis Politics was fot much eudied during that time, Polybius. who was well ead in Plato snd would have had good reason to read the Politic, shows no veal acquaintance with it Cicero 120. who imight have read the Politics it the story true that the smanvseript reached Rome in Sull's time, sem not to have done #0, But Cicero knew Aristotle’ earlier and published ‘works. the now lott dialogves, including four books about instce’. Besides, teaching at the Lyceum continned to. deal With Politica after the desth of Aristotle, and the works of the Peripatetcs Theophrastus and Dicaearchus were well known ‘Thus in various ways the political philosophy ofthe Lyceum may have been familiar to the men learmed smong Romans. Sil, there i no denying the fact that both Tor Greeks and Romans the fame of Plato's Republic quite owahone that of Aristotle's Politics during clawical antiquity. The same is te of Aristotle's work in generar i was litle read in the dayn of, the Roman Empire. some of it (but not the Politics) becxme known in the Wes through the Latin translations of Bocthius inthe sixth eentory ab. in the East. translations were made Into Syriae and thence into. Arabic. Some of these Arbie translations eventvally found their way t Europe by way Of Spain, where they were closely studied by learned” Jews 5and Latin translations were made from the Arabie before the fwelfth century. Bot again the Politic was not included, The Inuence of the Ethie: and the Politics does not begin t0 appear in Westem Christendom tll the ehireenth centary, ahd chat beginning was due to three members of the Domini. an Order = William of Moerbeke (in Flanders), Albert of Cologne, and, most ofall 8 Thomas of Aquino. ‘Willis of Mocrbeke knew Greek sffeienty well 19 make 2 Jicral translation into Latin forthe use of Albert and Thomas. His versions of the Bthier and the Potties are extant, barely intelligible but. interesting as_excreees in. translation. St ‘Thomas made constant use of het, and everything that he ‘wrove touching upon politics, rulers and staves was strongly Influenced by the Polis, "The state isa wa for him, as f0F ‘Aristotle, something in accordance with nature, something {food in itself and needed by man in order to full his nature. SC*Augustine had seen in the state the instictions and laws of the Roman Emptre, certainly not good ia themselves, but recesary as 4 curb on man's sinful nature; and this view Was hot abandoned when the Empire broke up. St Thomas in discarding it docs not, of course, accept Avatotl's view of the State in is entirety. LHe may agree with the philosopher about property and about usury and the nced to Control education; But to be a good titisen in good society, to be wellendowed ‘with property, virtue, and ability ~ this ideal could not be made to ht te contemporary outlook merely by the addition ‘of religion. ‘The good life must needs now be 2 Christian lite anda. preparation for Eterity. St Thomas reproduces much of the siefold_ clasifcation of constitutioas. which ‘Avistole sometimes used and sometimes ignored; but he really thed litle use for it He found (as we find) that Avstode hat zo clear-cut answer to give fo the question ‘which fs the best form of constitution” Bu he fund plenty of warrant fn the Politics for saying that the rule of one ouctandingly good ian, backed by just laws is most desirable, only it can be Attained. Besides, here he was on familiar ground, For cen. turer monarchical rule of one Kind or another had occupied the central position in polite! thought; the contrast between the good king and the bad tyrant had been part of the stock- Jn-rade since classical antiquity: obedience and disobedience, legal status and legal nights these were the topics and above all how to buildup what they ealled a “Mirror of Princes for 6 TRANSLATOR’S INTRODUCTION the monarch to copy. We must not forge thatthe Policraticus af Join of Salsbury (eb 0) was jst 38 mich a precursor of Sc Thomats De regimine proveipune as was the Politic of ‘Aristotle, which Jobm had no read {i the dominsiion exercised by Aristotelian philosophy over setolastic thought in the later Middle Ages, the Poles had title part to Ply; ft influence and prestige were very great but ofa very diferent kind and in a diferent field. Dane, for example, in his De Monarcha (vg) alfred utterly fom St Thomas, bur his work fy just ag much permeated by the thought and language (atinized) of the Potties Even farther yemoved politically from St Thomas is Maralus of Padua {Befensor” pace, s424). Yet bere too the infence of the Seities ts ominakable."atter the more general revival of lasscal learning in the fifteenth century, Plato and Cicero frere more favoured than Aristotle bythe majority of readers, Bur he Polite which wae fret printed in ngg® (Aldine pres) Continued to be part ofthe essential background of political ilorophers suck as Machiavell. Jean Bodin, or Wichard Footer In the seventeenth centry Thomas Hobbes poured scom on the Aristotle of the Sehaelmen, but his own Levia- then tesies to is Yeading ofthe Politic. In the eighteenth encury a superical acquaintance with the Ethics andthe Politic) could be taken Yor granted among educated Euro- pean, But it was not until the next century. and the publi: Exton in 18ge"by the Prussian. Academy of the great Benin Corpus of Ris works that the sy of Aristotle a a Grech thor was realy taken seriously. ‘The Politics shared in this, Snd soon began to prof greatly from he industry and 3 {ation of Corman’ scholarship. Polit philosophy i its tain derived benefit from the translations and interpretations of nineteenth centy clases! scholars and was enabled 10 ste ity own ancient antecedents in ttver perspeedve, In the twentieth century this work continued unabated but poiteal Philosophy itself Began to lose interest for academe philo oper On the other hand there was a growing interest in the newer scplines of anthropology and sociology. andthe Comparative study of politi) instietions. Wherein all chs does the Polites of Aristotle now stand?‘TRANSLATOR'S INTRODUCTION The Politics of Aristotle i stil rend asa textbook of politi science ip universities. It may be asked why this 30, why ft Hsp ben dare ant al ha of vl at surely have been absorbed and taken over by subsequent wrtes onthe subject Euclid. war used %6 2° textbook of geometry tll well into the twensieth century, but his discover {es have been embodied in better textbooks for schools. For iuthematcias the interest of Euclid i lngely ancquarian; Be ipa ofthe hory of mathmaticn Not Attics ology any longer aught. Why fs his Potties worth studying today forts own sakes nd ‘Broadly speaking the reasons are first. that the problems posed by ethical and polite philosophy sre not ota kind that ea Be solved ote and ale hand on to os {erty as so much accomplished; and second, that the prob. lems are stil the same probleme at botom, however auch Appearances and cireurakaness may have aliered in twenty thes enti low cmon Hvewgeter? The wold as {gown staller and men are more than ever forced to live together. The problem fs linger, more ace, and more com plicated than it was when ancient philosophers fst looked at te How in particular can topdog and unter doy be made 09 live together? Is enough to 4, “Give the topdog artas and She Miedo enough fo et Or shold hee Be onl one ss of dog? ‘hen the underdogs abolish the top dogy on to Bnd themscives burdened wie he set ow pened re the problems of government and how lite they have hanged tre indeed all to clear, Recent evens, the exparsion of evilation, the spread of technological advances, tnd the growth of political’ power in all parts of the world have Emphasized this Wester Europe no longer holds ts former ominance cither culturally of pliicalife but the Politcn ocimpy par of ur Weer hesige not ed tthe European pollcal concepss which it helped to form, Just as {etranscended the cityatte era in which and fox wife was written, so it has transcended bodh the Imperiale and the hation states of the nineteenth century. ‘The nascent or hale formed states of Asien and Asin wll Tecognize some of theft own problems in Arstotle’s Politi, just ne the secker fer 18 y TRANSLATOR’S INTRODUCTION orm of behaviour will earn from his Ethice, Neither will Find, nor expect to Bnd, ready-made answers to his questions, but ie always dluminating to see another mind, sometimes jenetrating, sometimes obtuse, working on problems that are rndamentally similar to one's own, however different in time, setung, and local conditions ‘Works writen about the science of politics may be said very roughly 10 fall into two classes, one of which may be called prescriptive, the other descriprive. ‘The one seeks to make a Paster of an ideal state and, im varying degrees according to the taste of the author, to lay plans for the realization of that pau, The lier canine te data of poli ots Eonsititions as they exist now or have exied in the past, nd secs to draw conclusions about the way they ae Hely 10 Gevelop. It does not sim at dererbing an ideal state or at setoming whee nd of conatuton i bt Both ype of sendy have, actually or potentially, a practical wee, the pre- Scriprve wih a blue-prine for the futue, the her analysing and comparing. Both may also move in the domain of pure thor leone dedi from x et of pina what hve behaviour in socety ought tobe, the other evolving principles of human behaviour from the ways in which men Go in act Boje Ts dow ot men at «te ter pens value judgement altogether: he ean hardly avoid appra tome standard oF other, the work of the consitstions which form the data of hie subject. ‘The Polite: of Aristoue belongs to both there lasses and moves in and out of them. Ie it the only work of sn ancient nuthor of which chat could be said. All throug anciquity (and in more modern times to0) the wopizn method of audy pre- dominated. Long before Plato or Aristotle, the Greeks for food practical reasons had been asking theméclves "What is the best form of consitution?” And after lato the fame of the Republic andthe Laws Kept much of political thought Eslened tothe seme topia, Ta lace engcly dacusions of the ideal rate took the form of discussions about the perfect ruler, the ideal king. ‘The search for the ideal state and the best constitution are of comme the very heart of Aritotles Politics; he had inherited the topic from his predecesors and is constantly commenting on and drawing from Plato. But he sho had the analytical approneh ie was part of his tlentifc fast of mind. And itis this that gives the Politis part of its 19TRANSLATOR'S INTRODUCTION special interest today, when the prescriptive method, from Bisto to Mary, i out of fashion it is dificult to be thoroughly detached observer even of the dats of the physieal scenes, virwally impossible when it comes to the stdy of man. Among the ancients only Thucy- Sides came near to it He observed and analysed. bution Schaviour. as manifested by nations at war, and nothing of that has changed since he wrote; but he was not a political theorist and nothing could have been farther from fs mind than constracting a Torm of constitution. Yet even inthe pages of Thucydides i no dif co ace in broad oun wat Kind of polity he would prefer and would regard as best for ‘Athens, All the more then when we come to Aristater Bi ‘Views about what is best are constantly to the fore and not Slwaye consistent He draws a distinction between the ically drt andthe best in the Greumstances or the best for & ticular people; but his own esha! standards and politcal preferences stand out cleary at all times. even im those parts Where the method of dscripine analy and compari ae ‘extensively employed. Hence although we may reasonably say thar arutode tated over hom his biologie sadist is politcal an analytical mind and a zeal for classifying and Anderstanding all the data of his subject. we eanpox cam that his observation is detached and tmprejudieed. Nor of course must we fall into the common error of taking such 2 claim for ourselves, ‘Again, Aristotle had more understanding than most ancient serters ofthe connection between poitcs nd economies. Just Ieeause the links between these two are nowadays 40 complex, itmay be wschul to sudy observations that are based on = ‘much simpler form of society. however barren they may seem kn themselves, The nequisiion and use of wealth. the land and its prodvee. labour, money. commerce. and exchange — Such topics as these are perpetually interesting and much of the frst book of the Polis is devoted to them. Aristotle pro feeds from a dicusion of howehold) management (otk. mromia) regarding that se state management on # smaller scale; Foods. money, labour, and exchange play a big part in both. ‘Ait hate hs to say on these mater is strongly coloured by {So obsenons, ft. his prejudices against trade and against fxined money and’ second. his reluctance to be without a Inbourforce which was ether the absolute property of the TRANSLATOR'S INTRODUCTION employer (slave-labout) of $0 economically dependent on him SPB ake thet fee statin potvely woven his think {ng about these matter: Aristorle wat saddled with a piece of ory whieh Because of ts quaslacientic appearance, had teen resting a8 an incubus on much of Greck thought for a century oF more, the notion that whatever is good ws accord: fg to nature. ‘The pots Tuell was for Ariwote obviowsly ocd; ie was made by man, but by man acting according to hit Som wavare. But commerce and labour were not 30 es. In the matter of trade Aristotle decided that exchange and barter ‘of surplus goods were natoral but that the use of coined ‘oney asa medium of exchange was contrary so nature, tear tho usury. To own property was natural and indeed most Ineritoriows. so long as the. property war land. But in ae foedance with the principle "Nothing too much” (12 which the average Grech paid no more than ipservice) Aristotle lays fe doven chat unnecessary accumulation cannot be allowed, ‘What fe has to vay about money making, about the respotst bilides of wealih and the pesiblity of private ownership co- esting with public use of property, hat a particular interes {oday since the habits methods, and ethics of money making Inve become subjects of interest and importance for a much larger section of the population than formerly. As regards slavery he was in a dilemma; slaves Were both forts of property and 3 source of Liou. He was awate that previous thinkers had shown vhat the enskivement of human beings, ‘epecally Greck by Greek, war contrary to nature. But he twat sure that slaves were indispensable in creating the con: {itions forthe life of cule which was the aim OF the pots, He could not therefore reject slavery. but he must endtvour to prove that afterall i isnot contrary to mature and dhat the slave though a human being is designed by nave to be 35 4 beast of burden. Needles to say the attempt breaks down (ace Book I, Chapter vad fin), a he himelf must have been aware. Yet the arguments which he used. were stil in use mong the defenders of slavery in the nineteenth cent aiference Between black and white races gave them ‘outward manifecation of nature's supposed inten Arstotle had looked for in vain (Book 1. Chapter ¥) ‘Surprise fs sometimes expresed that Avisttle continued 0 write about and to prescribe forthe citytate, unaware that {ts era of independence had come to an end with the Mace ist that fom that‘TRANSLATOR’S INTRODUCTION donian conquest. But there is really no occasion for surprise: contemporaries cannot be expected to foresee the eles of events, Besides, the city state was destined to remain the stan Gard form of living for the majority of the Greek speaking world for centuries yet to come It tre that the cites had Jost their absolute autonomy and notably their military power, $0 that they could not henceforth oppose the wishes of the Syrian, Macedonian, or other monsichs within whose ter tory they lay. But even in the time of the Roman Empire city-state life ull went on; and if they had no meal independ ence of action, there were sil varying degrees of independ. fee and certain privileges to be won ‘But there ore Surprising thingy about Aristotle in_his Politics. His attitude to slavery, to, which reference has just bbeen made, seems strange in one who must have read Eur ides! and we do not hnow whether to ssribe i to callousnes r to obtusenest. Bot he had other blind spots; we cam grant that he could not foreee the effects ofthe Macedonian dom- ination snd of Alexander's conquests, But was it necesary to ‘omit all reference to dhem as if they were irelevant to his ‘abject? No one would ever guess from reading the Police that Aristotle himelf was 1 Macedonian or thats Macedonian ing was then conquering the ‘world. He has much to.) bout monarchy but inspite of one or two eatual references to Macedon we cannot see that ether the country offs King ‘was of the sligheat intrest to him, or that they presented, 2 they undoubtedly did, features worth mentioning. He makes 2 casual and unimportant reference to the murder of Philip in 936, but otherwise the latest identifiable event i the loss of Spirtan military supremacy at the batle of Levctra in 37% So one must conclude that the silence sbout modern ies ‘was deliberate. All the same it sceme strange in'a maa ia- Tended for practical use “Avstotl was a subjet of the king of Macedon. His status st ‘Auhens, while he lived there, was that of metoihas, resident alien, As we have seen, he had powerful friends there and his Position was an easy one. But he was not a ciisen, and the Privileges of cidzemhip were to him 2 matter of supreme Importance. Yet never at any time in his life had he the satisfaction of belng a land.owning ctzen of a Greek pots, Perhaps that is just the reaon for his ceaseless insistence on tizenship (Gee especially Book Til). Ae he realized the ad- Fr vantages of being a citizen, so t00, one would think, he must Fave bocn fully alive to the disadvantages of not being one, His own pottion asa reident alien was tolerable cnough, bv that in theory or in practice. would be the position ofall the ther notte. permanent residents trfog to earn their ing he be of perso chi egy ier aes por citizens but paid employecs might, in any form of cone Sitution which Avitotle would tolerate, be fairly numerous, nd its surprising that he has lite to say about them except iat they area posible souree of discontent and a danger to ihe tablished order. Modern paralcls in diferent paris of the work! will ocur to\a disceming teader of the Potts hon participation inthe politeta co we a phrase of Aristotle’ ip real problem, Aristotle hardly sce it as such, beyond taking a ples for moderation eginning of Book V). Nor Aid he sot any connection between these. and that other epresed elas) che slavesr thelr Tegal states wat_difrent Shi that was an end of the matiern spite of thelr imi fconomic postions it was hardly even tospeted that there ‘ould be common Interests between saves and free men. "The comparative sturdy of polite) institutions fn diferent countries & frequently ade'a part of the normal course of Study in'modern politcal scence; and dhe faet that began with Aritole fs an added eauon for continuing to read nm. He is Known to have wiiten, probably with the aid of cat Inhorstom. histories and deserprive scfounts of 138 city com siiutions One of these. the Athenian, has survived largely inact on a series of papyeue rolls covered in Egypt in 189 “Arisote refers to the collection in the canclnding pasrage’of ins Ethics as cing pare of the material which he' wil ee in his Potties (ee Preface to Book I) He needs in particula (o have examples co hand ofthe acital working of Constitutions and to note the anges {0 which the diferent types are liable ace expecially Book V) "He sho wither to mae com: partons. with, and’ criticism of, consititions. which only Exited om paper, and for this be bad in ie Mbrary not only the Republic and the Laws of Plato but the work of other Predectzors most of them unknown now except for what he {els ur (mostly in’ Book Ti) ‘Tins he uses both actal and imagined states for comparative purposes Between one source of comparison and snother he cons he net pretty wide, Chelly of courte he is concerned with the typically Hellenic product, 83pen ae ara epee era ein aey pop ets ak eee ee orm pce, tok Ce Bag hyn ari eth Meee peal ene a eer ase si pepe sey ye mack of oe ae ee soe poe een he en Bot pn nF we at cml nee a ome ilo epee, Where dre eee ee See ee As pare crn ue po eno Soceuic ere ad ees Se you be euro i i he oe Be en Ge a vcraneomuaton, Mosh ofthe semen Gaye ut ol emi, Ses coe caine aa ern se ric ch a er a of ye a Se ae ape em of ema ant ep ero oe oe eres eae rs ee te te Say Se ae ere ess 4 when Aristotle calls man ‘a political animal” he has in mind BH aspects of hfe in humane society. all that contributes to the good life. ‘The smaller social units within the larger ofeda of the sate have an important part to play hee, nd one wishes that Aristotle had. gone into greater detail Bu ir legidmate to take the general principis governing the larger ausoclations Ss applicable alo to ae smaller: We need ot always be thinking of the modern nation state as a Single whole when ‘we are reading about ancient. polieta, “Tike san immense variety ofthe feser unis in any modern seit. Some ofthese ae closely connected withthe constitution, bothers entirely separate from ie; but all contribute in some fnessure to the lle of the cizens and Atiotle would have Fegarded them as pat of the potiteia. The nineteenth ceneury Saw religious organizations becoming separated from the com Sittin, the twentieth has seen tedicne, edueation, and vem sport drawn into 1. But all these bodice, great or smal, Sind subordinate bodies under them, ae aasocations of human tind: and much of what Arsiote his to ay about the supreme form of asceation has application ako tothe laser. Tike the ancient lawgivers the founders of 2 club or society, tocal or national, have to build a framework within whieh the tember wil together pure the abso thee common rrpose. A constitution has to be drawn up and rules agreed Spam; the constitution will generally be What some ancient writers called a mixed one. the comice being an oligarchie Elemene the annual general necting a democratic one. Cleatly therefore the manner presribed for clecions to commatiecs {mater of supreme importance to all member, ae Aristotle Saw But how rigid shoud thi framework ber Can k be made to lat for ever? Aristotle advises that a consiution should be of such a kind that the majoriey of fs members wil wish to remain in being. But thie & certainly no guarantee of Permanence. Thus the questions raised in the Police ate not Elways thove which concen the sate ands rulers be'such ab affect our daly lives and our sodial activites For Aristotle, as for Plato, the subject of political phil- ‘osophy. or politike, embraced the whole of human behaviour, the conduct of the individual equally with the Debaviour of the group. Ethics was, therefore, a part of polities; we might also say that policies was a part of ethics, It was the sim of 3TRANSLATOR’S INTRODUCTION thinking of both aspects of the mater when he ‘rites near the beginning of his Ethic: “Our account of this Teience”will be adequate if it achieves such clarity #8 the fbjectamater allows for the same degree of pred to be expecied in all dicusions any more than in all the product of handicraf Instances of morally fine and jest ESnduct = which be what polite investigates = involve 30 thc diference and vaniexy that they are widely Believed to be such only by convention and not by nature. Instances of Goods involve 4 similar kind of varcy. forthe Teason that {cy often hove hurtful consequences. People have been destroyed, betore now by their money, and ouhers by their fourage, Therefore in Ghcuing subject, and arguing trom tvidence. conditioned in this wa, we oust be stsed wth a broad ‘usline of the thith,--Sinee tn every case 2 man judges rightly what he understands, and of this only i 3 good {Site follows that while in a speelal held the good criti isa Speclals the good crite in genera i the man With a general Glucation. ‘Thar is why a young man is not'a Bt person to Stend lectures om politcal science, beeause he i nov versed inthe praca! business of life from which politics draws ia Premise and subject mater" a ‘Alongide the trong ibical bias in political philosophy went ene oe nea fon ning sana An tel code Tad to be embodied in a code of lw. and this code of lw fn tum described the whole framework of the socal and polite System and the moral standards under which the etizens tb live and for which the Creck word was polteta, ust ttanslaed by “Cotaitution Ineviably therefore young. cl ene had to Tearn these laws: only this could they learn to live either the life of a citen oF the Lie of an, Individuat following acepted sandards of right and wrong. This when tee say that a young Athenian wasedveated inthe laws of his Tountry, we’ donot incan Tegal education, But moral and social There is short passage at the end of the Bthicr which some editors omit a8 being properly part of the Politics. At 1. The Ethics of Aridote: The Nicomacheen Ethics, transiated by Ac Ke Thonn, rered Wah tote and appenics By Hag Fedicniek, arentadion and MtQography Oy” Joona Bases ieenguin Ciacy Harmondevonth ‘Staph 36 ‘TRANSLATOR'S INTRODUCTION ‘any rate it clearly makes a transition from one to the other ny Telers to some at any rate of the books of Aristotle's Politics a5 we have them. We will therefore trandate this rage! at 2 preliminary to Book I, remembering, however, Flat we do not know tat Aristotle so intended. ‘The text used is that of O. Immisch (Teubner). It has been translated in its entirety, including thete passages which were bracketed by Immiseh; but his bracked fof isolated words have been respected, His we of mazks of mntherus has not always been followed. ‘The printing of Lome parts of the text as footnotes is due to the translator follows a principle now well established in Penguin trans lations and of proved asistance to the reader. The Politics Stor that of one of hie exrly teachers, H. Recthom (Loeb bran Te will be evident that the present translation is of a0 enurely diferent charace. Ie aims at olfering to English ender the Politics asa whole To an attempt to convey some thing of the complerity of meaning attaching 10 ‘certain (Grech terms diferent English words have been ted to trans. Inte them. AC the same time the readers stention is often fled to ‘dese important terms in the passages (printed in fialic) Which are at ntervale inserted in the tex. eis hoped that these wll help the reader to follow the drift of Aristoles Alsegurs, but he should remember, fst, that these are n0 fubseuee for 2 commentary on the text, and second that che translators interpretation of Aristotle's meaning may not always command acceptance. He has stiempied to make the Poles weadable; he could not be expected to make it all easy, Notes by the Reviser 1. The above introduction is reproduced unchanged from the first edition, except that a few references have been. recrst and the long quotation from the Nicomachean Ethics his been supplied i the version published in the Penguin Cases in 197 44 If not induded in “Thomson's translation of the Ethics. 7teaching and for research! Many passages in his works cone tude with'a formula such ait now Clear that", oF “Mow that we have setded these point’ which show that be believes that a problem has been isolated. investigated, discussed and st least parly or provisionally solved. Ic Tooks a if we have the Tecords of completed resarth. which were deposited in the irr or sonata an orp eto or ampli fumed to then found not dbjeited notes, but material fuficiently fully writen to be intelligible on deliberate and Tellective reading. yet sficiendy.sveeinetty wetten to be Copied ‘without und, sour, and would De open c the intercon of puseges of revision, amendment oF addition. In shor, Arties works demand reader am Teis unlikely. though not imposible, that these specialize treatises were ean for renders ouside the Lycevm? Bit Some {ew do scem to have find thelr way toa fimited public? The sory if be tue of thee vive afer Atti death iequiteamaring and clary there were many opportunities for them to be lose damaged or daorganiveds Ie was not wml the Inidde of the fine century. se. that they were edited and published. by Andronens of Rhodes; all our texts deve ul stely fom his edition. 1. See, H, Jackson's entertaining account of the equipment of salute tne som. “Arnon teturroom: and tart Journal of Philology. x6 (1920), pp. 19-200. Foran exhaustive ise {avon of the Liyecumn’s satus and erganiaion. see J.P. Lynch, vutottes Snook: a” Study of «Greek Educational Insticuion lerscley, sors) 2. CL Jo Le Stocks, “Te composition of Aristotle's Potter’, Clasical Quarerty. 24 (se 81. Sp. p.180! "The sSteitectonte secme to me to point rather to the brary than tothe {ecrure room’, and 1, During. "Notes on the history of the trans Inision of Aristotle's writing’, Symbolae Philalogewe Gate: Dureenes, 36.4. 1098s ‘amoral tradition fa writen for For an acount of Arete’ ‘exoterie” or non-spetalled works, which "were writen in amore finshed sivle and for a wider Brevlatlon, se eg Gee Re Lloyd, siotle: The Growh and Structure of His Phouht (Cambride, 168. pp. ‘iMove gorouns of Aristole's Ife and works Fehearse the In- seiguing des. 32 REVISER’s INTRODUCTION THE CONTENTS AND STRUCTURE OF THE ‘roLITICS ‘What exacy, chen. has come down tows? It is abviods that, redo not have a work which hasbeen systematically organied nd Gnally polished for publication by the author, But" mus Ber of orighaly independency hich ae ot completly wont ep ino 2 whole Unoninathy ee fen by ng ieans clear exacdy where te independent esays begin and tnd; but here isa any tate 9 conpectus ofthe contents: Book 1: Origins and nature of the household and the state as asociations; the economics of the household, with special reference to the role of slaves; history and analysis of the ‘modes of acquiring. property. Book If: Review of ideal states, both projected and exist Book 111: Clasication of constitutions according to vary- {ng conceptions prevailing within them of the "just dsc bution of political power; more specially, since political power is the prerogative of citizens, a review of various Ener to the question, ‘Who ought to be a etizent” Book IY Survey of the main type of constitution, of theke fbitabiligy to various kinds of ctizen-bodies, and of the Ghief departments of stale (dcliberadve, executive. and jucicia. Books ¥ and PI: Analysis of the causes of instability and permanence in the various consteutions Tools Vil and IIT: ‘The constuction of the ideal state (ite, population, ete), with special reference to education Sd the are Comparison of this summary with the detailed chapter-by- chapter table of contents reveals that while itis possible to feolate the broad theme of a book, the sequence of topics is not fully systematic. In part, this must be because politi is not a Aiscipline with precise boundaries, and itis fairly easy to move from one topic to another by a loose association of ideas, Some 1.W. D. Ros, Aritotle (th et, Oxford, 199), po vy (The sive to books and chapters are nou Aratotee, Bough Whey fre mosly neat enough and no doubt often occur what he ims would have repartee brea) 38individual chapters seem almost haphaardly placed (eg. yy vill) while groupe of others obviously cohere. eg. IV xivenyi. xiv The Deliberative Element in the Cons Sv. The Executive Element in the Constit Xvi The Judicial Element in the Consticution. (On the larger scale too, there are some curious and striking features. ¢ (@) Why are Books VII and VIE. the description of Aristotles ideal state. clearly so very incomplete? (&) Why are VIL and VII 20 widely separated from the ds cussion of other ideal states in TI? (6) Why in spite of some words at the end of ITT suggesting that VI should follow immediately. do IV-VI intervene? (8) Why are IV-V1. in particular, <0 unuwually ‘realistic and ‘empirical’. replete as they are with historical evidence? “There are countless other oddities of structure and detail that for many years fuelled a very vigorous controversy about the ‘comporition of the work, Some editors siply printed Vt ang Vill immediately ater 11, and put 1V-VI las. on the grounds tat the order of the books had become muddled in tans mission. Jaeger treated 1-IIT and VII-VIII 38 an rary version; VII and VIII he regarded as Platonic in tone ang ferail# and as dating from the qos, when Aristotle was still working under Plato’ inspiration; 1V-VI dated from the very last period of Aristotle's career, when he had moved away from Platonic idealist. and. wos far more interested in the sjstematic collection and analysis of the facts of Greek political ite, being now able to draw on the material iy at lent some fof the 158 “Consticutions assembled and described by met bers of the Lyceurm By contrast von Armim saw VII and VILL 1 For the Pluonie reminicences ip these books, sc also 2 ater Grech Poltal Theory, Pato and Mis Predcetions (London, {18} pp. gost: sth el. 09h). pp. dea 2 Fhest “Covattuions and nine ection of facts on wide variety of top, ate the ancient forerunners of our moder surveys Based’ on ‘sptematicBeidwork:andjor quesonnaires Antti foncusions about. Greck police ae smn ao Emin th {hey seam tue to the pont of tntense yr given the sat a com tmanicttns inthe ancent wort and We paucay of ehable ecards the ability ¢o bare Svea ‘bviow coelusions, let alone 4 REVISER'S INTRODUCTION faced by M1) as noticenly un-Platonie, and as reflecting Pe toal’s own mature views of his latest period, when he had departed furthest from Platonic doctrine: "fre need not linger over these and similar theories, some of whlch are of pixilating complexity. They depend largely on "Bhtary assumptions about the order in wich the subject ater ofthe Politics ought logically to be arranged, and on Eoncoversial hypotheses about Arisotles gradual "scl Fberetion from Platonic influence. | touch on them only be: fqute 3 modern reader of the Police should be aware chit he [reading something 0 edley. 2 work not fly formed but Jn gestation: in particular. he should be alert to the pos inify that Books and chapters may be fn a sequence not ine tended by Aristo and that they may date trom diferent stage his carer. he controvent about tee mater have In face proved lagely inconclusive. and today most people are fntent to take the Politis on is own terms and accept fOr hat it fr @ series of topics examined and re-examined from ingle and Fundamentally consistent standpoint Seen inthis light, the variztons of treatment and discrepancies of ap- proach are utterly natural; and they are witnesses not only be udity and versatility of Aristotle's philosophical methods, but to the rich complexity of Greck political ideas and practice. unobvious ones, on 2 survey of the relevant fae i tremendous achievement. Not that Arlsotle hinwel, bin, wrete more "han » few of che “Conan smodtwere compiled. by ‘persons we should. today. call ‘tans or “tewareh ‘dente, who could ‘cit their scholanly in this manner, much st i modem research student wites iS diseruation. Perhaps Arigtosle Ini down a certin. standard pavern of presenation and supervied. the day to-day. works Eerainly fe exploited the results: see "Pretace to Bock {One "Cone soir fanart in cmp or thee aon itn Penguin by P. J. Rhodes (Fhe dthentan Constitution, 184) 1 For hill neetoncd eo the work of Jocger and wom Arn 2 he Selec Bibliographies. 2 Set C. J. Rowe's sensible judgement: “We may need the genetic methad to expla Interpretation of ts contents” (Ai Folie’, Clasiea! Quartery, 27 WoyD), PP 189-178 (78) 35REVISER'S INTRODUCTION LOSOPHIGAL ASSUMPTIONS. In short, the Politce is a work whose strength lies in its parts: it isa banquet whose courses, nourishing and succulent though they be, may have come up from the kitchen in the wrong order. Moreover, to a palate unaccustomed to Aristotles Cuisine, the dishes taste a litte strange; and there seems to be ‘certain powerful ingredient that gives them alla distinct sredient can be iolted by 2 comparison, admittedly a fairly rugged one and subject 0 all sorts of qualifications, ibemeon Atte characterite approach to any problem and that of Plato, Throughout his works Plat exhibis.a Kind of toumic pesimism: he believed that not only moral concepts but al objet in the whole of existence had a perfect supra: fensible counterpart which heeled Form or Kdea An indi ‘ual jot at for Stance, jst omy ims far asf partes of Justice absolute and perfect Justice with a real and inde: Pefdent existence, which, the individeal just act merely Finite’ and tals sore of, Simian a bed tn this imperfect tnd approximate world, isnot relly perietbed OF 3 id perfect tangles they fal short of Dednest and THlngutbriy: prlet example to which individual beds and rangle ony proximate, Pit’ polit works ae dere. fore penetrated by the sad convilton that moral and politcal contact is alway in some sme seapnd rte the lef should no doube sire to. product the bes posible conduct and Intuions in his tate, but perfection wil elude him always, “Aristotle, by contrast, fea cowie optimist. Things are alweys moving towards thelr (all completenes” the aeomn is NOt destined to Become an oak tre that inevitably falls shore of Oaktreness, i ie destined to grow into an adule and fully formed oak ere, which i its “end or purpose’; iis here, in the final and complete stage ofthe natural proces, that pe feuion Isto be foun and the form of the oak tee resides the oak tree, i isnot something ‘out there’ and unatalnabl ‘Aristotle teleology” (Greek tle, end’, purpose) favours al Bi wonks and tt hak “powertl ingredient of the Poti cverywher he asks of ay cntom, law practice, ole, or con- ftitdon, hat iti ory” The end of aan fet live “well oF ‘happily; the sate ates naturally as assting and working o- 36 REVISER’S INTRODUCTION shat nd andthe tsa the ae sl SR ear a aes ‘achieve its purpose! the TE, spgnes, pu by man in ord aera A ata tae a a sate ln on ce ta ace eri Seg hea hy ae rns it sears Ba eb oo ey Be an See dap onl t Sythe tar the ad See mec pre tel oa aed 2 es Ser touab Sty men sy mr” n anos So SE dong” eS i ace Nepal eng alate Ze ae Poni th No lek is a Peeoh nd ces meg te seca ty meee he Sea ee er am Hs Eaton Sf, Sa ta faye a ad a a fee Ce Se fe nave to be found out = parly empirically, pardy by the iboats on cesar eon cere fie el pe fer hale tell ugh’ Gea atee ue se eis ti ee See TacPhere pill dics e TEN i a ne naan egies") olen ip maha See ae eer a a ard icog ny he cc a ip Sat i en seg He tS ee oe SPAR Symeetind Seefoc an be vo sige tap tf Hh, me ee er i Fel Sl oo a ine SEP nt i SP, ea ane in a a PEt ied BE RE a Mal has Fel ical iy, ee ae Ser eA R Maen tan a Ae Ee Sey al EP Se eae Pea ale” Ao ie G97), Pp. 298-351. a d nd Cs Eis wo si a te mao i Secalufl fion Serge mle Socal i a7PREFACE TO BOOKI (Nicomachean Ethics 1281b13-25)* THE LINK BETWEEN THE ‘NICOMAGHEAN ETUIGS’ AND THE ‘Ponies! ince, then, the question of legislation has been left un- examined by previous thinkers, presumably we had bet. investigate it more closely for ourselves, together with ‘question of constitutions generally, so that our philo- hy of human conduct may be as complete as possible. let us first try t0 review any valid statements (about ticular points) that have been made by our predeces- “fors; and then to consider, in the light of our collected ‘examples of constitutions, what influences are conserva tive and what are destructive of a state; and which have “these effects upon cach different kind of constitution; for what reasons some states are sell governed, while in others the contrary is the case, For after examining these questions we shall perhaps see more comprehens. ‘Translation a note by Hugh Tredennit, extracted tom hi di edon of the The’ Ether of arutotle (Penguin Clases i tn ty fhe pg are “rhs concuding pasege was obvoaly wtten to connect the "Bui 10 the Poles but wren by whom? Options have been | Sharply elie ‘The implicion tae Plato Ra nohing” si pointe (oy about educaton by leglation, or sbout pes of fon andthe changes, cae perv and’ fen Re ine “Guten wih the actual procadue inthe Poly, where Pao’ x ways taceable as underying A thought and shes iy ticked or rected thee ie the ft “Uhr dhe oulited programe Goss not contespond very accurately Oh a cei yh re in ee shen _ tty. hewose an ‘editor’ might have been expected to prodace 4 feat and more convincing ik. The protien can only sted ‘fees doesnot yet seemtto have eek sled 2, Acording to “andton ‘Av wrote 1g8 rch Contutions, of hich the Constttion of dthens the Oly suvior, 3ARISTOTLE: THE POLITICS 3 ively what kind of constitution is the best, and what iy _ the best organization for each kind, and the best system ff laws and customs for it to use. Let us, then, begin our account, ristotle’s the ‘state’, am (2520-23) ‘THE STATE AS AN ASSOCIATION furpases in tis chapter re (a) to get that by which he means specifically the Greek polis “itystae’, isan association distinc in kind from other (1 cll tons ond (oto dacourege face paral between ft statesman’ (politikes, ie. a citizen, polites, of a polis his capacity as ruler or offce-bearet) and the ‘rulers gf, for example, a household or a monarchy. His reasons for combating such parallels are. not stated here, but _ bmerge subsequently (eg. in Toil): the erucial point is “thet the statesman rules over ‘equals’, ie. persons of the “fame satus as himself. Avistolle is quite uninformative ~ i, indeed ~ in his dismissal of his unnamed targets. If ‘hee thinking ‘of anyone in pertcalar, U'& probably lita laps Socrates too (see e.g. Plato, ashe fl. and Xenophon, Memoirs of Socrates 11, iv 12); “but obviously the views he attacks could be held by any _unvefective or non-philosophie person who had not car ried out the necessary analysis of the polis and ils parts. “For Aristotle's method, as he himself states and as becomes lear in later chapters, is essentially analytical: he believes that the peculiar character and purpose of the state as an ‘sociation can be discovered only by examining the ‘character and prurpose of its ‘parts’ (households, social ‘lasses, ete,). The inspiration of this method is twofold: (a) the fundamental teleological assumption, revealed in is first sentence, that the state does have a particular function or aim; (b) the methodological assumption that the mode of analysis he employs in several other work conspicuously in his biological writings, in which he 3 examines the functions of an animal’s parts as contribut- ing to the functions of the animal as a whole ~ is a guide, 53anisroriE: THE PoLiTics an when applied analogously, to discovering the function Sawer according to our established method.t We have dnd air of the tates in short, he secs some sort of fee tiyee other comporte things till they can be tube tional parallel between a living thing and a polis (sce Tai ‘Pided no further, because we have reached the smallest and IY fu, second section). Both assumptions are large fe SHvIGF the wholes, so let us inthe same way examine the Sd dlr acto cate umptions ae loge ra eee eat ieee be acayi ee sreptle mind hy apenas and we als beer ew 0 en I ad pei z2saar Observation tells us that every state is an as. tioned. © Se Ot maar ia cy pate Bon ae See on iat pan mmrsatn fy rmed wi & Uk een fie ad Poa yall fo ey hc eg ka ey hak Ee asolaon Sich Ml Stccatom sip at some god fi ane cee hens Hg Soveregn mons ee io lnc a tag sim ight oe 1 (252024-1253039) THE STATE EXISTS BY NATURE we call the state, the association which is ‘political? ‘his long chapter is an admirable illustration of Aris- 725207, It is an error to suppose, as some do, that the | oe’s analytical and genetic method, and contains many roles of a statesman,? of a king, of a houschold-manager “rich and suggestive ideas. By imaginative reconstruction and of master of slaves are the same, on the ground ther than by factual history (cf. Plato, Laws III) he Sint they differ not in kind but only in point of mumbers ff traces the formation (a) of the ‘pairs’ of husband /uife Of persons ~ that a master of slaves, for example, has to fand master slave, (b) of the household from the ‘pairs, do with a few people, a hovsehold-manager with more, @) of the village from a coalescence of household, and and a satan orking with more il if there meré [= {Ghee state fom e coatsconesofilags The natare no differences becween a large household and a small state ff thing, he claims, is not ts first but its inal conditions ‘They alko reckon that when one person sin personal just as an individual man i the natural end of the control over the rest he has the role of a King, whereas | proces of human coming tobe, so foo the state tthe when he takes his turn at ruling and at being ruled [| natural end and culmination of the other end earlier according to the principles of the scence concerted. he fiociations, which wore themeelves natural; the state 4s x statesman. But there asertions are fale therefore exits by nature. 1 provides all men’s needs 1252017, This will be quite evident if we examine the (materi, social, religions, ee) and offers them the ful- | Flment not only of ling But of ling ve, in accond- F ance with thove virtues that are pecultarly human. The eee date is thus ‘all-providing’, which is ‘best’, which is ‘haracteristc of natural ends, (Aristotle's discussion and 1. HIE hoinnia politike: “he ast polis (aate) 2, Polittos, “tatesman’, in the sense explalacd in the | action to this chapter, E 3. The formulation i adequate as far as it goes; but Arist = 4.The anlyteal method decribed in the introduction 10 this pint Is that a King and a stateman diler Sseply in kids & conaper. ing 1s set apart in some fundamental Fespect from is subject 1 Fachnas. While a statesman i the agua of his; vit and ite 8. Of tateman, howseholdsmanager, ete ot 35anrstorie: tHe rousrics definition of nature’ in Phyics 11 would be useful back | nd rea | see being natural” suggests that the chapter has also the polemical purpose of refuting those who believed thet the State was én antfta or a ‘conventional eration. Steh argument was.a special form of the general controversy te fth and fourth cntures about the relative soe, and merits of nomos. law, and poss, nature (se New tan discon. 24 B) aitote doet nat ane apponents, and iti doubiful whether he has any per ear persons in mind Fao further points ar wont noting: (a) Are regards hnomen society at inevitably and naterally hie archical; he assumes. fs self-evident that the male's abilities fre superior tothe female’ and the masters tothe slaves (ot that slave and female are on thet account to be treated alike: see m. 4), and that Greeks are superior lo omGreeks. ‘Whe rales whom? and With what jst Fation? are questions at the centre of his political theory, tnd his defence of slavery in subsequent chapters i all piece with this general approach, (8) Like most Grech triters, he delights in appeating tothe poets; and fo the Popular ideas they express, in order toasty hs po Hom. He belicucs that tn subjects suchas pote and éthical theory, in which precise. demonsttation ts ime Possible one should welcome suppor from the experience of mankind. o : The Two ‘Pairs? zasan2y We shall I think, inthis asin other subjects Bet th bet sew ofthe matter if we Took athe nara growth of things from the beginning. The fist point i that these which are incapable of exing without cach other must be united asa pait. For example, (2) the union of male and female i exental for reproduction; and this is not a matter of choice, but i due to the 36 : Lit natural urge, which exists in the other animals too and | Maiglaus © propagate one's Kinds Equally exe e iG five combination of the natural ruler ad ruled, for © surpove of prseriation Toy te clement that coy soe {i inteligence'to look ahead is by nature ruler and by care aster, whe that which has the bodily srength waif ihe acral work ir by nature a save: one of these tho ae ruled. Thus there ra cominon ators aniing Thar and save Formation of the Household sasaajq Nature, then, has distinguished between female and slave: she recognizes different functions and. lavishly provides different tools, not an all-purpose tool like the Delphic knife; for every instrument will be made best if it serves not many purposes but one, But non Greeks assign to feruale and slave exactly the same status. ‘This is because they have nothing which is by nature fied to rule; their association® consists of a male slave and a female slaves So, as the poets say, ‘It s proper that Grecks should rule non-Greeks' the implication being, that non-Greek and slave are by nature identical. z2s2b9 Thus it was out of the association formed by tor pas ie end Wim arrare Ee ay, th ee Tae ee Se et a te ES eee wena ae aaa Sn Lae ara neater ta seyret at ey Tapio acai ts 87